ch16-142 Pps

Aljalal-Phys102-142-Ch16-page 1
Chapter 16
Waves - I
Objective
16-1 Transverse Waves
16-2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String
16-3 Energy and Power of a Traveling String Wave
16-5 Interference of Waves
16-7 Standing Waves and Resonance

Types of waves
Mechanical waves
• Need medium to propagate
• Obey Newton’s laws
Waves on a string – chapter 16
Sound waves – chapter 17
Electromagnetic Waves
• Can propagate in vacuum
• Fixed speed in vacuum = 3 x 108 m/s
Light
X-ray
Microwaves
– We will not study in this course.
Matter Waves
• Associated with electrons and other fundamental particles.
– We will not study in this course.

Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
Transverse waves
Motion of particles
Motion of the wave
Wave on a string
Longitudinal Waves
Motion of the wave
Motion of particles
Sound waves
Traveling waves travel from one point to another

Sinusoidal wave
Sinusoidal wave
Crest
(peak)
Amplitude
ym
Displacement
y(x,t)
Trough
( valley)

Two ways to show waves on paper
Sinusoidal wave
y At certain time y At certain position

(Snapshot)
Position Time
Wavelength Period
The wavelength λ is the distance over which the The period T is the time needed for an element at
shape of the wave is repeated. certain position to make one oscillation.

Wavelength and period
At certain time At certain position

(Snapshot)
Position Time
Wavelength Period
λ T
The wavelength λ is the The period T is the time

distance over which the shape needed for an element at
of the wave is repeated. certain position to make one
oscillation.
λ is pronounced lambda

Mathematical representation of a sinusoidal wave
Phase
Position Time
Displacement
Amplitude Phase constant

Wavelength Period
Phase is measured in radians
φ is pronounced phi

Changing the position by one wavelength
Show that, at certain time, two positions separated by one wavelength
have the same displacement.
y At certain Time
Wavelength
λ
x1 x2 x

Changing time be one period
Show that, at certain position, two times separated by one period
have the same displacement.
y At certain position
Period
T
t
t1 t2

Angular wave number and angular frequency
An equivalent
representation of a
sinusoidal wave
Angular wave number

SI unit rad/m (radian/meter)
Number of wavelengths in 2π meters
Angular frequency
SI unit rad/s (radian/second)
Number of periods in 2π seconds
Frequency
SI unit Hz (Hertz)
Number of periods in one second
ω is pronounced omega

Checkpoint 1
y 2
Match the snapshots of the three
3 1
waves to the correct phase
(a) 2x -4t
(b) 4x-8t
x
(c) 8x-16t
Solution
(a) 2x -4t wave 2

(b) 4x-8t wave 3
(c) 8x-16t wave 1

Shifting a function f(x) along the x axis
If |Δx| = vt, the shape of the y

function f(x-|Δx|) moves to the
right at constant speed v.
f(x-vt) moves to the right a

constant speed v. x
y
If |Δx| = vt, the shape of the
function f(x+|Δx|) moves to the
left at constant speed v.
f(x+vt) moves to the left a

constant speed v. x
If you cannot write a function in the travels at constant speed along

form of f(x-vt) or f(x+vt), then the the x-axis.
function does not represent a traveling
does not travel at constant speed
wave.
along the x-axis.

Moving to the left - 1
Since this is in the form of f(x+vt), the wave moves to the left.

Moving to the left - 2
Since this is in the form of f(x+vt), the wave moves to the left.

Moving to the right - 1
Since this is in the form of f(x-vt), the wave moves to the right.

Moving to the right - 2
Since this is in the form of f(x-vt), the wave moves to the right.
16-5 The Speed of a Traveling Wave

Direction of a travelling wave - summary
moves to the left.
moves to the left.
moves to the right.
moves to the right.
A wave moves to the right if the signs of the kx and ωt terms are opposite.
A wave moves to the left if the signs of the kx and ωt terms are the same.

Formula - speed of a wave
Wavelength
λ
A sinusoidal wave moves a distance of one wavelength in a time

of one period of oscillation.

Example 1
y (mm) y (mm)
2 2
x (mm) t (ms)
-8 -4 0 4 8 -20 -10 0 10 20
-2 -2
Solution
Amplitude
Wavelength Angular wavenumber
Period Angular frequency

Example 1
y (mm) y (mm)
2 2
x (mm) t (ms)
-8 -4 0 4 8 -20 -10 0 10 20
-2 -2
Solution A snapshot at t=0.
Guess: the wave is moving to the left.
Our guess is wrong.
The wave is moving to the right


Partial derivative
is the partial derivative of y(x,t) with respect to t.
It represents the derivative of y(x,t) with respect to t

while treating the other variable x as a constant.
Example

Transverse velocity and acceleration
Constant
u Wave speed v
An element of the
string moves
transversely in a
harmonic manner.
Transverse velocity u of an element of the string
Transverse acceleration ay of an element of the string


Displacement, transverse velocity and transverse acceleration
Transverse Displacement
Transverse velocity
Transverse acceleration

Example 2
A wave is described by
y(x,t) = 0.00327 sin(72.1x-2.72t),
where all constants are in SI units.
Find the transverse velocity of an element located at x = 22.5 cm and at t =

18.9 s.
Solution

Example 2
A wave is described by
y(x,t) = 0.00327 sin(72.1x-2.72t),
where all constants are in SI units.
We found from the previous example that the transverse velocity is
Find the transverse acceleration of an element located at x = 22.5 cm and at

t = 18.9 s.
Solution

Checkpoint 2
(a) y(x,t)= 2 sin(4x-2t)

(b) y(x,t)= sin(3x-4t)
(c) y(x,t)= 2 sin(3x-3t)
Rank the waves according to
wave speed, and
maximum transverse speed, greatest first
Solution
3 2
1 2
2 1

Wave speed does not depend on the frequency
Lower frequency v = v0
Higher frequency v = v0
The string adjusts the wavelength such that the speed v =λf is
kept constant.

Wave speed depends on the tension in the string
Tension = τ0 v = v0
Tension = 4τ0 v = 2v0
Increasing the tension in the string by a factor of four increases

the speed of the wave by a factor of two.
τ is pronounced tau

Linear mass density
The linear mass density of a string μ is the mass per unit length of the string.
The linear mass density does not depend on the length of the string
String
μ = 0.01 kg/m
L = 4 m and m = 40 g
String
L = 1 m and m = 10 g μ = 0.01 kg/m
μ is pronounced mu

Wave speed depends on the linear mass density of the string
μ = μ0 v = v0
μ =4 μ0 v = v0/2
Increasing the linear mass density of the string by a factor of four

decreases the speed of the wave by a factor of two.

Formula - speed of a wave
Tension in the string

Speed of the
wave Frequency
Wavelength
Linear mass
density of the string
The speed of a wave on a stretched string depends only on the

tension and linear mass density of the string and not on the
frequency of the wave.

Dimensional analysis of speed of wave formula
One way to check the validity of an equation is to check its dimensions


Checkpoint 3
Solution
You send a wave along a string by oscillating one end.
If you increase the frequency of oscillation,

the speed of the wave
(a) increases, (b) decreases, (c) remains the same, (c)
and the wavelength
(a) increases, (b) decreases, (c) remains the same. (b)
If you increase the tension in the string,

the speed of the wave
(a) increases, (b) decreases, (c) remains the same, (a)
and the wavelength
(a) increases, (b) decreases, (c) remains the same. (a)

Kinetic and elastic potential energies
No wave on A string element

the string
Wave on The string element has kinetic

the string energy because it is moving
transversely with speed u.
u
The elastic potential energy of the

string element increases because it is
stretched more by the wave.

Maximum and minimum energies
No wave on
the string
u=0 At maximum displacement

Wave on zero kinetic energy
the string zero transverse velocity
u=umax zero elastic potential energy
no extra stretch
At zero displacement
Maximum kinetic energy
maximum transverse velocity
Maximum elastic potential energy
maximum stretch

Average power transmitted by a sinusoidal string wave
Displacement
Kinetic
energy
Elastic
potential
energy
Energy transmitted
Average rate at which energy transmitted = Average power transmitted

Formula - Average power transmitted by a sinusoidal string wave
Average power
transmitted by Angular
the wave frequency
Amplitude
Linear mass
density Speed of the
wave
½ of the average power transmitted is kinetic power and the other ½ is

elastic power
The average power transmission by any mechanical wave is proportional to the

square of its amplitude and the square of its frequency

Example 6
A sinusoidal wave on a string
Frequency f = 120 Hz
Amplitude ym = 8.5 mm
Linear mass density μ = 525 g/m
Tension τ = 45 N
At which average rate does the wave transport energy?
Solution
We need to find v and ω


No collision
Overlapping wave do not alter the travel of each other.

Wave 1 moves through wave 2, as if wave 2 were not present.
The principle of superposition for waves:

The displacement of the resultant wave
= displacement of wave 1 + displacement of wave 2

Two waves moving in the same direction
Waves interference occurs when two or more waves move in the
same medium at the same time.
Two waves moving on the same string interfere to produce a
resultant wave.
Wave 1
+
Wave 2
Superposition principle
=
Resultant
wave

Formula - interference of two sinusoidal waves
Two waves y1(x,t) and y2(x,t) of the same amplitude and frequency
moving in the same direction on the same string interfere to produce
the resultant wave
The resultant wave has the same

wavelength and frequency as
Amplitude
that of y1(x,t) and y2(x,t).
φ is the phase difference between wave 1 and wave 2


In phase and out of phase
The phase difference between the two waves

= phase of wave 2 - phase of wave 1
= (kx- ωt + φ) - (kx- ωt)
=φ
We can say that
wave1 and wave 2 are φ out of phase.
or
wave1 and wave 2 are out of phase by φ.
or
wave1 and wave 2 have a phase difference of φ.
or
wave1 is phase-shifted from wave 2 by φ.

In phase and out of phase
If the phase difference φ = 0 or integer multiple of 2π,

we may say that
wave1 and wave 2 are zero radians out of phase. or
wave1 and wave 2 are in phase.
If the phase difference φ = π or odd integer multiple of π,

we may say that
wave1 and wave 2 are π radians out of phase.
or
wave1 and wave 2 are out of phase.

Constructive interference
Resultant wave
Special case
The phase difference φ = 0 or integer multiple of 2π
(wave 1 and wave 2 are in phase)
Constructive interference
Wave 1
+
Wave 2
= Wave 1 and wave 2

interfere constructively.
Resultant
wave
Maximum amplitude = 2ym

Destructive interference
Resultant wave
Special case
The phase difference φ = π or odd integer multiple of π
(wave 1 and wave 2 are out of phase)
Destructive interference
Wave 1
+
Wave 2
= Wave1 and wave 2

interfere destructively.
Resultant
wave

Radian to wavelength
Phase difference expressed in terms of wavelengths
Wave 1
3.8 rad Shifted by a phase of 3.8 rad

Shifted by a distance of ?
Wave 2
We can say the two waves are 3.8 rad out of phase,
or the two waves are 0.60 wavelength out of phase.

Radian to wavelength
Phase difference expressed in terms of wavelengths
Wave 1
Half wavelength out of phase
Wave 2
Wave 1
One wavelength out of phase
Wave 2

Equivalent phases
Since a sinusoidal wave repeats itself when it is shifted by a phase of 2π
rad, we can add or subtract an integer multiple of 2π to its phase and get
the same wave.
“Two waves are 6.3 π rad out of phase”
is equivalent to
“Two waves are 0.3 π rad out of phase”.
Since a sinusoidal wave repeats itself when it is shifted by a distance of

one wavelength, we can shift a sinusoidal wave by an integer multiple of
wavelengths and get the same wave.
“Two waves are 3.8 wavelengths out of phase”

is equivalent to
“Two waves are 0.8 wavelength out of phase”.

Checkpoint 4
The phase difference between two identical waves moving on a string is

(a) φ = 0.20 wavelength
(b) φ = 0.45 wavelength
(c) φ = 0.60 wavelength
(d) φ = 0.80 wavelength
Rank according to the amplitude of the resultant wave, greatest first.
Solution
1st
3st
2st
1st

Example 4
Two identical waves, moving in the same direction interfere with each other.
Amplitude of each wave ym = 9.8 mm
Phase difference between them φ = 1000.
What is the amplitude of the resultant wave? What type of interference

occurs?
Solution
The interference is intermediate since is larger than 0 and smaller

than

Example 4
Two identical waves, moving in the same direction interfere with each other.
The amplitude of each wave ym = 9.8 mm.
What phase difference, in radians and wavelengths, will give the resultant
wave an amplitude of 4.9 mm?
Solution cos θ
θ

Two waves moving in opposite directions
A standing wave occurs as a result of interference of two waves of
the same amplitude and frequency traveling in opposite directions in
the same medium.
Wave 1
+
Wave 2
Superposition principle
=
Resultant A standing wave
wave

Formula - standing waves
Two waves y1(x,t) and y2(x,t) of the same amplitude and frequency
moving in opposite directions on the same string interfere to
produce the standing wave
Oscillating term
Amplitude
is a function of position

Definitions
Antinode Node
Position of maximum Position of Zero
amplitude amplitude
A loop
Antinode node
Representing a standing wave


Antinodes
The positions of maximum amplitude, the antinodes,


Nodes
The positions of zero amplitude, the nodes,


Reflections at a Boundary
Hard Reflection Wall
Fixed end
A pulse is inverted when it is reflected from a fixed end
Soft Reflection
Rod and ring
Free end
(a light ring)
A pulse is not inverted when it is reflected from a free end


Checkpoint 5
Solution
Two identical waves interfere to produce
(a)
(c)
(b)
In which situation are the two combining waves

traveling
(a) toward positive x,
(b) toward negative x, and
(c) in opposite directions?

At Resonance
Fixed Right-going
end waves
Vibrator
+
Left-going
wave waves
After 1st reflection
from the wall =
After 1st reflection Resultant
from the vibrator wave
After 2nd reflection
from the wall
After 2nd reflection For certain frequencies of the vibrator,
from the vibrator the amplitude of the resultant wave is
After 3nd reflection very large. These frequencies are
from the wall called resonant frequencies.
At resonance, the right-going waves

are in phase and the left-going
waves are also in phase.

Not at resonance
Fixed Right-going
end waves
Vibrator
+
Left-going
wave waves
After 1st reflection
from the wall =
After 1st reflection Resultant
from the vibrator wave
from the wall
The amplitude of the resultant wave
After 2nd reflection is small for non-resonant
from the vibrator frequencies.
from the wall
If the right-going waves are not in
phase, the left-going waves are also
not in phase. In this case, the string
does not resonate.

Resonant frequencies
The distance between two
Fixed consecutive right-going waves is 2L
end
Vibrator For constructive interference, the
phase difference between the two
waves is
L
After 5th reflection

from the vibrator
Resonance occurs when
After 6th reflection
from the vibrator
Round trip distance = 2L Resonant frequencies


Harmonics n
Oscillation mode Harmonic Resonant Resonant

number wavelength frequency
Fundamental
n =1
1st harmonic
2st harmonic n =2
3rd harmonic n =3
4th harmonic n =4
L

Checkpoint 7
Solution
What is the missing resonant frequency (less than
400Hz) from the following series?
75 Hz
150 Hz,
225 Hz,
300 Hz,
375 Hz
What is the frequency of the seven harmonic?

7*75 Hz = 525 Hz

Example 6
Solution

Example 6
Solution
It has the greatest speed as it moves through the midpoint of its oscillation.

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Aljalal-Phys102-142-Ch16-page 1

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-1 Transverse Waves

y At certain time y At certain position

16-1 Transverse Waves

At certain time At certain position

The wavelength λ is the The period T is the time

16-1 Transverse Waves

Amplitude Phase constant

Phase is measured in radians

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-1 Transverse Waves

Angular wave number

16-1 Transverse Waves

(a) 2x -4t wave 2

16-1 Transverse Waves

If |Δx| = vt, the shape of the y

f(x-vt) moves to the right a

f(x+vt) moves to the left a

If you cannot write a function in the travels at constant speed along

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-5 The Speed of a Traveling Wave

moves to the left.

moves to the left.

moves to the right.

moves to the right.

16-1 Transverse Waves

A sinusoidal wave moves a distance of one wavelength in a time

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-1 Transverse Waves

Solution A snapshot at t=0.

Guess: the wave is moving to the left.

Our guess is wrong.

The wave is moving to the right

16-1 Transverse Waves

is the partial derivative of y(x,t) with respect to t.

It represents the derivative of y(x,t) with respect to t

16-1 Transverse Waves

Transverse velocity u of an element of the string

Transverse acceleration ay of an element of the string

16-1 Transverse Waves

16-1 Transverse Waves

Find the transverse velocity of an element located at x = 22.5 cm and at t =

16-1 Transverse Waves

Find the transverse acceleration of an element located at x = 22.5 cm and at

16-1 Transverse Waves

(a) y(x,t)= 2 sin(4x-2t)

16-2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String

16-2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String

Tension = 4τ0 v = 2v0

Increasing the tension in the string by a factor of four increases

16-2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String

L = 1 m and m = 10 g μ = 0.01 kg/m

16-2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String

Increasing the linear mass density of the string by a factor of four

16-2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String