Chapter 16

Waves - I
Waves - I

Dr. Tariq Al-

Abdullah
16.1 TRANSVERSE WAVES
16-1 Transverse Waves
• Wave :“A disturbance which propagates (transfers energy) from one point to other points without
giving the medium as a whole any permanent displacement''.
• A wave carries energy and momentum, but there is no transport of matter.
• It could be a short pulse or ongoing disturbances.
• If they occur in a repetitive fashion, they are said to be periodic.
16.1 TRANSVERSE WAVES
16-1 Transverse Waves
1. Mechanical Waves: They are governed by Newton’s laws, and they can exist only within a material medium, such as
water, air, and rock. Examples: water waves, sound waves, and seismic waves.

2. Electromagnetic waves: These waves require no material medium to exist. Light waves from stars, for example,
travel through the vacuum of space to reach us. All electromagnetic waves travel through a vacuum at the same speed c
= 299 792 458 m/s.

3. Matter waves: These waves are associated with electrons, protons, and other fundamental particles, and even atoms
and molecules. Because we commonly think of these particles as constituting matter, such waves are called matter waves.
16.1 TRANSVERSE WAVES
16-1 Transverse Waves

A sinusoidal wave is sent along the string (Figure (a)). A typical string
•

element moves up and down continuously as the wave passes. This is

transverse wave.

•A sound wave is set up in an air- filled pipe by moving a piston back and
forth (Figure (b)). Because the oscillations of an element of the air
(represented by the dot) are parallel to the direction in which the wave
travels, the wave is a longitudinal wave.
16.1 TRANSVERSE WAVES
16-1 Transverse Waves
16.1 TRANSVERSE WAVES

The sine function describes

the shape of the wave

  𝑦 ( 𝑥 ,𝑡 ) = 𝑦 𝑚 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 −𝜔 𝑡 +𝜑)

16-2 WAVE SPEED ON A STRETCHED STRING
16-2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String
The speed of a wave on a stretched string is set by properties of the string
(i.e. linear density), not properties of the wave such as frequency or
amplitude. Tau is the tension (in N) in the string.

m
 (linear density)
l
16-2 WAVE SPEED ON A STRETCHED STRING

l
 net , x  0  net , y  2 sin   2  
R
l v2 v2 
  ma y  m  l v
R R R 

μ --- mass density (mass/unit length) τ-- tension force exerted between
neighboring elements
16-2 WAVE SPEED ON A STRETCHED STRING

 A heavy rope hangs from the ceiling, and a small amplitude transverse
wave is started by jiggling the rope at the bottom.
 As the wave travels up the rope, its speed will:
v

(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) stay the same
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
16.3 Energy and Power of a wave traveling along a string
16-3 Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a
•  String
When we set up a wave on a stretched string, we provide energy for the motion of the string. As the wave moves away from us, it
transports that energy as both kinetic energy and elastic potential energy.

• The Rate of Energy Transmission The kinetic energy dK associated with a string element of mass dm is given by:
where u is the transverse speed of the oscillating string element.

• and are both zero when the element has its maximum displacement ( the element at relaxed length ).

• and are both maximum when the element has its zero displacement ( the element at stretched length ).
16.3 Energy and Power of a wave traveling along a string
16-3 Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a
String
• The mechanical energy is not constant, because the mass element is not an isolated system—neighboring mass
elements are doing work on it to change its energy.

• The average power of, or average rate at which energy (kinetic and potential) is transmitted by, a sinusoidal wave on a
stretched string is given by

The factors μ and ν in this equation depend on the material and tension of the string. The factors ω and ym depend on the
process that generates the wave.
Example
Example

 A stretched string has a mass per unit length of 0.50 kg/m. A sinusoidal wave of frequency 1.0 Hz travelling on
this string has an amplitude of 5.2 cm. If 0.25 J of energy is transported through the string during the time (T =
time period for one oscillation), the wavelength of the wave is:
16.5 INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
16-5 Interference of Waves
  Let and be the displacements that the string would experience if each wave traveled alone. The displacement of the string
when the waves overlap is then the algebraic sum
y ( x, t )  y1 ( x, t )  y2 ( x, t )
This summation of displacements along the string means that
16.5 INTERFERENCE OF WAVES

(a) 0 rad or 0o,  Constructive interference  Fig (d)

(b) π rad or 180o  Destructive interference  Fig (e)
(c) 2/3 π rad or 120o.  Arbitrary interference  Fig (f)
Example

μ
Example

What is the phase difference, in terms of wavelength λ?

 Waves move in opposite directions

• In previous section, we consider the effect of

superposing two component waves of equal amplitude
and frequency moving in the same direction on a
string. What is the effect if the waves are moving along
the string in opposite direction?

• We represent the two waves by

y1  y m sin( kx  t ) y 2  y m sin( kx  t )
•Hence the resultant wave is:
y  y1  y2
 ym sin( kx  t )  ym sin( kx  t )

or y  [2 y m sin kx] cos t

•

•It is not a traveling wave, because x and t do not

appear in the combination or , required
for a traveling wave. x  vt x  vt
•This wave is named as a standing wave
 To form a standing wave —— Forward wave
—— Backward wave
—— Resultant wave

a a

n n n
 To form a standing wave Amplitude
y  [2 y m sin kx] cos t

The outstanding feature of the resultant wave is that there are two places along the string:
1- nodes, where the string never moves. Four such nodes are marked by dots in Fig. 2-
Halfway between adjacent nodes are antinodes, where the amplitude of the resultant wave is a
maximum.
 Wave patterns such as that of bottom figure are called standing waves because the wave
patterns do not move left or right; the locations of the maxima and minima do not change.
 Reflection at the boundary

(a) Reflection from a fixed

end, a transverse wave
undergoes a phase
change of 180o

(b) At a free end, a

transverse wave is
reflected without change
of phase. Amplitude is
doubled.
16-7 Standing Waves and Resonance

Standing Waves
•The interference of two identical sinusoidal waves moving in
opposite directions produces standing waves. For a string with
fixed ends, the standing wave is given by

y  [2 ym sin kx] cos t

Stroboscopic photographs reveal (imperfect) standing wave patterns on a

string being made to oscillate by an oscillator at the left end. The patterns
occur at certain frequencies© of oscillation.
2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Standing waves and Resonance
1) Standing waves in a string fixed at both ends

(a 
  2L L 
n=1 ) 2

(b L
n=2 )
3
(c L 
2
n=3 ) 
L  n , n  1,2,3...
2
λ
(d L4
2
)
n=4
•Thus the condition for a standing wave to be set up in a string
of length L fixed at both ends is
• v v
fn  n 2L
n 
n 2L n

• n is the nth wavelength in this infinite series.

• n is the number of half-wavelengths in the patterns.

f• n is the frequency of the allowed standing waves, (resonance

or natural ).
fn
•2) Resonance in the stretched string

(a) a student begins to shake the string. If the frequency of the

driving force matches one of the natural frequencies, we get a
resonance in the string.

•(b) If the student shakes the string at a frequency that differs

from one of the natural frequencies, the reflected wave returns
to the student’s hand out of phase with the motion of the hand.
No fixed standing wave pattern is produced.
•
16-7 Standing Waves and Resonance

Harmonics
•Standing waves on a string can be set up
by reflection of traveling waves from the
ends of the string. If an end is fixed, it
must be the position of a node. This
limits the frequencies at which standing
waves will occur on a given string. Each
possible frequency is a resonant
frequency, and the corresponding
standing wave pattern is an oscillation
mode. For a stretched string of length L
with fixed ends, the resonant frequencies
are
v v 2L
fn  n n 
n 2L n
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Problem: A string fixed at both ends is under a tension of 360
N. One of its resonance frequencies is 375 Hz. The next higher
resonance frequency is 450 Hz. What is the fundamental
frequency of this string?
Problem: In an experiment on standing waves, a string 90 cm long is
attached to an oscillator that oscillates at a frequency of 80 Hz. The
mass of the string is 0.044 kg. Find the tension in the string if it is
oscillating in four loops.
Problem: Figure 1 shows a standing wave on a string under a fixed
tension and oscillating at a frequency f. How many antinodes will there
be if the frequency is doubled?
Question: A string oscillates in a third -harmonic standing wave
pattern. The amplitude at a point 30 cm from one end of the string is
half the maximum amplitude. How long is the string?
16 Summary

Waves Wave Speed


Transverse Waves 
Angular velocity/ Angular wave
number

Longitudinal Waves
Eq. (16-13)

Sinusoidal Waves Traveling Waves


Wave moving in positive 
A functional form for traveling
direction (vector) waves
Eq. (16-2) Eq. (16-17)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16 Summary

Powers Standing Waves


Average Power is given by 
The interference of two identical
sinusoidal waves moving in
Eq. (16-33) opposite directions produces
standing waves.
Eq. (16-60)

Interference of Waves Resonance


Two sinusoidal waves on the 
For a stretched string of length L
same string exhibit interference with fixed ends, the resonant
frequencies are

Eq. (16-51) Eq. (16-66)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.