SCRAPBOOK

IN
SCIENCE

DAMASCO. CHANCY CLARK R.

8-4
MRS.PACIO
 TABLE OF CONTENT
UNIT 1:FORCE,MOTION,AND ENERGY
MODULE 1:FORCES AND MOTION
……………………………………………………………………………

MODULE 2:WORK AND ENERGY

………………………………………………………………………………

MODULE 3:HEAT AND

TEMPERATURE………………………………………………………………………

MODULE
4:ELECTRICITY…………………………………………………………………………………
……..
MODULE
5:SOUNDS………………………………………………………………………………………
………

MODULE 6:COLORS OF
LIGHT…………………………………………………………………………………

UNIT 1
FORCES,MOTION,AND ENERGY

MODULE 1
FORCES AND MOTION
Force
Force is just a fancy word for pushing or pulling. If I push on something or pull on it, then I
am applying a force to it. Force makes things move or, more accurately, makes things
change their motion. Two natural forces that we have experienced are the force
of gravityand magnetic forces magnetic forces.
These two forces act at a distance and do not require direct contact between the objects
to function. Gravity produces a force that pulls objects towards each other, like a person
towards the ground. It is the force that keeps the Earth revolving around the sun and it's
what pulls you toward the ground when you trip. See Science Trek's site
on Gravity.Magnetism produces a force that can either pull opposite ends of two magnets
together or push the matching ends apart. A magnet
also attractsobjects made of metal.
Types Of Contact Forces
There are 6 kinds of forces which act on objects when
they come into contact with one another. Remember,
a force is either a push or pull. The 6 are:
 normal force
 applied force
 frictional force
 tension force
 spring force
 resisting force
Normal Force
A book resting on a table has the force of gravity pulling it toward the Earth. But the book is
not moving or accelerating, so there must be opposing forces acting on the book. This
force is caused by the table and is known as the normal force. You can “see” the normal
force in some situations. If you place a thin piece of wood or plastic (a ruler works) so that
it is supported by both ends (by books perhaps) and place a small heavy object in the
center, the piece of wood will bend. Of course it wants to straighten out so it exerts an
upward force on the object. This upward force is the normal force. You can feel the force
yourself if you push down in the center of the piece of wood. The harder you push, the
more the wood bends and the harder it pushes back.
Applied Force
Applied force refers to a force that is applied to an object such as when a person moves a
piece of furniture across the room or pushes a button on the remote control. A force is
applied.
Frictional Force
Frictional force is the force caused by two surfaces that come into contact with each other.
Friction can be helpful as in the friction that allows a person to walk across the ground
without sliding or it can be destructive such as the friction of moving parts in a motor that
rub together over long periods of time.
Tension Force
Tension force is the force applied to a cable or wire that is anchored on opposite ends to
opposing walls or other objects. This causes a force that pulls equally in both directions.
Spring Force
The spring force is the force created by a compressed or stretched spring. Depending
upon how the spring is attached, it can pull or push in order to create a force.
Resisting Forces
Resisting force, like air resistance or friction, change motion. Whether the forces actually
stop or slow something depends upon your point of view. Air friction makes a leaf travel
along in the wind. When you pick up a pencil, it's friction with your fingers that gets the
pencil in motion. In each case, the friction makes the two things (like the air and the leaf)
move together.
Balanced Forces
But what exactly is meant by the phrase unbalanced force? What is an unbalanced force?
In pursuit of an answer, we will first consider a physics book at rest on a tabletop. There
are two forces acting upon the book. One force - the Earth's gravitational pull - exerts a
downward force. The other force - the push of the table on the book (sometimes referred to
as a normal force) - pushes upward on the book.
Since these two forces are of equal magnitude and in opposite directions, they balance
each other. The book is said to be at equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting upon
the book and thus the book maintains its state of motion. When all the forces acting upon
an object balance each other, the object will be at equilibrium; it will not accelerate.
Consider another example involving balanced forces - a person standing on the floor.
There are two forces acting upon the person. The force of gravity exerts a downward
force. The floor exerts an upward force.
Since these two forces are of equal magnitude and in opposite directions, they balance
each other. The person is at equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting upon the
person and thus the person maintains its state of motion.
Unbalanced Forces
Now consider a book sliding from left to right across a tabletop. Sometime in the prior
history of the book, it may have been given a shove and set in motion from a rest position.
Or perhaps it acquired its motion by sliding down an incline from an elevated position.
Whatever the case, our focus is not upon the history of the book but rather upon the
current situation of a book sliding to the right across a tabletop. The book is in motion and
at the moment there is no one pushing it to the right.
The force of gravity pulling downward and the force of the table pushing upwards on the
book are of equal magnitude and opposite directions. These two forces balance each
other. Yet there is no force present to balance the force of friction. As the book moves to
the right, friction acts to the left to slow the book down. There is an unbalanced force; and
as such, the book changes its state of motion. The book is not at equilibrium and
subsequently accelerates. Unbalanced forces cause accelerations. In this case, the
unbalanced force is directed opposite the book's motion and will cause it to slow down
To determine if the forces acting upon an object are balanced or unbalanced, an analysis
must first be conducted to determine what forces are acting upon the object and in what
direction. If two individual forces are of equal magnitude and opposite direction, then the
forces are said to be balanced. An object is said to be acted upon by an unbalanced
force only when there is an individual force that is not being balanced by a force of equal
magnitude and in the opposite direction.
What is Inertia?
Inertia is actually not a force at all, but rather a property that all things have due to the fact
that they have mass. The more mass something has the more inertia it has. You can think of
inertia as a property that makes it hard to push something around.
What is Friction?
Friction is a force that happens when objects rub against one another. Say you were
pushing a toy train across the floor. It doesn't take much effort or force, because the toy is
light. Now say you try to push a real train. You probably can't do it because the force of
friction between the train and the ground is more intense. The heavier the object, the
stronger the force of friction.
Velocity
Velocity is the speed of an object in one direction. If an object turns a corner, it changes its
velocity because it is no longer moving in its original direction.

Motion
is the change in position of an object with respect to its surroundings in a given interval of
time. Motion is mathematically described in terms
of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, and speed. Motion of a body is observed
by attaching a frame of reference to an observer and measuring the change in position of
the body relative to that frame.
If the position of an object is not changing with respect to a given frame of reference
(reference point), the object is said to be at rest, motionless, immobile, stationary, or to
have constant (time-invariant) position with reference to its surroundings. Momentum is a
quantity which is used for measuring the motion of an object. An object's momentum is
directly related to the object's mass and velocity, and the total momentum of all objects in
an isolated system (one not affected by external forces) does not change with time, as
described by the law of conservation of momentum. An object's motion cannot change
unless it is acted upon by a force.
As there is no absolute frame of reference, absolute motion cannot be determined.[1] Thus,
everything in the universe can be considered to be moving.[2]:20–21
Motion applies to various physical systems: to objects, bodies, matter particles, matter
fields, radiation, radiation fields, radiation particles, curvature and space-time. One can
also speak of motion of images, shapes and boundaries. So, the term motion, in general,
signifies a continuous change in the configuration of a physical system in space. For
example, one can talk about motion of a wave or about motion of a quantum particle, where
the configuration consists of probabilities of occupying specific positions.
Newton's Laws of Motion
Some consider Sir Isaac Newton to be the greatest English mathematician of his time and
perhaps one of the greatest scientists the world has known. According to a story, Newton
saw an apple fall to the ground and he figured out that the same force which caused the
apple to fall also governed the motion of the Moon and the planets. In 1687 Newton
published his three laws of motion in the “Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis.”
His three laws explained how the concepts of force and motion work.
Newton's First Law

Newton's first law of motion states: A body in motion tends to remain in motion, a body at
rest tends to remain at rest unless acted on by an outside force.
So, if an object is moving – its inertia (mass) will tend to keep it in motion, and if something
is at rest, its inertia will tend to keep it at rest.
From the Goddard Space Center: learn more about Newton's First Law. Check out
these additional ideas.
Newton's Second Law
Newton's second law of motion states that a force, acting on an object, will change its
velocity by changing either its speed or its direction or both.
If your basketball goes rolling into the street and is hit by a bike, either the ball will change
direction or its speed or both. It will also be true for the bike.
From the Goddard Space Center: learn more about Newton's Second Law.Here are
some additional ideas.
Newton's Third Law
The third law is probably the best known of Newton's laws. It states that for every force and
action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
This is what causes a cannon to recoil when it fires. The 'kick' from the firing of the
ammunition is what makes the cannon jump backwards.
From the Goddard Space Center: learn more
about Newton's Third Law. Here are some additional ideas.

MODULE 2:
WORD AND ENERGY
Whenever a force is applied to an object, causing the object to move, work is done by the
force. If a force is applied but the object doesn't move, no work is done; if a force is applied
and the object moves a distance d in a direction other than the direction of the force, less
work is done than if the object moves a distance d in the direction of the applied force.
The physics definition of "work" is:

The unit of work is the unit of energy, the joule (J). 1 J = 1 N m.

Work can be either positive or negative: if the force has a component in the same direction
as the displacement of the object, the force is doing positive work. If the force has a
component in the direction opposite to the displacement, the force does negative work.If
you pick a book off the floor and put it on a table, for example, you're doing positive work
on the book, because you supplied an upward force and the book went up. If you pick the
book up and place it gently back on the floor again, though, you're doing negative work,
because the book is going down but you're exerting an upward force, acting against
gravity. If you move the book at constant speed horizontally, you don't do any work on it,
despite the fact that you have to exert an upward force to counter-act gravity.

Kinetic energy

An object has kinetic energy if it has mass and if it is moving. It is energy associated with a
moving object, in other words. For an object traveling at a speed v and with a mass m, the
kinetic energy is given by:
The work-energy principle

There is a strong connection between work and energy, in a sense that when there is a net
force doing work on an object, the object's kinetic energy will change by an amount equal
to the work done:

Note that the work in this equation is the work done by the net force, rather than the work
done by an individual force.

Gravitational potential energy

Let's say you're dropping a ball from a certain height, and you'd like to know how fast it's
traveling the instant it hits the ground. You could apply the projectile motion equations, or
you could think of the situation in terms of energy (actually, one of the projectile motion
equations is really an energy equation in disguise).

If you drop an object it falls down, picking up speed along the way. This means there must
be a net force on the object, doing work. This force is the force of gravity, with a magnitude
equal to mg, the weight of the object. The work done by the force of gravity is the force
multiplied by the distance, so if the object drops a distance h, gravity does work on the
object equal to the force multiplied by the height lost, which is:

work done by gravity = W = mgh (h = height lost by the object)

An alternate way of looking at this is to call this the gravitational potential energy. An
object with potential energy has the potential to do work. In the case of gravitational
potential energy, the object has the potential to do work because of where it is, at a certain
height above the ground, or at least above something.

Spring potential energy

Energy can also be stored in a stretched or compressed spring. An ideal spring is one in
which the amount the spring stretches or compresses is proportional to the applied force.
This linear relationship between the force and the displacement is known as Hooke's law.
For a spring this can be written:

F = kx, where k is known as the spring constant.

k is a measure of how difficult it is to stretch a spring. The larger k is, the stiffer the spring
is and the harder the spring is to stretch.

If an object applies a force to a spring, the spring applies an equal and opposite force to
the object. Therefore:

force applied by a spring : F = - kx

where x is the amount the spring is stretched. This is a restoring force, because when the
spring is stretched, the force exerted by by the spring is opposite to the direction it is
stretched. This accounts for the oscillating motion of a mass on a spring. If a mass hanging
down from a spring is pulled down and let go, the spring exerts an upward force on the
mass, moving it back to the equilibrium position, and then beyond. This compresses the
spring, so the spring exerts a downward force on the mass, stopping it, and then moving it
back to the equilibrium and beyond, at which point the cycle repeats. This kind of motion is
known as simple harmonic motion, which we'll come back to later in the course.
The potential energy stored in a spring is given by:

where x is the difference between the spring's length and its unstrained length.

In a perfect spring, no energy is lost; the energy is simply transferred back and forth
between the kinetic energy of the mass on the spring and the potential energy of the spring
(gravitational PE might be involved, too).

Conservation of energy

We'll take all of the different kinds of energy we know about, and even all the other ones we
don't, and relate them through one of the fundamental laws of the universe.

The law of conservation of energy states that energy can not be created or destroyed, it
can merely be changed from one form of energy to another. Energy often ends up as heat,
which is thermal energy (kinetic energy, really) of atoms and molecules. Kinetic friction, for
example, generally turns energy into heat, and although we associate kinetic friction with
energy loss, it really is just a way of

transforming kinetic energy into thermal energy.

The law of conservation of energy applies always, everywhere, in any situation. There is
another conservation idea associated with energy which does not apply as generally, and
is therefore called a principle rather than a law. This is the principle of the conservation of
mechanical energy.

Power
is the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is transfered from one place to
another or transformed from one type to another.
ΔW dW
P̅ = P=
Δt dt

P = Fv cos θ P=F·v

units

ΔW
P̅ =
Δt

any units of work (or energy) and time can be used to generate a unit of power. The
International System uses joules [J] and seconds [s] for these, respectively.

⎡ J⎤
W=
⎣ s⎦
A joule per second is called a watt [W] in honor of the Scottish mechanical
engineer James Watt. Watt is most famous for inventing an improved steam engine in the
years around 1770 and slightly less famous for inventing the concept of power shortly
thereafter. Power was a new way to compare his engines to the machines they were
designed to replace — horses. (More on that later.)

Watt wouldn't have thought about power they same way we do today. The concept of
energy wasn't invented until after he died. For him, power was the product of force and
velocity.

P = Fv

The units still work out the same way in the SI system, of course. Recall that the joule is the
product of a newton and a meter.

⎡ J Nm ⎤
W= = = N m/s
⎣ s s ⎦

But of course, Watt didn't use the SI system or even it's precursor, the metric system.
There were no kilograms until 1795. The newton didn't become a unit until 1948. There was
no joule in the world of units when Watt was alive because, essentially, there was no Joule
in the world of men. (James Joule was eight months old when James Watt died.)James
Watt used pounds for force and avariety of English units for velocity —
inches/second,feet/minute, miles/hour, etc.

MODULE 3:
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Heat, energy that is transferred from one body to another as the result of a difference
in temperature. If two bodies at different temperatures are brought together, energy is
transferred—i.e., heat flows—from the hotter body to the colder. The effect of this transfer
of energy usually, but not always, is an increase in the temperature of the colder body and
a decrease in the temperature of the hotter body. A
substance may absorb heat without an increase in
temperature by changing from one physical state
(or phase) to another, as from a solid to
a liquid (melting), from a solid to a vapour
(sublimation), from a liquid to a vapour (boiling), or
from one solid form to another (usually called a
crystalline transition). The important distinction
between heat and temperature (heat being a form
of energy and temperature a measure of the
amount of that energy present in a body) was
clarified during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Heat As A Form Of Energy
Because all of the many forms of energy, including heat, can be converted into work,
amounts of energy are expressed in units of work, such as joules, foot-pounds, kilowatt-
hours, or calories. Exact relationships exist between the amounts of heat added to or
removed from a body and the magnitude of the effects on the state of the body. The two
units of heat most commonly used are the calorie and the British thermal unit (BTU). The
calorie (or gram-calorie) is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one
gram of water from 14.5° to 15.5° C; the BTU is the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water from 63° to 64° F. One BTU is approximately 252
calories. Both definitions specify that the temperature changes are to be measured at a
constant pressure of one atmosphere, because the amounts of energy involved depend in
part on pressure. The calorie used in measuring the energy content of foods is the large
calorie, or kilogram-calorie, equal to 1,000 gram-calories.
In general, the amount of energy required to raise a unit mass of a substance through a
specified temperature interval is called the heat capacity, or the specific heat, of that
substance. The quantity of energy necessary to raise the temperature of a body one
degree varies depending upon the restraints imposed. If heat is added to a gas confined at
constant volume, the amount of heat needed to cause a one-degree temperature rise is
less than if the heat is added to the same gas free to expand (as in a cylinder fitted with a
movable piston) and so do work. In the first case, all the energy goes into raising the
temperature of the gas, but in the second case, the energy not only contributes to the
temperature increase of the gas but also provides the energy necessary for the work done
by the gas on the piston. Consequently, the specific heat of a substance depends on these
conditions. The most commonly determined specific heats are the specific heat at constant
volume and the specific heat at constant pressure. The heat capacities of many solid
elements were shown to be closely related to their atomic weights by the French
scientists Pierre-Louis Dulong and Alexis-Thérèse Petit in 1819. The so-called law of
Dulong and Petit was useful in determining the atomic weights of certain metallic elements,
but there are many exceptions to it; the deviations were later found to be explainable on
the basis of quantum mechanics.

Temperature (sometimes called thermodynamic temperature) is a measure of the

average kinetic energy of the particles in a system. Adding heat to a system causes its
temperature to rise. While there is no maximum theoretically reachable temperature, there
is a minimum temperature, known as absolute zero, at which all molecular motion stops.
Temperatures are commonly measured in the Kelvin or Celsius scales, with Fahrenheit still
in common use in the Unites States.

Temperature is an important quantity in thermodynamics and kinetic theory, appearing

explicitly for example in the ideal gas law

where P is the pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of moles, and R is the universal
gas constant. Thermodynamically, temperature is given by the Maxwell relation

where E is the energy, S is the entropy, and the partial derivative is taken at constant
volume. The quantity , where k is Boltzmann's constant, arising frequently in
thermodynamics is defined as

a quantity sometimes known as thermodynamic beta.

MODULE 4:
ELECTRICITY
Electricity
Electricity is the presence and flow of electric charge. Using electricity we can transfer
energy in ways that allow us to accomplish common chores.[1] Its best-known form is the
flow of electrons through conductors such
as copper wires.
The word "electricity" is sometimes used to
mean "electrical energy". They are not the same
thing - electricity is a transmission medium for
electrical energy, like sea water is a
transmission medium for wave energy. An item
which allows electricity to move through it is
called a conductor. Copper wires and other
metal items are good conductors, allowing
electricity to move through them and transmit
electrical energy. Plastic is a bad conductor,
also called an insulator, which does not allow
much electricity to move through it so will stop transmission of electrical energy.
Transmission of electrical energy can occur naturally (as in lightning), or be produced (as
in a generator). It is a form of energy which we use to power machines and electrical
devices. When electrical charges are not moving, electricity is called static electricity.
When the charges are moving they are an electric current, sometimes called 'dynamic
electricity'. Lightning is the most known - and dangerous - kind of electric current
in nature, but sometimes static electricity causes things to stick together.
Electricity can be dangerous, especially around water because water is a form of good
conductor as it has impurities like salt in it. Since the nineteenth century, electricity has
been used in every part of our lives. Until then, it was just a curiosity seen in the lightning of
a thunderstorm.
Electrical energy can be created if a magnet passes close to a metal wire. This is the
method used by a generator. The biggest generators are in power stations. Electrical
energy can also be released by combining chemicalsin a jar with two different kinds
of metal rods. This is the method used in a battery. Static electricity can be created
through the friction between two materials - for instance a wool cap and a plastic ruler.
This may make a spark. Electrical energy can also be created using energy from the sun,
as in photovoltaic cells.
Electrical energy arrives at homes through wires from the places where it is made. It is
used by electric lamps, electric heaters, etc. Many appliances such as washing
machines and electric cookers use electricity. In factories, electrical energy
powers machines. People who deal with electricity and electrical devices in our homes and
factories is called "electricians".
In some materials, electrons are stuck tightly in place, while in other materials, electrons
can move all around the material. Protons never move around a solid object because they
are so heavy, at least compared to the electrons. A material that lets electrons move
around is called a conductor. A material that keeps each electron tightly in place is called
an insulator. Examples of conductors are copper, aluminum, silver, and gold. Examples of
insulators are rubber, plastic, and wood. Copper is used very often as a conductor
because it is a very good conductor and there is so much of it in the world. Copper is found
in electrical wires. But sometimes, other materials are used.
Inside a conductor, electrons bounce around, but they do not keep going in one direction
for long. If an electric field is set up inside the conductor, the electrons will all start to move
in the direction opposite to the direction the field is pointing (because electrons are
negatively charged). A battery can make an electric field inside a conductor. If both ends
of a piece of wire are connected to the two ends of a battery (called the electrodes), the
loop that was made is called an electrical circuit. Electrons will flow around and around the
circuit as long as the battery is making an electric field inside the wire. This flow of
electrons around the circuit is called electric current.
A conducting wire used to carry electric current is often wrapped in an insulator such as
rubber. This is because wires that carry current are very dangerous. If a person or an
animal touched a bare wire carrying current, they could get hurt or even die depending on
how strong the current was and how much electrical energy the current is transmitting.
You should be careful around electrical sockets and bare wires that might be carrying
current.
It is possible to connect an electrical device to a circuit so that electrical current will flow
through a device. This current will transmit electrical energy to make the device do
something that we want it to do. Electrical devices can be very simple. For example, in
a light bulb, current carries energy through a special wire called a filament, which makes it
glow. Electrical devices can also be very complicated. Electrical energy can be used to
drive an electric motor inside a tool like a drill or a pencil sharpener. Electrical energy is
also used to power modern electronic devices, including telephones, computers, and
televisions.
Voltage,
electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension is the difference
in electric potential between two points. The difference in electric potential between two
points (i.e., voltage) in a static electric fieldis defined as the work needed per unit of
charge to move a test charge between the two points. In the International System of Units,
the derived unit for voltage is named volt.[1] In SI units, work per unit charge is expressed
as joules per coulomb, where 1 volt = 1 joule (of work) per 1 coulomb (of charge). The
official SI definition for volt uses power and current, where 1 volt = 1 watt (of power) per
1 ampere (of current).[1] This definition is equivalent to the more commonly used 'joules per
coulomb'. Voltage or electric potential difference is denoted symbolically by ∆V, but more
often simply as V, for instance in the context of Ohm's or Kirchhoff's circuit laws.
Electric potential differences between points can be caused by electric charge, by electric
current through a magnetic field, by time-varying magnetic fields, or some combination of
these three. A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage (or potential difference)
between two points in a system; often a common reference potential such as the ground of
the system is used as one of the points. A voltage may represent either a source of energy
(electromotive force) or lost, used, or stored energy (potential drop).
Measuring instruments
Instruments for measuring voltages include the voltmeter, the potentiometer, and
the oscilloscope. Analog voltmeters, such as moving-coil instruments, work by measuring
the current through a fixed resistor, which, according to Ohm's Law, is proportional to the
voltage across the resistor. The potentiometer works by balancing the unknown voltage
against a known voltage in a bridge circuit. The cathode-ray oscilloscope works by
amplifying the voltage and using it to deflect an electron beam from a straight path, so that
the deflection of the beam is proportional to the voltage.
Volt
Main article: Volt
The volt (symbol: V) is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference,
and electromotive force. The volt is named in honour of the Italian physicist Alessandro
Volta (1745–1827), who invented the voltaic pile, possibly the first chemical battery

MODULE 5
SOUNDS
sound is a vibration that typically propagates
as an audible wave of pressure, through
a transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or
solid.
In human physiology and psychology, sound is
the reception of such waves and
their perception by the brain.[1] Humans can
only hear sound waves as distinct pitches when the frequency lies between about 20 Hz
and 20 kHz. Sound waves above 20 kHz are known as ultrasound and is not perceptible by
humans. Sound waves below 20 Hz are known as infrasound. Different animal species have
varying hearing ranges.
Longitudinal and transverse waves[edit]
Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also
called compression waves. It requires a medium to propagate. Through solids, however, it
can be transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound
waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing
local regions of compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves
of alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation.
Sound waves may be "viewed" using parabolic mirrors and objects that produce sound.[8]
The energy carried by an oscillating sound wave converts back and forth between the
potential energy of the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves) or lateral
displacement strain (in case of transverse waves) of the matter, and the kinetic energy of
the displacement velocity of particles of the medium.

Sound wave properties and characteristics

Although there are many complexities relating to the transmission of sounds, at the point of
reception (i.e. the ears), sound is readily dividable into two simple elements: pressure and
time. These fundamental elements form the basis of all sound waves. They can be used to
describe, in absolute terms, every sound we hear.
In order to understand the sound more fully, a complex wave such as the one shown in a
blue background on the right of this text, is usually separated into its component parts,
which are a combination of various sound wave frequencies (and noise).
Sound waves are often simplified to a description in terms of sinusoidal plane waves, which
are characterized by these generic properties:

 Frequency, or its inverse, wavelength

 Amplitude, sound pressure or Intensity
 Speed of sound
 Direction
Sound that is perceptible by humans has frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. In air
at standard temperature and pressure, the corresponding wavelengths of sound waves
range from 17 m (56 ft) to 17 mm (0.67 in). Sometimes speed and direction are combined as
a velocity vector; wave number and direction are combined as a wave vector.
Transverse waves, also known as shear waves, have the additional property, polarization,
and are not a characteristic of sound waves.
Speed of sound[
The speed of sound depends on the medium the waves pass through, and is a fundamental
property of the material. The first significant effort towards measurement of the speed of
sound was made by Isaac Newton. He believed the speed of sound in a particular
substance was equal to the square root of the pressure acting on it divided by its density:
This was later proven wrong when found to incorrectly derive the speed. The French
mathematician Laplace corrected the formula by deducing that the phenomenon of sound
travelling is not isothermal, as believed by Newton, but adiabatic. He added another factor
to the equation—gamma—and multiplied by , thus coming up with the equation . Since , the
final equation came up to be , which is also known as the Newton–Laplace equation. In this
equation, K is the elastic bulk modulus, c is the velocity of sound, and is the density. Thus,
the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the ratio of the bulk modulus of the
medium to its density.
Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient conditions. For
example, the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In 20 °C (68 °F) air at sea
level, the speed of sound is approximately 343 m/s (1,230 km/h; 767 mph) using the
formula v [m/s] = 331 + 0.6 T [°C]. In fresh water, also at 20 °C, the speed of sound is
approximately 1,482 m/s (5,335 km/h; 3,315 mph). In steel, the speed of sound is about
5,960 m/s (21,460 km/h; 13,330 mph). The speed of sound is also slightly sensitive, being
subject to a second-order anharmonic effect, to the sound amplitude, which means there
are non-linear propagation effects, such as the production of harmonics and mixed tones
not present in the original sound (see parametric array).
If relativistic effects are important, the speed of sound is calculated from the relativistic
Euler equations.
Perception of sound
A distinct use of the term sound from its use in physics is that in physiology and
psychology, where the term refers to the subject of perception by the brain. The field
of psychoacoustics is dedicated to such studies. Webster's 1936 dictionary defined sound
as: "1. The sensation of hearing, that which is heard; specif.: a. Psychophysics. Sensation
due to stimulation of the auditory nerves and auditory centers of the brain, usually by
vibrations transmitted in a material medium, commonly air, affecting the organ of hearing.
b. Physics. Vibrational energy which occasions such a sensation. Sound is propagated by
progressive longitudinal vibratory disturbances (sound waves)." [13] This means that the
correct response to the question: "if a tree falls in the forest with no one to hear it fall, does
it make a sound?" is "yes", and "no", dependent on whether being answered using the
physical, or the psychophysical definition, respectively.
The physical reception of sound in any hearing organism is limited to a range of
frequencies. Humans normally hear sound frequencies between approximately 20 Hz and
20,000 Hz (20 kHz),[14]:382 The upper limit decreases with age.[14]:249 Sometimes sound refers
to only those vibrations with frequencies that are within the hearing range for humans[15] or
sometimes it relates to a particular animal. Other species have different ranges of hearing.
For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz.
As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species
for detecting danger, navigation, predation, and
communication.Earth's atmosphere, water, and virtually any physical phenomenon, such
as fire, rain, wind, surf, or earthquake, produces (and is characterized by) its unique
sounds. Many species, such as frogs, birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, have also
developed special organs to produce sound. In some species, these
produce song and speech. Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology
(such as music, telephone and radio) that allows them to generate, record, transmit, and
broadcast sound.
Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering,
noise is an undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal. However, in sound
perception it can often be used to identify the source of a sound and is an important
component of timbre perception (see above).
Soundscape is the component of the acoustic environment that can be perceived by
humans. The acoustic environment is the combination of all sounds (whether audible to
humans or not) within a given area as modified by the environment and understood by
people, in context of the surrounding environment.
There are, historically, six experimentally separable ways in which sound waves are
analysed. They are: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial
location.[16] Some of these terms have a standardised definition (for instance in the ANSI
Acoustical Terminology ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013). More recent approaches have also
considered temporal envelope and temporal fine structure as perceptually relevant
analyses.[17][18][19]
Pitch
Pitch is perceived as how "low" or "high" a sound is and represents the cyclic, repetitive
nature of the vibrations that make up sound. For simple sounds, pitch relates to the
frequency of the slowest vibration in the sound (called the fundamental harmonic). In the
case of complex sounds, pitch perception can vary. Sometimes individuals identify
different pitches for the same sound, based on their personal experience of particular
sound patterns. Selection of a particular pitch is determined by pre-conscious examination
of vibrations, including their frequencies and the balance between them. Specific attention
is given to recognising potential harmonics.[20][21] Every sound is placed on a pitch
continuum from low to high. For example: white noise (random noise spread evenly across
all frequencies) sounds higher in pitch than pink noise (random noise spread evenly across
octaves) as white noise has more high frequency content. Figure 1 shows an example of
pitch recognition. During the listening process, each sound is analysed for a repeating
pattern (See Figure 1: orange arrows) and the results forwarded to the auditory cortex as a
single pitch of a certain height (octave) and chroma (note name).
Duration
Duration is perceived as how "long" or "short" a sound is and relates to onset and offset
signals created by nerve responses to sounds. The duration of a sound usually lasts from
the time the sound is first noticed until the sound is identified as having changed or
ceased.[22] Sometimes this is not directly related to the physical duration of a sound. For
example; in a noisy environment, gapped sounds (sounds that stop and start) can sound as
if they are continuous because the offset messages are missed owing to disruptions from
noises in the same general bandwidth.[23] This can be of great benefit in understanding
distorted messages such as radio signals that suffer from interference, as (owing to this
effect) the message is heard as if it was continuous. Figure 2 gives an example of duration
identification. When a new sound is noticed (see Figure 2, Green arrows), a sound onset
message is sent to the auditory cortex. When the repeating pattern is missed, a sound
offset messages is sent.
Loudness
Loudness is perceived as how "loud" or "soft" a sound is and relates to the totalled number
of auditory nerve stimulations over short cyclic time periods, most likely over the duration
of theta wave cycles.[24][25][26] This means that at short durations, a very short sound can
sound softer than a longer sound even though they are presented at the same intensity
level. Past around 200 ms this is no longer the case and the duration of the sound no longer
affects the apparent loudness of the sound. Figure 3 gives an impression of how loudness
information is summed over a period of about 200 ms before being sent to the auditory
cortex. Louder signals create a greater 'push' on the Basilar membrane and thus stimulate
more nerves, creating a stronger loudness signal. A more complex signal also creates
more nerve firings and so sounds louder (for the same wave amplitude) than a simpler
sound, such as a sine wave.
Timbre
Timbre is perceived as the quality of different sounds (e.g. the thud of a fallen rock, the
whir of a drill, the tone of a musical instrument or the quality of a voice) and represents the
pre-conscious allocation of a sonic identity to a sound (e.g. “it’s an oboe!"). This identity is
based on information gained from frequency transients, noisiness, unsteadiness,
perceived pitch and the spread and intensity of overtones in the sound over an extended
time frame.[9][10][11] The way a sound changes over time (see figure 4) provides most of the
information for timbre identification. Even though a small section of the wave form from
each instrument looks very similar (see the expanded sections indicated by the orange
arrows in figure 4), differences in changes over time between the clarinet and the piano
are evident in both loudness and harmonic content. Less noticeable are the different
noises heard, such as air hisses for the clarinet and hammer strikes for the piano.
Sonic texture
Sonic texture relates to the number of sound sources and the interaction between
them.[27][28] The word 'texture', in this context, relates to the cognitive separation of auditory
objects.[29] In music, texture is often referred to as the difference
between unison, polyphony and homophony, but it can also relate (for example) to a busy
cafe; a sound which might be referred to as 'cacophony'. However texture refers to more
than this. The texture of an orchestral piece is very different to the texture of a brass
quintet because of the different numbers of players. The texture of a market place is very
different to a school hall because of the differences in the various sound sources.
Spatial location[
Spatial location (see: Sound localization) represents the cognitive placement of a sound in
an environmental context; including the placement of a sound on both the horizontal and
vertical plane, the distance from the sound source and the characteristics of the sonic
environment.[29][30] In a thick texture, it is possible to identify multiple sound sources using a
combination of spatial location and timbre identification. This is the main reason why we
can pick the sound of an oboe in an orchestra and the words of a single person at a
cocktail party.
Sound pressure level[Sound pressure is the difference, in a given medium, between
average local pressure and the pressure in the sound wave. A square of this difference
(i.e., a square of the deviation from the equilibrium pressure) is usually averaged over time
and/or space, and a square root of this average provides a root mean square (RMS) value.
For example, 1 Pa RMS sound pressure (94 dBSPL) in atmospheric air implies that the
actual pressure in the sound wave oscillates between (1 atm Pa) and (1 atm Pa), that is
between 101323.6 and 101326.4 Pa. As the human ear can detect sounds with a wide
range of amplitudes, sound pressure is often measured as a level on a
logarithmic decibel scale. The sound pressure level (SPL) or Lp is defined as

where p is the root-mean-square sound pressure and is a reference sound pressure.

Commonly used reference sound pressures, defined in the standard ANSI S1.1-1994, are
20 µPa in air and 1 µPa in water. Without a specified reference sound pressure, a value
expressed in decibels cannot represent a sound pressure level.
Since the human ear does not have a flat spectral response, sound pressures are
often frequency weighted so that the measured level matches perceived levels more
closely. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has defined several
weighting schemes. A-weighting attempts to match the response of the human ear to noise
and A-weighted sound pressure levels are labeled dBA. C-weighting is used to measure
peak levels.
Ultrasound[

Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz (or 20 kHz) . Ultrasound
is not different from "normal" (audible) sound in its physical properties, except in that
humans cannot hear it. Ultrasound devices operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to
several gigahertz..

Infrasound]
Infrasound is sound waves with frequencies lower than 20 Hz. Although sounds of such low
frequency are too low for humans to hear, whales, elephants and other animals can detect
infrasound and use it to communicate. It can be used to detect volcanic eruptions and is
used in some types of music.
MODULE 6
COLORS OF LIGHT
Visible Light
Every kind of light moves at a certain wavelength. If each wavelength was laid out on a
chart, it would create what is called the electromagnetic spectrum. The shorter waves
would be on one end and the longer ones would be on the other. In the middle would be
where visible light would end up. That is because it moves at just the right wavelength for
our eyes to see it.
Color
Within the visible light of the electromagnetic
spectrum are still more wavelengths. Each
wavelength is perceived by our eyes as a
different color. The shorter wavelengths of
visible light are violet — we might call them
purple. Then as the wavelengths get longer and
longer, the visible light changes in color to blue,
green, yellow, orange, and finally the longest,
which is red.
Some animals can see waveslengths of light that
humans cannot. Those waveslengths would be just outside the edges of human visible
light. For example, insects can see ultraviolet waves — waves just before purple on the
electromagnetic spectrum. But we are not able to see these. At the same time, there are
colors of red that insects are unable to see, but that humans can.
Most light that we use — like sunlight or light from a light bulb — is actually a mixture of all
of the visible light wavelengths. It is called white light. When it is mixed, it is difficult for us
to separate the colors out. We just see it as useful light. But at certain times the light does
get separated out.
Rainbows
The visible spectrum of light is often mixed together in what is called white light. We do not
see each of the colors when they're mixed together. In order for that to happen, something
must separate the wavelengths into their various colors. This can happen in a rainbow.
When light passes through certain materials such as water droplets from a storm or a
sprinkler, the light can bend. If it bends just right (and it has to be just right), each of the
different wavelengths can be seen. Because the bending has to be just right, sometimes
you won't see the full arc of a rainbow. Some of it may be missing or even appear to be
hiding inside of a cloud.
The colors in a rainbow appear to be red on the top and progress down through orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Violet is another word for purple. Many scientists
argue that there really isn't indigo in a rainbow. But tradition has it that the colors spell out
an easily remembered name: ROY G. BIV. Next time you see a rainbow, see if you can spot
the indigo — a kind of blue purple.
Prisms
Prisms are another way that light can be bent. Prisms are actually a specially cut piece of
glass or other clear material. If placed just right in a stream of white light, they can
separate the light into its various colors. You may have played with one before. Sometimes
other things can act as prisms such as the edge of a glass, a CD, or a piece of jewelry.
Electromagnetic spectrum, the entire distribution of electromagnetic radiation according
to frequency or wavelength. Although all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of
light in a vacuum, they do so at a wide range of frequencies, wavelengths,
and photon energies. The electromagnetic spectrum comprises the span of all
electromagnetic radiation and consists of many subranges, commonly referred to as
portions, such as visible light or ultraviolet radiation. The various portions bear different
names based on differences in behaviour in the emission, transmission, and absorption of
the corresponding waves and also based on their different practical applications. There
are no precise accepted boundaries between any of these contiguous portions, so the
ranges tend to overlap.

The entire electromagnetic spectrum, from the lowest to the highest frequency (longest to
shortest wavelength), includes all radio waves (e.g.,
commercial radio and television, microwaves, radar), infrared radiation,
visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. Nearly all frequencies and
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation can be used for spectroscopy.

REFERENCES
 MERRIAM WEBSTER(SCIENCE)
 WIKIPEDIA
 SCIENCE LEARNERS MODULE
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION(2004)SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY