EMI & AC

ALTERNATING CURRENT From (3) and (4), we get I m u

T
2
I0 2 I0 .T
...(5)
2 Z 2S

1. THE ALTERNATING CURRENT 2

or Im I0 0.637 I0
S
The magnitude of alternating current changes
Hence, mean or average value of alternating current over
continuously with time and its direction is reversed
positive half cycle is 0.637 times the peak value of
periodically. It is represented by
alternating current, i.e., 63.7% of the peak value.
I I 0 sin Z t or I I 0 cos Z t
3. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE ONLY
2S
Z 2Sv Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a pure
T resistance R, Figure. Suppose the alternating e.m.f.
supplied is represented by
2. AVERAGE VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
Let I be the current in the circuit at any instant t. The
The mean or average value of alternating current over any
potential difference developed across R will be IR. This
half cycle is defined as that value of steady current which
must be equal to e.m.f. applied at that instant, i.e.,
would send the same amount of charge through a circuit in
the time of half cycle (i.e. T/2) as is sent by the alternating IR = E = E0 sin Zt
current through the same circuit, in the same time.
To calculate the mean or average value, let an alternating
current be represented by
I = I0 sin Z t ...(1)
If the strength of current is assumed to remain constant
for a small time, dt, then small amount of charge sent in a
small time dt is
dq = I dt ...(2)
Let q be the total charge sent by alternating current in the
first half cycle (i.e. 0 o T/2).
T/2

? q ³ I dt
0

T/2
ª cos Zt º
T/2

Using (1), we get, q ³I

0
0 sin Zt.dt I0 « 
¬ Z »¼ 0
E0
I ª or I sin Zt I 0 sin Zt ...(2)
T º R
 0 « cos Z  cos 0q »
Z¬ 2 ¼
where I0 = E0/R, maximum value of current.
10 This is the form of alternating current developed.
 cos S  cos 0q 'Z T 2S
Z Comparing I0 = E0/R with Ohm’s law equation, viz. current
= voltage/resistance, we find that resistance to a.c. is
I0 2I 0 represented by R–which is the value of resistance to d.c.
q  1  1 ...(3)
Z Z
Hence behaviour of R in d.c. and a.c. circuit is the same, R
If Im represents the mean or average value of alternating can reduce a.c. as well as d.c. equally effectively.
current over the 1st half cycle, then
Comparing (2) and (1), we find that E and I are in phase.
T Therefore, in an a.c. circuit containing R only, the voltage
q Im u ...(4) and current are in the same phase, as shown in figure.
2
EMI & AC

3.1 Phasor Diagram 5. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING CAPACITANCE ONLY

In the a.c. circuit containing R only, current and voltage Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a capacitor
are in the same phase. Therefore, in figure, both phasors only of capacitance C, figure. Suppose the alternating e.m.f.
G G supplied is
I0 and E 0 are in the same direction making an angle (Zt)
E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
with OX. This is so for all times. It means that the phase The current flowing in the circuit transfers charge to the
angle between alternating voltage and alternating current plates of the capacitor. This produces a potential difference
through R is zero. between the plates. The capacitor is alternately charged
and discharged as the current reverses each half cycle. At
I = I0 sin Zt and E = E0 sin Zt.
any instant t, suppose q is the charge on the capacitor.
Therefore, potential difference across the plates of
4. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING INDUCTANCE ONLY capacitor V = q/C.
At every instant, the potential difference V must be equal
In an a.c. circuit containing L only alternating current I to the e.m.f. applied i.e.
lags behind alternating voltage E by a phase angle of 90°,
i.e., by one fourth of a period. Conversely, voltage across q
V E E 0 sin Zt
L leads the current by a phase angle of 90°. This is shown C
in figure. or q = CH0 sin Zt
If I is instantaneous value of current in the circuit at instant
t, then

dq d
I (CH0 sin Zt)
dt dt
I=CE0 (cos Zt) Z

E0
I sin Zt  S / 2 ...(2)
1/ ZC
The current will be maximum i.e.
I = I0, when sin (Zt + S/2) = maximum = 1

E0
? From (2), I 0 u1 ...(3)
1/ ZC
Put in (2), I = I0 sin (Zt + S/2) ...(4)
This is the form of alternating current developed.
Figure (b) represents the vector diagram or the phasor Comparing (4) with (1), we find that in an a.c. circuit
diagram of a.c. circuit containing L only. The vector containing C only, alternating current I leads the alternating
G e.m.f. by a phase angle of 90°. This is shown in figure (b)
representing E 0 makes an angle (Zt) with OX. As current
and (c).
lags behing the e.m.f. by 90°, therefore, phasor representing
G The phasor diagram or vector diagram of a.c. circuit containing
I0 is turned clockwise through 90° from the direction of G
C only in shown in figure (b). The phasor I0 is turned
G § S· v0 G
E0 . I I0 sin ¨ Zt  ¸ , I0 , XL = Z L anticlockwise through 90° from the direction of phasor E 0 .
© 2¹ xL
Their projections on YOY’ give the instantaneous values E
A pure inductance offer zero resistance to dc. It means a and I as shown in figure (b). When E0 and I0 rotate with
pure inductor cannot reduce dc. The units of inductive frequency Z, curves in figure (c). are generated.
reactance

1 1 1
XL = Z L Ÿ (henry) = ohm
sec sec amp / sec
The dimensions of inductive reactance are the same as
those of resistance.
 EMI & AC

(i) The maximum voltage across R is

G G
VR I0 R
G
In figure, current phasor I0 is represented along OX.

Comparing (3) with Ohm’s law equation, viz current =

voltage/resistance, we find that (1/Z C) represents
effective resistance offered by the capacitor. This is called
capacitative reactance and is denoted by XC.

1 1
Thus X C
ZC 2SvC
The capacitative reactance limits the amplitude of current in a
purely capacitative circuit in the same way as the resistance
limits the current in a purely resistive circuit. Clearly, G
capacitative reactance varies inversely as the frequency of As VR is in phase with current, it is represented by the
a.c. and also inversely as the capacitance of the condenser.
vector OA , along OX.
In a d.c. circuit, v = 0, ? XC = f
G G
1 1 sec (ii) The maximum voltage across L is VL I0 X L
Xc sec
ZC farad coulomb / volt As voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90°, it
G
volt sec . is represented by OB along OY, 90° ahead of I0 .
ohm
amp. sec G G
(iii) The maximum voltage across C is VC I0 X C
6. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE, As voltage across the capacitor lags behind the alternating
INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE AND SERIES current by 90°, it is represented by OC rotated clockwise
G
6.1 Phasor Treatment through 90° from the direction of I0 . OC is along OY’.

Let a pure resistance R, a pure inductance L and an ideal 6.2 Analytical Treatment of RLC series circuit
capacitor of capacitance C be connected in series to a source
of alternating e.m.f., figure. As R, L, C are in series, therefore, Let a pure resistance R, a pure inductance L and an ideal
current at any instant through the three elements has the condenser of capacity C be connected in series to a source
same amplitude and phase. Let it be represented by of alternating e.m.f. Suppose the alterning e.m.f. supplied
I = I0 sin Zt is
E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
At any instant of time t, suppose
q = charge on capacitor
I = current in the circuit
dI
= rate of change of current in the circuit
dt

q
? potential difference across the condenser
C
However, voltage across each element bears a different
dI
phase relationship with the current. Now, potential difference across inductor L
dt
 EMI & AC

potential difference across resistance = RI or q0 Z Z cos (Zt + T – I) = E0 sin Zt = E0 cos (Zt – S/2) ...(7)
? The voltage equation of the circuit is Comparing the two sides of this equation, we find that
E0 = q0 Z Z = I0 Z, where I0 q0Z ...(8)
dI q
L  RI  = E = E sin Zt ...(2) and Zt + TI = Zt – S/2
dt C 0

S
dq dI d 2q ? TI
As I , therefore, 2
dt dt dt 2
S
? The voltage equation becomes or T I ...(9)
2
d 2q dq q ? Current in the circuit is
L 2
R  E 0 sin Zt ...(3)
dt dt C
dq d
I q 0 sin Zt  T = q Z cos (Zt + T)
This is like the equation of a forced, damped oscillator. Let dt dt 0

the solution of equation (3) be

I = I0 cos (Zt + T) {using (8)}
q = q0 sin (Zt + T)
Using (9), we get, I = I0 cos (Zt + I– S/2)
dq I = I0 sin (Zt + I) ...(10)
? q 0 Z cos Zt  T
dt
XC  XL
From (6), I tan 1 ...(11)
2 R
d q
q 0 Z sin Zt  T
2

dt 2 2
As cos I + sin I = 1
2

Substituting these values in equation (3), we get 2 2

§ R · § XC  XL ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
2
L [–q0 Z sin (Zt + T)] + R q0 Z cos (Zt + T) ? 1
©Z¹ © Z ¹
q0
 sin (Zt  T) E 0 sin Zt
2 2
or R2 + (XC – XL) = Z
C
or Z R 2  (X C  X L ) 2 ...(12)
q 0 Z[R cos Zt  T  ZL sin Zt  T

1 7. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTING RESISTANCE & INDUCTANCE

 sin Zt  T ] E 0 sin Zt
ZC
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to an ohmic
resistance R and a coil of inductance L, in series as shown
1
A s ZL = XL and XC , therefore in figure.
ZC
q0 Z [R cos (Zt + T) + (XC – XL) sin (Zt + T)] = E0 sin Zt
Multiplying and dividing by

2
Z R 2  XC  X L , we get

ªR X  XL º
q 0 ZZ « cos Zt  T  C sin Zt  T » = E sin Zt
¬Z Z ¼ 0

...(4)

R XC  XL
Let cos I and sin I ...(5)
Z Z

XC  XL
so that tan I ...(6)
R
? q0 Z Z[cos (Zt + T) cos I + sin (Zt + T) sin I] = E0 sin Zt
 EMI & AC

Z R 2  X 2L E L
dI
...(1)
dt
We find that in RL circuit, voltage leads the current by a
phase angle I, where The self induced e.m.f. is also called the back e.m.f., as it
opposes any change in the current in the circuit.
AK OL VL I0 X L
tan I Physically, the self inductance plays the role of inertia. It
OA OA VR I0R
is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics.
Therefore, work needs to be done against the back e.m.f. E
XL
tan I in establishing the current. This work done is stored in the
R
inductor as magnetic potential energy.
8. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE For the current I at an instant t, the rate of doing work is
AND CAPACITANCE
dW
EI
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to an ohmic dt
resistance R and a condenser of capacity C, in series as
If we ignore the resistive losses, and consider only
shown in figure.
inductive effect, then
Z R 2  X 2C
dW dI
Using (1), EI L u I or dW = LI dI
dt dt
Total amount of work done in establishing the current I is

I
1 2
W ³ dW ³ LIdI
0
2
LI

Thus energy required to build up current in an inductor =

energy stored in inductor

1 2
UB W LI
2

10. ELECTRIC RESONANCE

10.1 Series Resonance Circuit

A circuit in which inductance L, capacitance C and

resistance R are connected in series, and the circuit admits
Figure represents phasor diagram of RC circuit. We find maximum current corresponding to a given frequency of
that in RC circuit, voltage lags behind the current by a a.c., is called series resonance circuit.
phase angle I, where The impedance (Z) of an RLC circuit is given by

AK OC VC I0X C
tan I § 1 ·
2
OA OA VR I0R Z R 2  ¨ ZL  ¸ ...(1)
© Z C¹
XC
tan I
R At very low frequencies, inductive reactance XL = ZL is
negligible, but capacitative reactance (XC = 1/ZC) is very
9. ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR high.
As frequency of alternating e.m.f. applied to the circuit is
When a.c. is applied to an inductor of inductance L, the increased, X L goes on increasing and X C goes on
current in it grows from zero to maximum steady value I0. If
decreasing. For a particular value of Z ( = Zr, say)
I is the current at any instant t, then the magnitude of
induced e.m.f. developed in the inductor at that instant is XL = XC
 EMI & AC

i.e., Zr L
1
or Zr
1 § Z ·
The quantity ¨ r ¸ is regarded as a measure of
Zr C LC © 2'Z ¹
sharpness of resonance, i.e., Q factor of resonance circuit
1 1
2S v r or v r is the ratio of resonance angular frequency to band width
LC 2 S LC of the circuit (which is difference in angular frequencies at
At this particular frequency vr, as XL = XC, therefore, from which power is half the maximum power or current is
(1)
I0 / 2 .
Z R 2  0 = R = minimum 10.2 Average Power in RLC circuit or Inductive Circuit
i.e. impedance of RLC circuit is minimum and hence the
Let the alternating e.m.f. applied to an RLC circuit be
E0 E0
current I 0 becomes maximum. This frequency E = E0 sin Zt ...(1)
Z R
If alternating current developed lags behind the applied
is called series resonance frequency.
e.m.f. by a phase angle I, then
I = I0 sin (Zt – I) ...(2)

dW
Power at instant t, EI
dt

dW
E 0 sin Zt u I 0 sin Zt  I
dt
= E0 I0 sin Zt (sin Zt cos I– cos Zt sin I)
2
= E0I0 sin Zt cos I– E0I0 sin Zt cos Zt sin I

2 E 0I0
= E0I0 sin Zt cos I  sin 2 Zt sin I
2
The Q factor of series resonant circuit is defined as the If this instantaneous power is assumed to remain constant
ratio of the voltage developed across the inductance or for a small time dt, then small amount of work done in this
capacitance at resonance to the impressed voltage, which time is
is the voltage applied across R.
§ E I ·
dW ¨ E 0 I 0 sin 2 Zt cos I  0 0 sin 2 Zt sin I ¸ dt
i.e. Q
voltage across L or C © 2 ¹
applied voltage ( voltage across R )
Total work done over a complete cycle is
Zr L I Zr L T T
Q E0 I0
RI R W ³
0
E 0 I 0 sin 2 Zt cos I dt  ³
0
2
sin 2Zt sin I dt
1 / Zr C I I
or Q
RI RC Zr T T
E0 I0
1
W ³
E 0 I 0 cos I sin 2 Zt dt 
2 ³
sin I sin 2 Zt dt
Using Zr , we get 0 0
LC
T T
T
Q
L
R
1 1
R
L
C
As ³ sin 2 Zt dt
2 ³
and sin Zt dt 0
LC 0 0

1 LC 1 L T
or Q ? W E 0 I 0 cos Iu
RC R C 2
? Average power in the inductive circuit over a complete
1 L
Thus Q ...(1) cycle
R C
 EMI & AC

W E 0 I 0 cos I T E 0 I0 R
P . cos I
T T 2 2 2 2 [from impedance triangle]
R  XL  XC
2

P = Ev Iv cos I ...(3)
Hence average power over a complete cycle in an inductive Resistance
? Power factor = cos I =
circuit is the product of virtual e.m.f., virtual current and Impedance
cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current.
In a non-inductance circuit, XL = XC

R R
? Power factor = cos I = 1, I 0q ...(4)
R 2 R
The relation (3) is applicable to all a.c. circuits. cos I and
Z will have appropriate values for difference circuits. This is the maximum value of power factor. In a pure

For example : inductor or an ideal capacitor, I = 90°

(i) In RL circuit, Z
(ii) In RC circuit, Z
(iii) In LC circuit, Z = XL – XC and I = 90°
(iv) In RLC circuit, Z
In all a.c. circuits, I v
Power factor = cos I = cos 90° = 0
R
R X 2 2
L
and cos I Average power consumed in a pure inductor or ideal a
Z
capacitor, P = Ev Iv cos 90° = Zero. Therefore,
R current through pure L or pure C, which consumes no
R 2  X 2C and cos I
Z power for its maintenance in the circuit is called Idle current
or Wattless current.
In actual practice, we do not have ideal inductor or ideal
R capacitor. Therefore, there does occur some dissipation
R 2  XL  XC
2
and cos I
Z of energy. However, inductance and capacitance continue
to be most suitable for controlling current in a.c. circuits
Ev with minimum loss of power.
Z

10.3 Power Factor of an A.C. Circuit

We have proved that average power/cycle in an inductive

circuit is
P = EvIv cos I ...(1)
Here, P is called true power, (EvIv) is called apparent power
or virtual power and cos I is called power factor of the
circuit.

true power (P )
Thus, Power factor = cos I
apparent power E v I v

...(2)
EMI & AC

Theory and Working : As the armature coil is rotated in the

11. A.C. GENERATOR OR A.C. DYNAMO
An a.c. generator/dynamo is a machine which produces
alternating current energy from mechanical energy. It is
one of the most important applications of the phenomenon
of electromagnetic induction. The generator was designed
originally by a Yugoslav scientist, Nikola Tesla. The word
generator is a misnomer, because nothing is generated by
the machine. Infact, it is an alternator converting one form
of energy into another.
11.1 Principle
magnetic field, angle T between the field and normal to the
coil changes continuously. Therefore, magnetic flux linked
with the coil changes. An e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
To start with, suppose the plane of the coil is perpendicular
to the plane of the paper in which magnetic field is applied,
with AB at front and CD at the back, figure (a). The amount
of magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position is
maximum. As the coil is rotated anticlockwise (or
clockwise), AB moves inwards and CD moves outwards.
The amount of magnetic flux linked with the coil changes.
According to Fleming’s right hand rule, current induced
in AB is from A to B and in CD, it is from C to D. In the
external circuit, current flows from B2 to B1, figure (a)

An a.c. generator/dynamo is based on the phenomenon

of electromagnetic induction, i.e., whenever amount
of magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is
induced in the coil. It lasts so long as the change in
magnetic flux through the coil continues. The direction of
current induced is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

11.2 Construction

The essential parts of an a.c. dynamo are shown in figure.

1. Armature : ABCD is a rectangular armatrue coil. It
consists of a large number of turns of insulated copper
wire wound over a laminated soft iron core, I. The coil can
be rotated about the central axis.
2. Field Magnets : N and S are the pole pieces of a strong
electromagnet in which the armature coil is rotated. Axis
of rotation is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines.
The magnetic field is of the order of 1 to 2 tesla.
3. Slip Rings : R1 and R2 are two hollow metallic rings, to
which two ends of armature coil are connected. These
rings rotate with the rotation of the coil.
4. Brushes : B1 and B2 are two flexible metal plates or
carbon rods. They are fixed and are kept in light contact
with R1 and R2 respectively. The purpose of brushes is to
pass on current from the armature coil to the external load
resistance R.
 EMI & AC

After half the rotation of the coil, AB is at the back and CD The current supplied by the a.c. generator is also
is at the front, figure. Therefore, on rotating further, AB sinusoidal. It is given by
moves outwards and CD moves outwards and CD moves
e e0
inwards. The current induced in AB is from B to A and in i sin Zt i 0 win Zt
CD, it is from D to C. Through external circuit, current R R
flows from B1 to B2; figure (b). This is repeated. Induced e0
current in the external circuit changes direction after every where i 0 maximum value of current.
R
half rotation of the coil. Hence the current induced is
alternating in nature.
To calculate the magnitude of e.m.f. induced, suppose
N = number of turns in the coil, Suppose to start with, the plane of the coil is not
A = area enclosed by each turn of the coil perpendicular to the magnetic field. Therefore, at t = 0,
G T z 0. Let T G, the phase angle. This is the angle which
B = strength of magnetic field G
normal to the coil makes with the direction of B. The
G
T = angle which normal to the coil makes with B at any equation (4) of e.m.f. induced in that case can be rewritten
instant t, figure. as e = e0 sin (Zt + G).

12. TRANSFORMER
A transformer which increases the a.c. voltage is called a
step up transformer, A transformer which decreases the
a.c. voltages is called a step down transformer.
? Magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position
G G 12.1 Principle
I N B . A NBA cos T NBA cos Zt ...(1)
A transformer is based on the principle of mutual
where Z is angular velocity of the coil.
induction, i.e., whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked
As the coil is rotated, T changes; therefore, magnetic flux with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the neighbouring
I linked with the coil changes and hence an e.m.f. is
coil.
induced in the coil.
12.2 Construction
At the instant t, if e is the e.m.f. induced in the coil, then
A transformer consists of a rectangular soft iron core made
dI d
e  NAB cos Zt of laminated sheets, well insulated from one another, figure.
dt dt
Two coils P1P2 (the primary coil) and S1S2 (the secondary
d coil) are wound on the same core, but are well insulated
 NAB cos Zt  NAB  sin Zt Z
dt from each other. Note that both the coils are also insulated
from the core. The source of alternating e.m.f. (to be
E = NAB Z sin Zt ...(2)
transformed) is connected to the primary coil P1P2 and a
The induced e.m.f. will be maximum, when load resistance R is connected to the secondary coil S1S2
sin Zt = maximum = 1 through an open switch S. Thus, there can be no current
? emax = e0 = NAB Z × 1 ...(3) through the secondary coil so long as the switch is open.
Put in (2), e = e0 sin Zt ...(4)
The variation of induced e.m.f. with time (i.e. with position
of the coil) is shown in figure.

For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistances

of the primary and secondary windings are negligible.
 EMI & AC

Further, the energy losses due to magnetic hysterisis in

Ep np
the iron core is also negligible. Well designed high capacity From (2),
Es ns
transformers may have energy losses as low as 1%.

12.3 Theory and working np Ip

? Is Ip . ...(3)
Let the alternating e.m.f. supplied by the a.c. source ns K
connected to primary be For a step up transformer, Es > Ep ; K > 1 ? Is < Ip
Ep = E0 sin Zt ...(1) i.e. secondary current is weaker when secondary voltage
As we have assumed the primary to be a pure inductance is higher, i.e., whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in
with zero resistance, the sinusoidal primary current Ip lags current in the same ratio.
the primary voltage Ep by 90°. The primary’s power factor, The reverse is true for a step down transformer.
cos I = 90° = 0. Therefore, no power is dissipated in primary.
The alternating primary current induces an alternating §n · Es § ns ·
From eqn. (3) I p Is ¨ s ¸ ¨ ¸
magnetic flux IB in the iron core. Because the core extends ¨ np ¸ R ¨ np ¸
© ¹ © ¹
through the secondary winding, the induced flux also
extends through the turns of secondary.
1 §n · § ns ·
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, Using equation (2), we get I p .Ep ¨ s ¸¨ ¸
R ¨ np ¸¨ np ¸
the induced e.m.f. per turn (Eturn) is same for both, the © ¹© ¹
primary and secondary. Also, the voltage Ep across the 2
primary is equal to the e.m.f. induced in the primary, and 1 §¨ n s ·
¸ Ep
Ip ...(4)
the voltage Es across the secondary is equal to the e.m.f. R ¨© n p ¸
¹
induced in the secondary. Thus,
Ep
dI B Ep Es This equation, has the form I p , where the
E turn R eq
dt np ns
2
§ np ·
Here, np ; ns represent total number of turns in primary and equivalent resistance Req is R eq ¨ ¸ R
¨n ¸ ...(5)
secondary coils respectively. © s ¹
Thus Req is the value of load resistance as seen by the
n source/generator, i.e., the source/generator produces
? Es Ep s ...(2)
np current Ip and voltage Ep as if it were connected to a
resistance Req.
If ns > np ; Es > Ep, the transformer is a step up transformer.
Similarly, when ns < np ; Es < Ep. The device is called a step Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output
to the input power.
ns
down transformer. = K represents transformation ratio. E s Is
np Output power
i.e., K
Input power Ep Ip
Note that this relation (2) is based on three assumptions
In an ideal transformer, where there is no power loss, K = 1
(i) the primary resistance and current are small,
(i.e. 100%). However, practically there are many energy
(ii) there is no leakage of magnetic flux. The same magnetic losses. Hence efficiency of a transformer in practice is
flux links both, the primary and secondary coil, less than one (i.e. less than 100%).
(iii) the secondary current is small.
12.4 Energy Losses in a Transformer
Now, the rate at which the generator/source transfer energy
to the primary = IpEp. The rate at which the primary then Following are the major sources of energy loss in a
transfers energy to the secondary (via the alternating transformer :
magnetic field linking the two coils) is IsEs. 1. Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the
As we assume that no energy is lost along the way, copper coils of a transformer. This is due to Joule heating
conservation of energy requires that of conducting wires. These are minimised using thick wires.
2. Iron loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core
Ep of the transformer. This is due to formation of eddy currents
IpEp = IsEs ? Is Ip
Es in iron core. It is minimised by taking laminated cores.
 EMI & AC

3. Leakage of magnetic flux occurs inspite of best insulations.

Therefore, rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each
turn of S1S2 is less than the rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with each turn of P1P2. It can be reduced by winding
the primary and secondary coils one over the other.
4. Hysteresis loss. This is the loss of energy due to repeated
magnetisation and demagnetisation of the iron core when
a.c. is fed to it. The loss is kept to a minimum by using a
magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.
5. Magnetostriction, i.e., humming noise of a transformer. Now, we consider a different surface, i.e., a tiffin box shaped
Therefore, output power in the best transformer may be surface without lid with its circular rim, which has the same
roughly 90% of the input power. boundary as that of loop C1. The box does not touch to
the connecting wire and plate P of capacitor. The flat
13. DISPLACEMENT CURRENT circular bottom S of the tiffin box lies in between the
capacitor plates. Figure (b). No conduction current is
According to Ampere circuital law :
passing through the tiffin box surface S, therefore I = 0.
G On applying Ampere’s circuital law to loop C1 of this tiffin
the line integral of magentic field B around any closed
box surface, we have
path is equal to P0 times the total current threading the
closed path, i.e.,
G G
³
C
B. d A P 0I
...(1)

Consider a parallel plate capacitor having plates P and Q

connected to a battery B, through a tapping key K. When
key K is pressed, the conduction current flows through
the connecting wires. The capacitor starts storing charge.
As the charge on the capacitor grows, the conduction
current in the wires decreases. When the capacitor is G G
fully charged, the conduction current stops flowing in ³ B.d A = B 2Sr = P × 0 = 0
0
or B = 0 ...(3)
the wires. During charging of capacitor, there is no C

conduction current between the plates of capacitor. From (2) and (3), we note that there is a magnetic field at R
During charging, let at an instant, I be the conduction calculated through one way and no magnetic field at R,
current in the wires. This current will produce magnetic calculated through another way. Since this contradition
field around the wires which can be detected by using a arises from the use of Ampere’s circuital law, hence
compass needle. Ampere’s circuital law is logically inconsisten.
Let us find the magnetic field at point R which is at a If at the given instant of time, q is the charge on the plate
perpendicular distance r from connecting wire in a region of capacitor and A is the plate area of capacitor, the
outside the parallel plate capacitor. For this we consider a magnitude of the electric field between the plates of
capacitor is
plane circular loop C1, of radius r, whose centre lies on
wire and its plane is perpendicular to the direction of current q
carrying wire (figure a). The magnitude of the magnetic E
0 A
field is same at all points on the loop and is acting
tangentially along the circumference of the loop. If B is This field is perpendicular to surface S. It has the same
magnitude over the area A of the capacitor plates and
the magnitude of magnetic field at R, then using Ampere’s
becomes zero outside the capacitor.
circuital law, for loop C1, we have
The electric flux through surface S is,
G G P0I
³
C1
B. dA ³ B dA cos 0q = B 2 Sr = P I or B
C1
0
2 Sr
...(2)
IE
G G
E.A EA cos 0q
1 q
uA
q
...(4)
0 A 0
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dq
If is the rate of change of charge with time on the plate
dt
of the capacitor, then

dI E d§ q · 1 dq
¨ ¸
dt dt ¨© 0 ¸
¹ 0 dt

dq dI E
or 0
dt dt
Due to battery B, let the conduction current I be flowing
dq through the lead wires at any instant, but there is no
Here, = current through surface S corresponding to
dt conduction current across the capacitor gap, as no charge
changing electric field = ID, called Maxwell’s displacement is transported across this gap.
current. Thus, For loop C1, there is no electric flux, i.e., IE = 0 and
displacement current is that current which comes into play
dI E
in the region in which the electric field and the electric flux 0
is changing with time. dt

dI E dI E
I D 0 ? I  ID I 0 I 0 0 I ...(7)
...(5) dt
dt
For loop C2, there is no conduction current, i.e., I = 0
Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital law in order to make
the same logically consistent. He stated Ampere’s circuital dI E
law to the form, ? I + ID = 0 + ID = ID = 0 ...(8)
dt
G G § dI · At the given instant if q is the magnitude of charge on the
³ B.dA P 0 I  ID P0 ¨ I  H0 E ¸
© dt ¹
...(6) plates of the capacitor of area A, then electric field E in the
gap between the two plates of this capacitor is given by
This is called Ampere Maxwell’s Law.
q § V q ·
14. CONTINUITY OF CURRENT E ¨'E ¸
0 A ¨ 0 0 A ¸¹
©
Maxwell’s modification of Ampere’s circuital law gives that
G G q q
? Electric flux, I E EA A
³
C
B.dA P 0 I  ID 0 A 0

dI E
where I D 0 , called displacement current, I is the
dt
conduction current and IE is the electric flux across the
loop C.
The sum of the conduction current and displacement
current (i.e., I + ID) has the important property of continuity
along any closed path although individually they may not
be continuous.
To prove it, consider a parallel plate capacitor having plates
P and Q, being charged with battery B. During the time,
charging is taking place, let at an instant, I be the
conduction current flowing through the wires. Let C1 and
C2 be the two loops, which have exactly the same boundary
as that of the plates of capacitor. C1 is little towards left
and C2 is a little towards right of the plate P of parallel plate
capacitor, figure.
d dq
Thus from (8), we have I + ID = 0 q / 0 I
dt dt
...(9)
From (7) and (9), we conclude that the sum (I + ID) has the
same value on the left and right side of plate P of the
parallel plate capacitor. Hence (I + ID) has the property of
continuity although individually they may not be
continuous.
15. CONSEQUENCES OF DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
The discovery of displacement current is of great
importance as it has established a symmetry between the
laws of electricity and magnetism. Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of
the emf induced in a coil is equal to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with it. Since, the emf between two
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 EMI & AC

points A and B is the measure of maximum workdone in

taking a unit charge from point A to B, therefore, the
existence of an emf shows the existence of an electric field.
It is due to this fact, Faraday concluded that a changing
magnetic field with time gives rise to an electric field.
The Maxwell’s concept that a changing electric field with
time gives rise to displacement current which also produces
a magnetic field similar to that of conduction current. It is
infact, a symmetrical counterpart of the Faraday’s concept,
which led Maxwell to conclude that the displacement
current is also a source of magnetic field. It means the
time varying electric and magnetic fields give rise to each
other. From these concepts, Maxwell concluded the where P0 and 0 are permeability and permittivity of the
existence of electromagnetic wave in a region where free space respectively.
electric and magnetic fields were changing with time. –7
We know, P0 = 4S× 10 Wb A m ;
–1 –1

–2 2 –1 –2
16. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS AND LORENTZ FORCE 0 = 8.85 × 10 C N m
8 –1
In the absence of any dielectric or magnetic material, the Putting these values in (10), we have c = 3.00 × 10 ms
four Maxwell’s equations are given below ? where P  are the absolute permeability and absolute
G G permittivity of the medium. We also know that P = P0Pr and
(i) ³
S
E . ds q / 0 . This equation is Gauss’s Law in
 0 r where P 0 , r are the relative permeability and
relative permittivity of the medium.
electrostatics.
The electric lines of force do not form continuous closed 1 c
Therefore, v
path. P 0 P r 0r P r r
G G
(ii)
³
S
B . ds 0 . This equation is Gauss’s Law in
ª 1 º
«' c »
magnetostatics. «¬ P 0 0 »¼
The magnetic lines of force always form closed paths.
Maxwell also concluded that electromagnetic wave is
G G d G G transverse in nature and light is electromagnetic wave.
(iii) ³ E .d A 
dt ³
s
B . d s . This equation is Faraday’s law of
17. VELOCITY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
electromagnetic induction.
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along
The line integral of electric field around any closed path
positive direction of X–axis in space with speed c. Since
(i.e., the emf) is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic
in electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields
flux through the surface bounded by the closed path.
are transverse to the direction of wave propagation,
G G therefore, the electric and magnetic fields are in Y–Z plane.
d G G
(iv) ³ B. dA P 0 I  P 0 0 ³
dt s
E .ds . This equation is G
Let the electric field E be acting along Y–axis and
G
magnetic field B along Z–axis.
generalised form of Ampere’s law as Modified by Maxwell
and is also known as Ampere-Maxwell law. At any instant, the electric and magnetic fields varying
sinusoidally with x and t can be represented by the
The electromagnetic waves are those wave in which there
equations.
are sinusoidal variation of electric and magnetic field
vectors at right angles to each other as well as at right E = Ey = E0 sin Z (t – x/c) ...(1)
angles to the direction of wave propagation. B = Bz = B0 sin Z (t – x/c) ...(2)
Here E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of electric and magnetic
1
c fields along Y–axis and Z–axis respectively. Consider a
P 0 0 ...(10)
rectangular path PQRS in X–Y plane as shown in figure.
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EMI & AC

G Consider a rectangular path PUTQ in the X–Z plane as

The line integral of E over the closed path PQRS will be G
shown in figure. The line integral of B over the closed
Q path PUTQ, we have
G G G G RG G SG G PG G
³
PQRS
E . dA ³
P
³
Q
³
R
³
E , d A  E , dA  E , dA  E , d A
S G G U
G G TG G QG G PG G
³
PUTQ
B.dA ³
P
³
U
³
T
³
B .d A  B .d A  B .d A  B .dA
Q
0 E x2 A0E x1 A
B x1 A  0  B x 2 A  0
ª § x · § x ·º
E 0 A «sin Z ¨ t  2 ¸  sin Z ¨ t  1 ¸» ...(3)
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼ ª § x · § x ·º
B 0 A «sin Z¨ t  1 ¸  sin Z¨ t  2 ¸» ...(6)
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼
Magnetic flux linked with surface surrounded by
rectangular path PQRS will be The electric flux linked with the surface surrounded by
rectangular path PUTQ is
x2 x2
ª § x ·º
IB ³ B x A dx ³ B A«¬sin Z¨© t  c ¸¹»¼ dx
0 x2
G G
x2 x2
§ x·
x1 x1 IE ³
x1
E .ds ³
x1
E x Adx ³
E 0 A sin Z¨ t  ¸ dx
x1
© c¹

B 0 Ac ª § x2 · § x ·º
«cos Z ¨ t  ¸  cos Z ¨ t  1 ¸»
ª § x · § x ·º
Z ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼ c
 E 0 A « cos Z¨ t  2 ¸  cos Z¨ t  1 ¸»
Z ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼

dI B B 0 Ac ª § x2 · § x ·º
? « Z sin Z¨ t  ¸  Z sin Z¨ t  1 ¸» dI E ª § x · § x ·º
dt Z ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼ cE 0 A «sin Z¨ t  2 ¸  sin Z¨ t  1 ¸»
or dt ¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼

ª § x · § x ·º
B 0 Ac «sin Z¨ t  2 ¸  sin Z¨ t  1 ¸» ...(4) ª § x · § x ·º
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼ c E 0 A «sin Z¨ t  1 ¸  sin Z¨ t  2 ¸» ...(7)
¬ © c ¹ © c ¹¼
Using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we have
In space, there is no conduction current. According to
G G dI B Ampere Maxwell law in space
³ E . dA 
dt
G G dI E
Putting the values from (3) and (4), we get ³
PUTQ
B. dA P 0 0
dt
E0 = cB0 ...(5)
Putting values from (6) and (7), we get
Since E and B are in phase, we can write.
B0 P 0 0 cE 0 P 0 0 c cB 0
E = c B at any point in space.
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1 1 B02
or 1 P 0 0 c 2 or c ...(8) In terms of maximum magnetic field, u av ,
P 0 0 2 P0

Which is the speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum. 1 B 20 1 2

so I c B rms c
–7 –1 2 P0 P0
For vacuum, P0 = 4S × 10 T mA

1 19. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

and 9 u 10 9 Nm 2 C  2
S 0
After the experimental discovery of electromagnetic waves
1 by Hertz, many other electromagntic waves were
or 0 N 1m  2 C 2
S u 9 u 10 9 discovered by different ways of excitation.

Putting the value in (8), we get
1 electromagnetic spectrum.
c 3 u10 8 m / s
7
S u10 u 1 / S u 9 u10 9
which is exactly the speed of light in vacuum.
This shows that light is an electromagnetic wave.
18. INTENSITY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
Intensity of electromagnetic wave at a point is defined as
the energy crossing per second per unit area normally
around that point during the propagation of electromagnetic
wave.
Consider the propagation of electromagnetic wave with
speed c along the X–axis. Take an imaginary cylinder of
area of cross-section A and length c ' t, so that the wave
crosses the area A normally. Figure. Let uav be the average
energy density of electromagnetic wave.
20. MAIN PARTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations
according to their wavelength or frequency is called the
The electromagnetic spectrum has much wider range with
–14 2
wavelength variation ~ 10 m to 6 × 10 m. The whole
electromagnetic spectrum has been classified into different
parts and subparts in order of increasing wavelength,
according to their type of excitation. There is overlapping
in certain parts of the spectrum, showing that the
corresponding radiations can be produced by two
methods. It may be noted that the physical properties of
electromagnetic waves are decided by their wavelengths
and not by the method of their excitation.
A table given below shows the various parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum with approximate wavelength
range, frequency range, their sources of production and
detections.
The electromagnetic spectrum has been broadly classified
into following main parts; mentioned below in the order of
increasing frequency.

20.1 Radiowaves

Theses are the electromagnetic wave of frequency range

5 9
from 5 × 10 Hz to 10 Hz. These waves are produced by
The energy of electromagnetic wave (U) crossing the area
oscillating electric circuits having an inductor and
of cross-section at P normally in time ' t is the energy of
capacitor.
wave contained in a cylinder of length c ' t and area of
cross-section A. It is given by U = uav (c ' t) A Uses : The various frequency ranges are used for different
types of wireless communication systems as mentioned below
The intensity of electromagnetic wave at P is,
(i) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range from 530
U u av c ' t A kHz to 1710 kHz form amplitude modulated (AM) band. It is
I u av c
A 't A 't used in ground wave propagation.

1 (ii) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1710 kHz

In terms of maximum electric field, u av 0 E 20 , to 54 Mhz are used for short wave bands. It is used in sky
2
wave propagation.
1
so I 0 E 02 c 0 E 2rms c (iii) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 54 Mhz to
2 890 MHz are used in television waves.
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(iv) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 88 MHz to The visible light emitted or reflected from objects around
108 MHz from frequency modulated (FM) radio band. It is us provides the information about the world surrounding
used for commercial FM radio. us.
(v) The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 300 MHz
20.5 Ultraviolet rays
to 3000 MHz form ultra high frequency (UHF) band. It is
used in cellular phones communication. The ultraviolet rays were discovered by Ritter in 1801. The
14 16
frequency range of ultraviolet rays is 8 × 10 Hz to 5 × 10
20.2 Microwaves Hz. The ultraviolet rays are produced by sun, special lamps
Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves of frequency and very hot bodies. Most of the ultraviolet rays coming
range 1 GHz to 300 GHz. They are produced by special from sun are absorbed by the ozone layer in the earth’s
vacuum tubes. namely ; klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn atmosphere. The ultraviolet rays in large quantity produce
diodes etc. harmful effect on human eyes.
Uses : Uses : Ultraviolet rays are used :
(i) Microwaves are used in Radar systems for air craft (i) for checking the mineral samples through the property of
navigation. ultraviolet rays causing flourescence.
(ii) A radar using microwave can help in detecting the speed (ii) in the study of molecular structure and arrangement of
of tennis ball, cricket ball, automobile while in motion. electrons in the external shell through ultraviolet
(iii) Microwave ovens are used for cooking purposes. absorption spectra.
(iv) Microwaves are used for observing the movement of trains (iii) to destroy the bacteria and for sterilizing the surgical
on rails while sitting in microwave operated control rooms. instruments.
(iv) in burglar alarm.
20.3 Infrared waves
(v) in the detection of forged documents, finger prints in
Infrared waves were discovered by Herschell. These are forensic laboratory.
11
the electromagnetic waves of frequency range 3 × 10 Hz
14 (vi) to preserve the food stuff.
to 4 × 10 Hz. Infrared waves sometimes are called as
heat waves. Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies 20. 6 X–rays
and molecules. These wave are not detected by human
eye but snake can detect them. The X–rays were discovered by German Physicst W.
16 21
Roentgen. Their frequency range is 10 Hz to 3 × 10 Hz.
Uses :
These are produced when high energy electrons are
Infrared waves are used : stopped suddenly on a metal of high atomic number.
(i) in physical therapy, i.e., to treat muscular strain. X–rays have high penetrating power.
(ii) to provide electrical energy to satellite by using solar cells Uses : X–rays are used :
(iii) for producing dehydrated fruits (i) In surgery for the detection of fractures, foreign bodies
(iv) for taking photographs during the condition of fog, smoke like bullets, diseased organs and stones in the human body.
etc. (ii) In Engineering (i) for detecting faults, cracks, flaws and
(v) in green houses to keep the plants warm holes in final metal products (ii) for the testing of weldings,
casting and moulds.
(vi) in revealing the secret writings on the ancient walls
(iii) In Radio therapy, to cure untracable skin diseases and
(vii) in solar water heaters and cookers
malignant growth.
(viii) in weather forecasting through infra red photography
(iv) In detective departments (i) for detection of explosives,
(ix) in checking the purity of chemcials and in the study of opium, gold and silver in the body of smugglers.
molecular structure by taking infrared absorption spectrum.
(v) In Industry (i) for the detection of pearls in oysters and
20.4 Visible light defects in rubber tyres, gold and tennis balls etc. (ii) for
testing the uniformity of insulating material.
It is the narrow region of electromagnetic spectrum, which
is detected by the human eye. Its frequency is ranging (vi) In Scientific Research (i) for the investigation of structure
14 14
from 4×10 Hz to 8×10 Hz. It is produced due to atomic of crystal, arrangement of atoms and molecules in the
excitation. complex substances.
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(i) in the treatment of cancer and tumours.

20.7 J-rays
(ii) to preserve the food stuffs for a long time as the soft
J–rays are the electromagnetic waves of frequency range
18 22 J–rays can kill microorganisms easily.
3 × 10 Hz to 5 × 10 Hz. J–rays have nuclear origin.
These rays are highly energetic and are produced by the (iii) to produce nuclear reactions.
nucleus of the radioactive substances. (iv) to provide valuable information about the structure
Uses : J–rays are used : of atomic nucleus.
 Chapter 8
Electromagnetic Waves
8.1 Introduction
• We will discuss about electromagnetic waves, their properties and characteristics, and also their practical
uses in our day-to-day life.
• One of the most important applications of electromagnetic waves is in communication.
• Some of the important applications of electromagnetic waves are:-
1. We are able to see everything around us because of electromagnetic waves.
2. It helps in aircraft navigation and helps the pilot for the smooth take-off and landing of aeroplanes. It
also helps to calculate the speed of the aeroplane.
3. In the medical field it has got very important applications. For example: - In laser eye surgery, in x-rays.
4. In radio and television broadcasting signals. These signals are transmitted by electromagnetic waves.
5. Electromagnetic waves helps in determining the speed of the passing vehicles.
6. They are used in electronic appliances like T.V. remotes, remote cars, LED TV, microwave ovens etc.
7. Voice transmission in mobile phones is possible because of electromagnetic waves.

What are Electromagnetic Waves?

• Electromagnetic (EM) waves are the waves which are related to both electricity and magnetism.
• Electromagnetic (EM) waves are the waves which are coupled time varying electric and magnetic fields
that propagate in space.
• Waves associated with electricity and magnetism and as they are waves so they will propagate in the
space.
• When the electric and magnetic fields combine together and when they are varying with time they both
will give rise to electromagnetic waves.
• Electromagnetic equations emerged from Maxwell’s equations.
• Maxwell found these EM waves have so many special properties which can be used for many practical
purposes.
• Time varying electric field + Time varying magnetic field = Electromagnetic waves.

Maxwell’s Experiments
• Maxwell proposed that the time varying electric field can generate magnetic field.
• Time varying magnetic field generates electric field (Faraday-Lenz law).
1. According to Faraday Lenz law an EMF is induced in the circuit whenever the amount of magnetic flux
linked with a circuit changes.
2. As a result electric current gets generated in the circuit which has an electric field associated with it.

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According to Maxwell if Faraday’s law is true then the vice-versa should also be true, i.e. a time varying
electric field should also be able to generate a magnetic field.

Ampere’s Circuit Law:

• According to Ampere’s Circuital law, the line integral of magnetic field over the length element is equal to
μ0 times the total current passing through the surface ∫dl = μ0 l
• According to Maxwell there was some inconsistency in the Ampere’s circuital law.
• This means Ampere’s circuital law was correct for some cases but not correct for some.
• Maxwell took different scenarios i.e. he took a capacitor and tried to calculate magnetic field at a specific
point in a piece of a capacitor.
• Point P as shown in the figure is where he determined the value of B, assuming some current I is flowing
through the circuit.
• He considered 3 different amperial loops as shown in the figs.
• Ampere’s circuital law should be same for all the 3 setups.
Case 1: Considered a surface of radius r & dl is the circumference of the surface, then from Ampere’s
circuital law

∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑙
𝑜𝑟 𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇0 𝑙
𝜇0 𝑙
𝑜𝑟 𝐵 =
2𝜋𝑟

Case 2 : Considering a surface like a box & its lid is open and applying the Ampere’s circuital law

∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑙

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 As there is no current flowing inside the capacitor, therefore I = 0

Or
∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 0

Case 3: Considering the surface between 2 plates of the capacitor, in this case also I=0, so B=0

• At the same point but with different amperial surfaces the value of magnetic field is not same. They are
different for the same point.
Maxwell suggested that there are some gaps in the Ampere’s circuital law. He corrected the Ampere’s
circuital law. And he made Ampere’s circuital law consistent in all the scenarios.
Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s law
• Ampere’s law states that “the line integral of resultant magnetic field along a closed plane curve is equal
to μ0 time the total current crossing the area bounded by the closed curve provided the electric field
inside the loop remains constant".
• Ampere’s law is true only for steady currents.
• Maxwell found the shortcoming in Ampere’s law and he modified Ampere’s law to include time-varying
electric fields.
• For Ampere’s circuital law to be correct Maxwell assumed that there has to be some current existing
between the plates of the capacitor.
• Outside the capacitor current was due to the flow of electrons.
• There was no conduction of charges between the plates of the capacitor.
• According to Maxwell between the plates of the capacitor there is an electric field which is directed from
positive plate to the negative plate.
o Magnitude of the electric field E =(V/d)
Where V=potential difference between the plates, d = distance between the plates.
E = (Q/Cd)
where Q=charge on the plates of the capacitor, Capacitance of the capacitor=C
=>E = (Q/ (Aε0d/d)), where A =area of the capacitor.
E=Q/(Aε0)
Direction of the electric field will be perpendicular to the selected surface i.e. if considering plate of the
capacitor as surface.

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 o As E =0 outside the plates and E=(Q/(Aε0)) between the plates. There may be some electric field
between the plates because of which some current is present between the plates of the capacitor.
o Electric Flux through the surface = ΦE = (EA) =(QA)/ (Aε0) =(Q/ ε0)
• Assuming Q (charge on capacitor i.e. charging or discharging of the capacitor) changes with time current
will be get generated.
o Therefore current Id =(dQ/dt)
Where Id =displacement current
o =>Differentiating ΦE =(Q/ ε0) on both sides w.r.t time,
(dΦE/dt) =(1/ ε0) (dQ/dt)
where (dQ/dt) =current
Therefore (dQ/dt) = ε0 (d ΦE/dt)
=>Current was generated because of change of electric flux with time.
o Electric flux arose because of presence of electric field in the plates of the capacitor.
Id = (dQ/dt) = Displacement current
Therefore Change in electric field gave rise to Displacement current.
▪ Current won’t be 0 it will be Id.
▪ There is some current between the plates of the capacitor and there is some current at the
surface.
▪ At certain points there is no displacement current there is only conduction current and vice-versa.
➢ Maxwell corrected the Ampere’s circuital law by including displacement current.
➢ He said that there is not only the current existed outside the capacitor but also current known as
displacement current existed between the plates of the capacitor.
➢ Displacement current exists due to the change in the electric field between the plates of the capacitor.
➢ Conclusion:-Magnetic fields are produced both by conduction currents and by time varying fields.

Ampere-Maxwell Law
• As Maxwell was able to correct the shortcomings of the Ampere’s circuital law therefore the law came to
known as Ampere-Maxwell law.
• Current which is arising due to the flow of charges is known as conduction current.
It is denoted by IC.
• Current which is arising due to change in electric field is known as displacement current.
It is denoted by Id.
• Therefore I = Ic + Id, where I = total current

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• Ampere-Maxwell Law stated that
o ∫dl = μ0 (Ic + Id)
o ∫dl = μ0 Ic + μ0 ε0 (d ɸE/dt)
o The above expression is known as Modified Maxwell Law

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8.2 Displacement Current
• Consider a capacitor and outside the plates of the capacitor there is conduction current IC.
• Area between the plates i.e. inside the capacitor there is displacement current I d.
• Physical behaviour of displacement current is same as that of induction current.
• Difference between Conduction current and Displacement current:-
Conduction Current Displacement Current
It arises due to the fixed charges. It arises due to the change in electric field.
• For Static electric fields:-
Id=0.
• For time varying electric fields:-
Id ≠0.
• There can be some scenarios where there will be only conduction current and in some case there will be
only displacement current.
• Outside the capacitor there is only conduction current and no displacement current.
• Inside the capacitor there is only displacement current and no conduction current.
• But there can be some scenario where both conduction as well as displacement current is present i.e. I=
IC + Id.
• Applying modified Ampere-Maxwell law to calculate magnetic field at the same point of the capacitor
considering different amperial loop, the result will be same.

Ampere – Maxwell law: Consequences

Case 1 : Magnetic field is given as

o∫dl = μ0 Ic
o∫dl = μ0 Ic / 2πr
Case 2 : Magnetic field is given as

o ∫dl = μ0 Id
o ∫dl = μ0 Id / 2πr
Conclusion: -
1. The value of B is same in both cases.
2. Total current should be the same.
o Time varying electric field generates magnetic field given by (Ampere-Maxwell law)
o Consider 1st step up there is electric field between the plates and this electric field is varying with time.
o As a result there is displacement current and this displacement current gives rise to magnetic field.
o Time varying magnetic field generates electric field given by (Faraday-Lenz law)

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o Therefore if there is electric field changing with time it generates magnetic field and if there is magnetic
field changing with time it generates electric field.
o Electromagnetic waves are based on the above conclusion.

Maxwell’s Equations
o Maxwell's equations describe how an electric field can generate a magnetic field and vice-versa. These
equations describe the relationship and behaviour of electric and magnetic fields.
o Maxwell gave a set of 4 equations which are known as Maxwell’s equations.
o According to Maxwell equations:-
o A flow of electric current will generate magnetic field and if the current varies with time magnetic field
will also give rise to an electric filed.
o First equation (1) describes the surface integral of electric field.
o Second equation (2) describes the surface integral of magnetic field.
o Third equation (3) describes the line integral of electric field.
o Fourth equation (4) describes line integral of magnetic field.

o Maxwell was the first to determine the speed of propagation of EM waves is same as the speed of light.
Experimentally it was found that:-
𝟏
𝒄 =
√𝝁𝟎 𝝐𝟎
Where μ0(permeability) and ε0(permittivity) and c= velocity of light.
o Maxwell’s equations show that the electricity, magnetism and ray optics are all inter-related to each other.

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8.3 Electromagnetic Waves

• Electromagnetic waves are coupled time varying electric and magnetic fields that propagate in space.
• Electric field is varying with time, and it will give rise to magnetic field, this magnetic field is varying with
time and it gives rise to electric field and the process continues so on.
• These electric and magnetic fields are time varying and coupled with each other when propagating
together in space gives rise to electromagnetic waves.
• In the fig, red line represents the electric field and it varies in the form of a sine wave.
• The magnetic field as shown in the fig. represented by blue line.
• The magnetic field will be a sine wave but in a perpendicular direction to the electric field.
• These both give rise to electromagnetic field.
• If the electric field is along x-axis, magnetic field along y-axis, the wave will then propagate in the z-axis.
• Electric and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation.
• Electric and magnetic fields which is time varying and coupled to each other they give rise to
electromagnetic waves.

8.3.1 Sources of Electromagnetic Waves (EM)

o EM waves are generated by electrically charged particle oscillates (accelerating charges).
o The electric field associated with the accelerating charge vibrates which generates the vibrating magnetic
field.
o These both vibrating electric and magnetic fields give rise to EM waves.

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o If the charge is at rest, electric field associated with the charge will also be static. There will be no
generation of EM waves as electric field is not varying with time.
o When the charge is moving with uniform velocity, then the acceleration is 0. The change in electric field
with time is also constant as a result again there will be no electromagnetic waves generated.
o This shows that only the accelerated charges alone can generate EM waves.
o For example:
o Consider an oscillating charge particle, it will have oscillating electric field and which give rise to
oscillating magnetic field.
o This oscillating magnetic field in turn give rise to oscillating electric field and so on process continues.
o The regeneration of electric and magnetic fields are same as propagation of the wave.
o This wave is known as electromagnetic wave.
o The frequency of EM waves= the frequency of the oscillating particle.
8.3.2 Nature of EM waves
o EM waves are transverse waves.
o The transverse waves are those in which direction of disturbance or displacement in the medium is
perpendicular to that of the propagation of wave.
o The particles of the medium are moving in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
wave.

o In case of EM waves the propagation of wave takes place along x-axis, electric and magnetic fields are
perpendicular to the wave propagation.
o This means wave propagation  x-axis , electric field  y-axis, magnetic field  z-axis.
o Because of this EM waves are transverse waves in nature.
o Electric field of EM wave is represented as:
𝑬𝒚 = 𝑬𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒌𝒙– 𝝎𝒕)
Where Ey= electric field along y-axis and x=direction of propagation of wave.
o Wave number 𝒌 = (𝟐𝝅/𝝀)
o Magnetic field of EM wave is represented as:
𝑩𝒛 = 𝑩𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)
Where BZ = electric field along z-axis and x=direction of propagation of wave.

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8.3.3 Energy of EM wave
o As the EM waves propagate, they carry energy. Because of this property they have so many practical uses
in our day-to-day life.
o Energy in EM wave is partly carried by electric field and partly by magnetic field.
o Mathematically:
o Total energy stored per unit volume in EM wave, ET =Energy stored per unit volume by electric field +
Energy stored per unit volume stored in magnetic field.
1 1
𝐸𝑇 = ( ) (𝐸 2 𝜖0 ) + ( ) (𝐵 2 𝜇0 )
2 2
𝐸
o Experimentally it has been found that the; Speed of the EM wave =Speed of the light 𝑐 = 𝐵
=> B=(E/c)
1 1
∴ 𝐸𝑇 = ( ) (𝐸 2 𝜖0 ) + ( ) (𝐸 2 /𝑐 2 𝜇0 )
2 2
From Maxwell’s equations :-
1
𝑐 =
√ 𝜇0 𝜖 0
1 1 𝐸 2 𝜇0 𝜖 0
∴ 𝐸𝑇 = ( ) (𝐸 2 𝜖0 ) + ( ) ( )
2 2 𝜇0
1 1
𝐸𝑇 = ( ) (𝐸 2 𝜖0 ) + ( ) (𝐸 2 𝜇0 𝜖0 )
2 2
∴ 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸 2 𝜖0

This is the amount of energy carried per unit volume by the EM wave.

8.3.4 Properties of EM waves

1. Velocity of EM waves in free space or vacuum is a fundamental constant.
o Experimentally it was found that the velocity of EM wave is same as speed of light(c=3x10 8m/s).
o The value of c is fundamental constant.
1
𝑐 =
√ 𝜇0 𝜖 0
2. No material medium is necessary for EM waves. But they can propagate within a medium as well.
o EM waves require time varying electric and magnetic fields to propagate.
1
o If the medium is present then velocity 𝑣 =
√𝜇𝜖
Where μ =permeability of the medium and ε=permittivity of the medium.
For example: -Spectacles. When light falls on glass of the spectacle, light rays pass through glass .i.e. Light
waves propagate through medium which is glass here.
3. EM waves carry energy and momentum.
o Total energy stored per unit volume in EM wave, 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸 2 𝜖0 (partly carried by electric field and partly by
magnetic field).
o As EM waves carry energy and momentum, it becomes an important property for its practical purposes.
o EM waves are used for communication purposes, voice communication in mobile phones,
telecommunication used in radio.

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4. EM waves exert pressure. As they carry energy and momentum, they exert pressure. The pressure exerted
by EM waves is known as Radiation pressure.
For example: -
The sunlight which we get from sun is in the form of visible light rays. These light rays are also part of EM
waves. If we keep our palm in sun, after some time, palm becomes warm and starts sweating. This
happens because sunlight is getting transferred in the form of EM waves and these EM waves carry
energy.
Suppose total energy transferred to the hand =E.
Momentum = (E/c) as c is extremely high, therefore momentum is very small. As momentum is very less,
pressure experienced is also very less. This is the reason due to which the pressure exerted by the sun is
not experienced by the hand.

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8.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum
o Electromagnetic spectrum is the classification of EM waves according to their frequency or wavelength.
o Based on the wavelength EM waves are classified into different categories. This classification is known
as electromagnetic spectrum.
o Different categories of EM waves in decreasing order of their wavelength:-
o Radio waves > 0.1m
o Microwaves 0.1 m - 1mm
o Infra-Red 1mm – 700 nm
o Visible light 700nm – 400 nm
o Ultraviolet 400nm- 1nm
o X-rays 1nm – 10-3nm
o Gamma rays <10-3nm
o These 7 waves together constitute the electromagnetic spectrum.
Tip:-
o To remember the order of wavelength of each wave, we can just write the initial letter of all the waves
and they are in the order of decreasing wavelength.
o R (max wavelength), M, I, V, U, X and G (minimum wavelength).
o It can be remembered like this Red Man In Violet Uniform X Gun.

The electromagnetic spectrum, with common names for various part of it. The various regions do not have
sharply defined boundaries.

Electromagnetic energy of each wave in Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Electromagnetic waves energy can be described by frequency, wavelength or energy.
1. Frequency- Both micro and radio waves are described in terms of frequencies.
o Frequency is number of crests that pass a given point within one second.
o Consider a wave which has 3 crests which pass a point in 1 second. Therefore frequency=3Hz.

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 2. Wavelength-Infrared and visible waves are generally described in terms of wavelength.
o Wavelength is the distance between consecutive crests or troughs.
o Wavelength can vary from small value to a large value.
o SI unit: - meter.

3. Energy- X-rays and Gamma rays are described in terms of energies.

o An EM wave can be described in terms of energy –in units of eV.
o eV is the amount of kinetic energy needed to move 1 electron through a potential of 1 volt.

• Moving along the EM spectrum energy increases as the wavelength decreases.

• Relation between Wavelength and Frequency:
c=νλ
Where λ =wavelength and ν= frequency.
=>λ = (c/ν)
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = (ℎ𝑐/𝜆)
=> 𝐸 ∝ 𝜈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 ∝ (1/𝜆)
∴ from EM spectrum
o Decreasing order of wavelength  R, M, I, V, U, X and G
o In terms of increasing order of frequency  G, X, U, V, I, M, and R
8.4.1 Radio Waves
o Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires.
o Important application of radio waves is in:-
i. Radio and television communication systems.
ii. Mobile phones for voice communication.
o In electromagnetic spectrum the wavelength (λ) of radio waves is >0.1m.
o Radio waves are further classified into different bands:-
i. (Amplitude Modulated)AM band 530 kHz to 1710 kHz (lowest frequency band).They are similar to FM
channels.
ii. Short wave band – up to 54MHz
iii. TV waves band – 54MHz to 890MHz
iv. (Frequency Modulated)FM band – 88MHz to 108MHz
v. UHF band- Ultra high frequency(used for voice communication over cell phones)

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8.4.2 Micro Waves
o Micro waves are short wavelength radio waves.
o They are produced by special vacuum tubes (klystrons/magnetrons/Gunn diodes).
o They are used in microwave ovens, and radar system in aircraft navigation.
RADAR Technology:
RADAR- Radio detection and ranging.
Different applications of RADAR:
a) Air traffic control:
For example: - To manage air traffic. The pilot should know any other aeroplane is present nearby or not.
The pilot should know the climatic conditions during take-off and landing.
Radar plays very important role in aircraft navigation.
b) Speed detection:
The instruments which are used to detect the speed of the vehicles which move on the roads uses radar
technology.
c) Military purposes
It helps to detect enemies and weapons.
d) Satellite tracking
In order to track satellites, radar technology is used.
Why Radio waves use micro waves:
o As they use short wavelength waves which are same as micro waves.
o They are invisible to humans. If we are able to see the waves which get transmitted it will be very
irritating.
o Even the smallest presence of microwaves is easy to detect.
Working of Radar Set:-
It consists of:
1. Transmitter: It transmits the microwaves.
2. Receiver: It receives the echo produced by the microwaves when they strike any object. When the receiver
receives the reflected ray then it is possible to track the presence of other object in the vicinity.
Microwave ovens
o The following are the properties because of which microwaves are very useful :-
o They have smaller wavelength.
o They get absorbed by water, fats and sugar.
Working of microwave oven:-
o In order to heat anything uniformly microwave ovens are used.
o Any food material will have water, sugar and fats in it.
o When we heat any food material inside the microwave, the microwaves penetrate inside the food.
o So the microwaves get absorbed by the water and the fat molecules.
o The molecules of the food material will start moving randomly with some frequency.
o This is same as providing some wave to the food material with the same frequency with which the
molecules start vibrating.
o This shows that the frequency of microwave matches with the frequency of the molecules.
o As all the molecules are set in random motion, temperature increases and food material gets heated
uniformly throughout.
o Object can be heated by 2 ways:

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 a) Conduction of heat: It happens when anything is heated over gas burner.
b) Exciting the molecules: This technique is used in microwave oven.

8.4.3 Infrared waves

o Infrared waves often known as heat waves as they are produced by hot bodies.
o Their wavelength is lesser than both radio and micro waves.
o They readily get absorbed by water.
Applications: Infrared lamps/Infrared detector/LED in remote switches of electronic devices/Greenhouse
effect.
For example:
a) Fire gives out both visible light waves and infrared waves. The light rays are visible to us but the infrared
waves cannot be seen by us.
b) Humans also generate some infrared waves.
o There are some special glasses which have infrared detector to view infrared waves.
o The infrared lamps are used to heat food materials and sometimes washrooms.
o When we switch on the TV with the help of remote, there is an LED both on TV and on remote.
o The signal gets transferred from remote to TV via infrared waves.
Greenhouse Effect: Green house effect is an atmospheric heating phenomenon that allows incoming solar
radiation to pass through but blocks the heat radiated back from the Earth’s surface.
o Consider that the sun gives radiation in the form of visible light to the earth.
o When the visible light reaches the earth’s surface all the objects on the earth becomes hot.
o The visible light carries energy from sun and that energy gets transferred to all the objects present on the
earth.
o As a result of heat transfer all the objects gets heated up.
o These hot objects transmit infrared waves.
o The earth will reradiate the infrared waves.
o When these infrared waves try to go out of the atmosphere they get trapped by the greenhouse gases
(CO2, CH4, water vapour).
o As a result heat gets trapped inside the earth which results in an increase in temperature.
o The greenhouse effect makes earth warm because of which the temperature of the earth is suitable for
the survival of life on earth.
o Global warming is due to an increase in temperature of the environment, due to pollution.

8.4.4 Visible or Light rays

o Light waves are the most common form of EM wave.
o Their wavelength range is 4x1014 Hz-7x1014
o We are able to see everything because of light rays.
o The radiation which we get from sun is in the form of visible light.
o Most of the insects have compound eyes due to which they see not only the visible light but also the
ultraviolet rays.
o Snakes can even see the infrared rays.

8.4.5 Ultraviolet rays(UV rays)

It covers wavelengths ranging from about 4 × 10–7 m (400 nm) down to 6 × 10–10m (0.6 nm).
o The UVrays are produced by special lamps and very hot bodies (sun).
o UV rays have harmful effects on humans.
o UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.

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o For example:-
o When UV rays fall on the skin of humans then it leads to the production of a pigment called melamine
which causes tanning of the skin.
o In order to protect from UV rays glasses are used, as they get absorbed by the glasses.
o UV rays help in LASER assisted eye surgery. As UV rays have very short wavelength so they can be focused
into narrow beam of light.
o The ozone layer which is present outside the atmosphere protects us from the harmful UV rays.
o Ozone has a property of reflecting the harmful UV rays. But due to the use of CFC (chlorofluorocarbon)
ozone layer is depleting. So if ozone layer gets depleted humans will get exposed to harmful UV rays
coming from the sun.
8.4.6 X-Rays
o X-Rays are produced by bombarding a metal target by high energy electrons.
o It is very important diagnostic tool.
o X-Rays have lesser wavelengths as compared to all other waves.
o Because of this X-Rays can easily penetrate inside the skin (low density material). It either gets
reflected or absorbed by the high density material (like bone).
o In any X-Ray, bones look darker and lighter area is skin.
o It is also used for cancer treatment.
o In cancer there is unwanted growth of the cells.
o In order to treat cancer the abnormal growth of cells should be stopped.
o The X-Rays have the ability to damage the living tissue.
This is how it helps in the treatment of cancer

8.4.7 Gamma Rays

o Gamma rays are produced in the nuclear reactions and also emitted by radioactive nuclei.
o It is also used in the treatment of the cancer.
o Gamma rays also have very small wavelength. So they help to kill the growth of unwanted living cells
which grow when the body is suffering from cancer.

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 ROTATION MOTION

ROTATIONAL MOTION

1. KINEMATICS OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES It is always along the axis of the motion.

(c) Angular Acceleration
1.1 System of particles can move in different ways as observed
Angular acceleration of an object about any point is rate of
by us in daily life. To understand that we need to understand
change of angular velocity about that point.
few new parameters.
(a) Angular Displacement A
A B
Consider a particle moves from A to B in the following figures. B

A
A B
B

d d
 
O O dt dt
2
Angle is the angular displacement of particle about O. Units  Rad/s
Units  radian It is a vector quantity. If  is constant then similarly to
(b) Angular Velocity equation of motion (i.e.)
The rate of change of angular displacement is called as  t are related  = 0 + t
angular velocity.
1
A   0 t  t 2
2
A B
B
f2  02  2
1.2 Various types of motion

(a) Translational Motion

System is said to be in translational motion, if all the particles
lying in the system have same linear velocity.
O
O Example

d d
 
dt dt

Units  Rad/s
It is a vector quantity whose direction is given by right
hand thumb rule.
According to right hand thumb rule, if we curl the fingers of
right hand along with the body, then right hand thumb gives
Motion of a rod as shown.
us the direction of angular velocity.
 ROTATION MOTION

Example
vp
P
a
r
O

Motion of body of car on a straight rod.

In both the above examples, velocity of all the particles is   
v p   r
same as they all have equal displacements in equal intervals
   
of time. a    r  2 r
(b) Rotational Motion Example
A system is said to be in pure rotational motion, when all the B vB
points lying on the system are in circular motion about one
common fixed axis.
A
L
B
L/2
A
C B
O
O A
B L
A vB = L and v A  , with directions as shown in figure.
D 2
O B
A Now in rotational + translational motion, we just superimpose
velocity and acceleration of axis on the velocity and
In pure rotational motion.
acceleration of any point about the axis. (i.e.)
Angular velocity of all the points is same about the fixed
P
axis.
(c) Rotational + Translational
A system is said to be in rotational + translational motion, Q O v
when the particle is rotating with some angular velocity j
about a movable axis.
For example : i

vPO  Riˆ

v v v0  v ˆi
O
  
 v P  v0  v PO
  
 v P  v PO  v O
v = velocity of axis.
 = Angular velocity of system about O. R  viˆ

1.3 Inter Relationship between kinematics variable Similarly v QO  Rjˆ
In general if a body is rotating about any axis (fixed or 
v0  v ˆi
movable), with angular velocity  and angular acceleration
 then velocity of any point p with respect to axis is 
 v Q  v ˆi  R ˆj
      
v   r and a    r  2 r .
Inter-relation between v of axis and  or a of axis and 
i.e., depends on certain constraints.
ROTATION MOTION

General we deal with the case of no slipping or pure rolling. Torque  = rf sin  about a point O.
Where r = distance from the point O to point of application
of force.
v f= force
O No slipping
 
 = angle between r and f

vP Platform
A f
The constraint in the above case is that velocity of points
of contact should be equal for both rolling body and
playfrom. r

(i.e.) v – r = vP
If platform is fixed then  Torque about O.
 A is point of application of force.
vP = 0  v  r
Magnitude of torque can also be rewritten as
An differentiating the above term we get
  rf  or   r f where
dv r d f  = component of force in the direction  to r .
 .
dt dt

r = component of force in the direction  to f .
dv
Now if a Direction :
dt
v Direction of torque is given by right hand thumb rule. If we
a 
d curl the fingers of right hand from first vector  r  to second

dt 

vector f then right hand thumb gives us direction of their
then a  r cross product.
 Torque is always defined about a point or about an axis.
Remember if acceleration is assumed opposite to velocity
 When there are multiple forces, the net torque needs to be
dv dv
then a   instead of a  . calculated, (i.e.)
dt dt   
net  F  F  ........... F
1 2 n

d
Similary : If  and  are in opposite direction the    . All torque about same point/axis.
dt
If    0, then the body is in rotational equilibrium.
Accordingly the constraints can change depending upon
the assumptions.  If  F  0 along with    0 , then body is in mechanical
equilibrium.
2. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS  If equal and opp. force act to produce same torque then
they constitutes a couple.
2.1 Torque
 For calculating torque, it is very important to find the eff.
Similar to force, the cause of rotational motion is a physical point of application of force.
quantity called a torque.  Mg  Acts at com/centre of gravity..
Torque incorporates the following factors.
 Amount of force.
 Point of application of force.
 Direction of application of force.  N  Point of application depends upon situation to
Combining all of the above. situation.
 ROTATION MOTION

2.2 Newtwon’s Laws

   I.
 I = moment of Inertia
r
  = Angular Acceleration. 2m

2.3 Moment of Inertia

 Gives the measure of mass distribution about on axis.

 I   m i ri2
th
ri  distance of the i mass from axis. axis
 Always defined about an axis.
I axis   r 2 dm

3. MOMENT OF INERTIA
r1
M1 3.1 Moment of inertia of Continuous Bodies
r4 r2
M4 M2 When the distribution of mass of a system of particle is continuous,
r3 the discrete sum I   m i ri2 is replaced by an integral. The
M3
moment of inertia of the whole body takes the form

r
2
I dm

I  M1r12  M 2 r22  M 3 r32  M 4 r42

2
 SI units  kgm
 Gives the measure of rotational inertia and is equavalent to r dm
mass.
(a) Moment of Inertia of a discreet particle system :

M1 Keep in mind that here the quantity r is the perpendicular distance

to an axis, not the distance to an origin. To evaluate this integral,
r1 r2 we must express m in terms of r.

M2
Comparing the expression of rotational kinetic energy with
2
1/2 mv , we can say that the role of moment of inertia (I) is
same in rotational motion as that of mass in linear motion. It
r3 is a measure of the resistance offered by a body to a change
axis in its rotational motion.
M3
3.2 Moment of Inertia of some important bodies
I  M1r12  M 2 r22  M3 r32
(b) Continuous Mass Distribution 1. Circular Ring
For continuous mass distribution, we need to take help of Axis passing through the centre and perpendicular to the plane
integration : of ring.
 ROTATION MOTION
2
I = MR (b) Axis passing through an end and perpendicular to the
rod:
axis R
M 2
I
3

2. Hollow Cylinder
2
I = MR

3.3 Theorems on Moment of Inertia

hollow
1. Parallel Axis Theorem : Let Icm be the moment of inertia
of a body about an axis through its centre of mass and Let Ip be
axis the moment of inertia of the same body about another axis which
is parallel to the original one.
3. Solid Cylinder and a Disc
If d is the distance between these two parallel axes and M
About its geometrical axis : is the mass of the body then according to the parallel axis theorem :
1
I MR 2 ICM
2 IP

d
solid

CM P
axis

4. (a) Solid Sphere 2

Ip = Icm + Md
Axis passing through the centre :
2
2. Perpendicular Axis Theorem :
I = 2/5 MR
Consider a plane body (i.e., a plate of zero thickness) of mass M.
Let X and Y axes be two mutually perpendicular lines in the plane
of the body. The axes intersect at origin O.

Z
(b) Hollow Sphere
Axis passing through the centre : Y
2
I = 2/3 MR
5. Thin Rod of length l : X
(a) Axis passing through mid point and perpendicular to the
length :
Let Ix = moment of inertia of the body about X–axis.
Let Iy = moment of inertia of the body about Y–axis.
The moment of inertia of the body about Z–axis (passing through
O and perpendicular to the plane of the body) is given by :
Iz = Ix + Iy
M 2
I The above result is known as the perpendicular axis theorem.
12
 ROTATION MOTION

3.4 Radius of Gyration (compare with linear momentum p = mv in linear motion)

L is also a vector and its direction is same as that of  (i.e. clockwise
If M is the mass and I is the moment of inertia of a rigid body, then
or anticlockwise)
the radius of gyration (k) of a body is given by :
We knows,
I  
k L  I
M
 
dL d 
4. ANGULAR MOMENTUM (L) AND IMPULSE I  I  = 
dt dt net

4.1 Angular Momentum 4.2 Conservation of angular momentum


(a) For a particle If  net  0
Angular momentum about origin (O) is given as : 
dL
      0
L  r  p  r   mv  dt

where r = position vector of the particle ; v = velocity  L = constant
 
y  Lf  Li

4.3 Angular Impulse

v
A  

r 
J   dt  L

r 5. WORK AND ENERGY

x
O
5.1 Work done by a Torque
 L = mv r sin  = mv (OA) sin  = mvr
Consider a rigid body acted upon by a force F at perpendicular
where r = perpendicular distance of velocity vector from O. distance r from the axis of rotation. Suppose that under this force,
(b) For a particle moving in a circle the body rotates through an angle .

For a particle moving in a circle of radius r with a speed v, its linear Work done = force × displacement
momentum is mv, its angular momentum (L) is given as : W = F r. 

L  mvr  mvr W = 

Work done = (torque) × (angular displacement)

mv dW d
Power    
r dt dt

5.2 Kinetic Energy

(c) For a rigid body (about a fixed axis) Rotational kinetic energy of the system
L = sum of angular momentum of all particles
1 1
 m1 v12  m 2 v 22  ......
= m1v1r1 + m2v2r2 + m3v3r3 + ...... 2 2

 m1r12   m 2 r22   m 3 r32   ...... (v = r) 1 1

 m1r12 2  m 2 r22 2  .........
2 2
 
 m1r12  m 2 r22  m 3 r32  ......   L = I
 ROTATION MOTION


1
2
 
m1r22  mr22  m 3 r32  ......... 2 (ii) K 
1 
Icm 2  MVcm
2

2 2
1 2
Hence rotational kinetic energy of the system = I
2
M
The total kinetic energy of a body which is moving through space cm Vcm
as well as rotating is given by : A
K = Ktranslational + Krotational P

1 2 1 where (a) IP = Icm + MR2 (parallel axes theorem)

K MVCM  I CM 2
2 2
(b) Vcm = R [pure] rolling condition.
where VCM = velocity of the centre of mass 4. Forward Slipping
ICM = moment of inertia about CM
 = angular velocity of rotation H
v v+
6. ROLLING v + C = v
L
1. Friction is responsible for the motion but work done or v f v–
v=0
dissipation of energy against friction is zero as there is Translation Rotation Rolling (Sliding)
no relative motion between body and surface at the point
of contact. The bottom most point slides in the forward direction w.r.t.
2. In case of rolling all point of a rigid body have same angular ground, so friction force acts opposite to velocity at lowest
speed but different linear speed. The linear speed is point i.e. opposite to direction of motion e.g. When sudden
maximum for the point H while minimum for the point L. brakes are applied to car its ‘v’ remain same while ‘r’
decreases so its slides on the ground.
H H H 5. Backward Slipping
v v+
C v + C = C v
L v v+
v v–
L L v + v
=
Translation Rotation Pure Rolling
v –v f
v=0
3. Condition for pure rolling : (without slipping)
Translation Rotation Rolling (Sliding)

The bottom most point slides in the backward direction

Vcm w.r.t. ground, so friction force acts opposite to velocity
(i) A i.e. friction will act in the direction of motion e.g. When
B car starts on a slippery ground, its wheels has small ‘v’
but large ‘r’ so wheels slips on the ground and friction
general (when surface is moving) acts against slipping.
in terms of velocity : Vcm –R = VB 6.1 Rolling and sliding motion on an inclined plane
in terms of rotation : acm – R = aB
special case (when VB = 0)
in terms of velocity : Vcm = R
in terms of acceleration : acm  R h h
(ii) Total KE of Rolling body :

1 Pure Rolling Sliding

(i) K  I P 2 OR
2
 ROTATION MOTION

Physical Quantity Rolling Sliding Falling

Velocity VR  2gh  /  VS  2 gh VF  2 gh

Acceleration aR = g sin / aS = g sin  aF = g

Time of descend t R  1 / sin  2h / g  t S  1 / sin  2h / g t F  2h / g

(where  = [1 + I/Mr2])

 Velocity of falling and sliding bodies are equal and is more than rollings.
 Acceleration is maximum in case of falling and minimum in case of rolling.
 Falling body reaches the bottom first while rolling last.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

tF
1. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
212
In this topic, we discuss various phenomenas involving

Temperature (°F)
thermal and how does a matter behave on experiencing the
flow of thermal energy. Primarily we study tF=180

• Thermal Expansion
• Heat & Clariometry
• Heat Transfer
O
1.1 Temperature and Heat Temperature (°C) 100 tC

Temperature : Temperature is a relative measure of hotness 1.2.2 Absolute Temperature Scale

or coldness of a body.
It is kelvin scale
SI Unit : Kelvin (k)
Ice point  273.15 K
Commonly Used Unit : °C or °F
Steam point  373.15 K
Conversion : t(k) = t°C + 273.15
Comparing it with the celcius scale, number of scale division
Heat : Heat is a form of energy flow (i) between two bodies
in both the scales is same.
or (ii) between a body and its surroundings by virtue of
temperature difference between them t c  0C t k  273.15

SI Unit : Joule (J) 100 100
Commonly Used Unit : Calorie (Cal) • Kelvin scale is called as absolute scale, because it is
Conversion : 1cal = 4.186 J practically impossible to go beyond OK in the negative
• Heat always flows from a higher temperature system side.
to a lower temperature & system. Steam
373.15 K 100°C 212.0°C
Point
1.2 Measurement of Temperature
Ice
273.15 K 0°C 0°C
Principle : Observation of Thermometric property with the Point
change in temperature and comparing it with certain
reference situations.
• Reference situation is generally ice point or steam point. Absolute
OK –27315°C –27315°C
zero
1.2.1 Celcius and Fahrenheit Temperature Scales Kelvin Scale Celcius Scale Fahrenheit Scale

In Celsius Scale In Fahrenheit Scale 1K 1°C 1.8°F

Ice point  0°C Ice point  32°F Comparison of Temperature Scales

Steam point  1000°C Steam point  212°F
1.2.3 Thermometers
It implies that 100 division in celcius scales is equivalent to
Instrument used to measure temperature of any system is
180 scale divisions in fahrenheit scale.
called as thermometer.
t f  32 t Examples : Liquid in Glass thermometer, Platinum Resistance
Hence   c
180 100 Thermometer, Constant Volume Gas Thermometers.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Liquid in Glass thermometer and Platinum Resistance • All gases converge to absolute zero at zero pressure.
thermometer give uniform readings for ice point & steam point
but go non uniform for different liquids and different materials. 1.3 Thermal Expansion
• Constant volume gas thermometer gives same readings
It is widely observed, that most materials expand on heating
respective of which gas. It is based on the fact that at low
and contract on colling.
pressures and constant volume, P × T for a gas.
This expansion is in all dimensions.
Pressure
Experimentaly it has been observed that fractional change
Gas A
in any dimension is proportional to the change in
temperature.
Gas B

–273.15°C 0°C Temperature

(°C)

x
 KT constant (k)
x

L
Linear Expansion   T Coefficient of Linear expansion () :
L
Increase in length per unit length per degree rise in temp.
L

A
Area Expension   T Coefficient of Area Expansion () :
A
L
Increase in area per unit area per degree rise in temp.

V
Volume Expansion   T Coefficient of volume expansion () :
V
Increase in area per unit volume per degree rise in temp.

V

Units of ,, = /°C or /K

• In general with change in volume the density will also
6
change.
•  for metals generally higher than  for non-metals –5
r(10 K )
–1

• is nearly constant at high temperatures but all low temp

it depends on temp.
250 500
T(K)
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Coefficient of volume expansion of Cu as a function of we know

temperature.
V
• For ideal gases  is inversely propertional to temp. at  T  compressive strain
V
constant pressure
nRT V T ol
v   Also    Thermal stress
P V T V
 T  T ...(3)
 
T
• Practical applications in railway tracks metal tyres of cart
• As an exception, water contracts on heating from 0°C to
wheels, bridges and so many other applications.
4°C andhence its density increases from 0°C to 4°C. Thus
is called as anamolous expansion 1.4 Heat & Calorimetry

When two systems at different temperatures are connected

1 gm/cc
together then heat flows from higher temperature to lower
Density
temperature till the time their temperatures do not become
same.
Principle of calorimetry states that, neglecting heat loss to
surroundings, heat lost by a body at higher temperature is
4°C 4°C equal heat gained by a body at lower temperature.
(a) (b)
heat gained = heat lost
• In general Whenever heat is given to any body, either its temperature
changes or its state changes.
3
  3  
2 1.4.1 Change in Temperature
Proof : Imagine a cube of length, l that expands equally in When the temp changes on heating,
all directions, when its temperature increases by small T; Then
We have Heat supplied change in temp (T)
l = lT amount of substance (m/n)
Also nature of substance (s/C)
3 3 3 2 2 2 3
V = (l l) – l = l + 3l l + 3ll + l – l  H = msT
2
= 3l l ...(1) m = Mass of body
2 3
In Equation (1) we ignore 3ll & l as l is very small as s = specific heat capacity per kg
compared to l.
T = Change in temp
So
or H = nCT
3V V n = Number of moles
V  l = 3VT [Using  l2 ] ...(2)
l l
C = Specific/Molar heat Capacity per mole
V
 3T T = Change in temp
 V
• Specific Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise
  = 3 the temperature of unit mass of the substance through one
degree.
Similarly we can prove for area expansion coefficient
Units
• In case, thermal expansion is prevented inside the rod by
fixing its ends rigidly, then the rod acquires a compressive SI  J/KgK SH Oe = 1 cal/g°C
2
strain due to external fones at the ends corresponding stress
set up in the rod is called thermal stress. Common  Cal/gC° SH O ice = 0.5 cal/g°C
2
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Molar Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise the On heating.

temperature of unit mole of the substance through one degree Step - 1 : Temp changes to 0°C first
Units Step - 2 : Ice melts to H2O(l) keeping the temp constant
SI  J/mol K Step - 3 : Temp. inverses to 100°C
Common  Cal/gc° Step - 4 : H2O(l) boils to steam keeping the temp constant
• Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise the Step - 5 : Further temp increases
temperature of a system through one degree
 H = ST Temp

where S = Heat Capacity

Units
SI  J/K
Common  Cal/C°
• For H2O specific heat capacity does change but fairly very Heat
less.
• The slope is inversely proportional to heat capacity.
• Materials with higher specific heat capacity require a lot of
• Length of horizontal line depends upon mL for the process.
heat for some a given in temperature
1.4.3 Pressure dependence on melting point and boiling point
1.4.2 Change in state
• For some substance melting point decreases with increases
When the phase changes on heating
pressure and for other melting point increases
Then
• Melting poing increases with increase in temperature. We
Heat supplied  amount of substance which changes the can observe the above results through phaser diagrams.
state (M)
 nature of substance (L) P B P B
(atm) (atm)
 H = mL C C
Liq Liq
Where L = Latent Heat of process Solid Solid

• Latent Heat : Amount of heat required per mass to change O Vapour O Vapour
the state of any substance.
A A
T(°C) T(°C)
Units For H2O For CO2
SI  J/Kg
Common  Cal/g Line AO  Sublimation curve
• The change in state always occurs at a constant Line OB  Fusion curve
temperature. Line OC  Vapourization curve
For example Point O  Triple Point
Solid  Liq Lf Point C  Critical temperature
Triple Point : The combination pressure and temperature
Liq  Gas Lv at which all three states of matter (i.e. solids, liquids gases
Lf = Latent Heat of fusion co-exist.
Lv = Latent heat of vaporization For H2O it is at 273.16K and 0.006 Atm.
• In case any material is not at its B.P or M.P, then on heating Critical Point : The combination of pressure & temp
the temperature will change till the time a particular state beyond which a vapour cannot be liquified is called as
change temperature reaches. critical point.
For Example : If water is initially at –50°C at 1 Atm pressure Corresponding temperature, pressure are called as critical
in its solid state. temperature & critical pressure.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• From the phasor diagram, we can see that melting point • Larger the thermal conductivity, the greater will be rate of
decreases with increases in pressure for H2O. heat energy flow for a given temperature difference.
Based on this is the concept of reglation. • Kmetals > Knon metals
Reglation : The phenomena of refreezing of water melted • Thermal conductivity of insulators is very low. Therefore,
below the normal melting point due to addition of pressure. air does not let the heat energy to be conducted very easily.
• It is due to this pressure effect on melting point that cooking • For combinations of rods between two ends kept at different
is tough on mountains and lasier in pressure cooker. temperatures, we can use the concept of equivalent thermal
conductivity of the composite rod.
1.5 Heat Transfer
For example :
There are three modes of heat transfer.
• Conduction
T1 L1, K 1, A L2, K 2, A T2  T1 Leq, 2L, A T2
• Convection
• Radiation

1.5.1 Conduction where Keq for equivalent thermal conductivity of the

compositive.
Thermal conduction is the process in which thermal energy
is transferred from the hotter part of a body to the colder T C
 TD 
• The term in the above equation is called as
one or from hot body to a cold body in contact with it L
without any transference of material particles. Temperature Gradient.
TC > TD Temperature Gradient : The fall in temperature per unit
TC TD
L length in the direction of flow of heat energy is called as
Temperature Gradient
A
Units
Direction of
heat flow SI  K/m
• The term Q, (i.e.) rate of flow of heat energy can also be
At steady state,
named as heat current
The rate of heat energy flowing through the rod becomes
• The term (L/KA) is called as thermal resistance of any
constant.
conducting rod.
T  TD  Thermal Resistance : Obstruction offered to the flow of
This is rate Q  kA
C
...(i) heat current by the medium
L
for uniform cross-section rods Units  K/W

where Q = Rate of heat energy flow (J/s or W) 1.5.2 Convection

2
A = Area of cross-section (m ) The process in which heat is transferred from one point to
TCTD = Temperature of hot end and cold end respectively another by the actual movement of the heated material
(°C or K) particles from a place at higher temperature to another place
L = Length of the rod (m) of lower temperature is called as thermal convection.

K = coefficient of thermal conductivity
Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity : It is defined as
amount of heat conducted during steady state in unit time
through unit area of any cross-section of the substance
under unit temperature gradient, the heat flow being normal
to the area.
Units
SI  J/mSk or W/mK.
• If the medium is forced to move with the help of a fan or a
pump, it is called as forced convection.
If the material moves because of the differences in density
of the medium, the process is called natural or free
convection.
• Examples of forced convection
Circulatory system, cooling system of an automobile heat
connector
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Examples of natural convection On integrating

Trade winds, Sea Breeze/Land Breeze, Monsoons Burning log (T2 – T2) = –Kt + C
of Tea. or T2 = T1 + C1e
–Kt
where C1 = e
c
...(6)
1.5.3 Radiation equation (6) enables you to calculate the time of cooling of
a body through a particular range of temperature.
It is a process of transmission of heat in which heat travels
directly from one place to another without the agency of
any intervening medium.
T
• This radiation of heat energy occurs in the form of EM (°C) log
(T2–T1)
waves.
• These radiators are emitted by virtue of its temperature, like
the radiation by a red hot iron or light from a filament lamp.
Time (minute) Time
• Every body radiates energy as well as absorbs energy from
surroundings. • For small temp diff, the rate of cooling, due to conduction,
• The proportion of energy absorbed depends upon the colour convection & radiation combined is proportional to
of the body. difference in temperature.
(a) Newtons Law of cooling • Approximation : If a body cools from Ta to TB in t times in
medium where surrounding temp is T0, then
Newton’s Law of cooling states that, the rate of loss of heat
d Ta  Tb  T  Tb 
of the body is directly proportional to the differenct of  K a  T0 
dt t  2 
temp difference
• Newton’s Law of cooling can be verified experimentally.
 ds
Now  k  T2  T1  ...(4)
dt
T2 T1
where k is a positive constant depending upon area and
nature of the surface of the body. Suppose a body of mass loge (T2-T1)
m, specific heat capacity s is at temperature T 2 & T1 be the
temp of surroundings if dT2 the fall of temperature in time
C
dt. V
Amount of heat lost is
t
dcs = msdT2 (a) (b)
 Rate of loss of heat is given by

dcs dT Set Up : A double walled vessel (v) containng water in

 ms 2 ...(5) between two walls.
dt dt
A copper calorimeter (c) containing hot water placed inside
From Equation 4 and 5
the double walled vessel. Two thermometers through the
dT2 carbs are used to not the temperature T 2 of H 2O in
 ms  k  T2  T1 
dt calorimeter T 1 of water in between the double walls
respectively.
dT2 k Experiment : The temperature of hot water in the calorimeter
  dt   Kdt
T2  T1 ms after equal intervals of time.
Result : A graph is plotted between log (T2 – T1) and time
k (t). The nature of the graph is observed to be a straight line
where K 
ms as it should be from Newton’s law of cooling.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

1. ELECTRIC CURRENT 3. DRIFT VELOCITY

“The flow of charge in a definite direction constitutes the G G G G

“If u1 , u2 , u3 , ...u n are random thermal velocities of n free
electric current and the time rate of flow of charge through
electrons in the metal conductor, then the average thermal
any cross-section of a conductor is the measure of current”.
velocity of electrons is
i.e.,
G G G G
u1  u  u3  ...  u n G
net charge flown q dq 0
Electric current , I= n
time taken t dt
As a result, there will be no net flow of electrons of charge
1. Though the “electric current represents the direction of flow
in one particular direction in a metal conductor, hence no
of positive charge”.
current”.
2. Yet it is treated as a scalar quantity.
“Drift velocity is defined as the average velocity with which
3. Current follows, the laws of scalar addition and not the laws
the free electrons get drifted towards the positive end of
of vector addition.
the conductor under the influence of an external electric
4. Because the angle between the wires carrying currents does
field applied”.
not affect the total current in the circuit.
–4 –1
1. The drift velocity of electons is of the order of 10 ms .
2. CURRENT CARRIERS 2. If V is the potential difference applied across the ends of the
conductor of length l, the magnitude of electric field set up is
(a) Current carriers in solid conductors :
1. In solid conductors like metals, the valence electrons of the Potential difference V
E
atoms do not remain attached to individual atoms but are length A
free to move throughout the volume of the conductor.
2. Under the effect of an external electric field, the valence
electrons move in a definite direction causing electric current
in the conductors.
3. Thus, valence electrons are the current carriers in solid
conductors.
(b) Current carriers in liquids :
1. In an electrolyte like CuSO4, NaCl etc., there are positively 3. Each free electrons in the conductor experience a force,
 
and negatively charged ions (like Cu , SO , Na , Cl ).   G G
4 F e E.
2. These are forced to move in definite directions under the 4. The acceleration of each electron is
effect of an external electric field, causing electric current. G
3. Thus, in liquids, the current carriers are positively and G eE
a .
negatively charged ions. m
(c) Current carriers in gases : 5. At any instant of time, the velocity acquired by electron
G
1. Ordinarily, the gases are insulators of electricity. having thermal velocity u1 will be
2. They can be ionized by applying a high potential difference G G G
v1 u1  aW1
at low pressure
3. Thus, positive ions and electrons are the current carriers in where W1 is the time elapsed since it has suffered its last
gases. collision with ion/atom of the conductor.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

6. Similarly, the velocities acquired by other electrons in the

“ The drift velocity of electrons is small because of the frequent
conductor will be collisions suffered by electrons.
G G G G G G G G G
v 2 u 2  aW 2 , v3 u 3  aW3 , ....., v n u n  aW n . “ The small value of drift velocity produces a large amount of
electric current, due to the presence of extremely large
7. The average velocity of all the free electrons in the conductor
number of free electrons in a conductor. The propagation of
under the effect of external electric field is the drift velocity
G current is almost at the speed of light and involves
vd of the free electrons. electromagnetic process. It is due to this reason that the
G G G electric bulb glows immediately when switch is on.
G v  v 2  ...  v n
Thus, v d “ In the absence of electric field, the paths of electrons between
n
successive collisions are straight line while in presence of
G G G G G G electric field the paths are generally curved.
u  aW1  u 2  aW 2  ... u n  aWn
n NA x d
“ Free electron density in a metal is given by n
G G G A
§ u1  u 2  ...  u n · G W  W2  ...  W n G G
¨ ¸a 0  aW aW where N A = Avogrado number, x = number of free
© n ¹ n
electrons per atom, d = density of metal and A = Atomic
weight of metal.
W  W2  ...  Wn
where, W = average time that has elapsed 1. Mobility of charge carrier (P), responsible for current is
n
defined as the magnitude of drift velocity of charge per unit
since each electron suffered its last collision with the ion/
electic filed applied, i.e.,
atom of conductor and is called average relaxation time.
8.
–14
Its value is the order of 10 second. drift velocity vd qEW/m qW
P
G electric field E E m
9. Putting the value of a in the above relation, we have
G e We
G e EW 2. Mobility of electron, Pe
vd me
m
3. The total current in the conducting material is the sum of
eE the currents due to positive current carriers and negative
Average drift speed, vd W
m current carriers.
G
The negative sign show that vd is opposite to the direction vd Pe E
2 –1 –1 –1 –1
G 4. SI unit of mobility is m S V or ms N C
of E .
3.3 Relation between current and Drift Velocity
3.1 Relaxation time (W)

The time interval between two successive collisions of 1. Consider a conductor (say a copper wire) of length l and of
electrons with the positive ions in the metallic lattice is defined uniform area of cross-section
? Volume of the conductor = Al.
mean free path O
as relaxation time W . With 2. If n is the number density of electrons, i.e., the number of
r.m.s. velocity of electrons v rms
free electrons perunit volume of the conductor, then total
rise in temperature vrms increases consequently W decreases. number of free electrons in the conducture = Aln.

3.2 Mobility 3. Then total charge on all the free electrons in the conductor,

Drift velocity per unit electric field is called mobility of electron i.e. q AAne
4. The electric field set up across the conductor is given by
vd m2
P It’s unit is E = V/l (in magnitude)
E volt  sec
5. Due to this field, the free electrons present in the conductor
“ If cross-section is constant, I v J i.e. for a given cross-sectional will begin to move with a drift velocity vd towards the left
area, greater the current density, larger will be current. hand side as shown in figure
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

V mA
or = R = a constant for a given conductor for a
I A n e2 W
given value of n, l and at a given temperature. It is known as
the electrical resistance of the conductor.
Thus, V = RI

6. Time taken by the free electrons to cross the conductors, this is Ohm’s law.
t = l/vd (1) Ohm’s law is not a universal law, the substances, which
q AAne obey ohm’s law are known as ohmic substance.
Hence, current, dI
t A (2) Graph between V and i for a metallic conductor is a straight
t
vd line as shown. At different temperatures V-i curves are
different.
or I A n e vd

§ e EW ·
7. Putting the value of vd ¨ ¸ , we have
© m ¹

Ane 2 WE
I
m

4. OHM’S LAW
(A) Slope of the line (B) Here tanT1 > tanT2
Ohm’s law states that the current (I) flowing through a
V
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference = tan T R So, R1 > R2 i.e., T1 > T2
i
(V) across the ends of the conductor”.
(3) The device or substances which don’t obey ohm’s law
e.g. gases, crystal rectifiers, thermoionic valve, transistors
etc. are known as non-ohmic or non-linear conductors.
For these V-i curve is not linear.

V 1
Static resistance R st
i tan T

'V 1
i.e., I v V or V v I or V = RI Dynamic resistance R dyn
'I tan I

V
or R constant
I

4.1 Deduction of Ohm’s law

eE
We know that v d W
m

eV 5. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
But E = V/l ? v d W
mA
“The electrical resistance of a conductor is the obstruction
Also, I = A n e vd
posed by the conductor to the flow of electric current
§ eV · § A n e2 W · through it”.
? I = An e ¨ W¸ ¨ ¸V
© mA ¹ © mA ¹ 1. i.e., R = V/I
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

(vi) Resistivity increases with impurity and mechanical stress.

volt
2. The SI unit of electrical resistance is ohm or . (vii) Magnetic field increases the resistivity of all metals except
amp
iron, cobalt and nickel.
3. Dimensions of electric resistance (viii) Resistivity of certain substances like selenium, cadmium,
sulphides is inversely proportional to intensity of light
Pot. diff. work done/charge falling upon them.
current current
V mA m A
3. We have, R u
2
ML T / AT2 I Ane2 W ne W A
2
ª¬ M1 2 T 3 A 2 º¼
A
A
comparing the above relation with the relation, R U .
5.1 Electrical, Resistivity or Specific Resistance A
4. We have, the resistivity of the material of a conductor,
“The resistance of a conductor depends upon the following
factors : m
U
(i) Length (l) : The resistance (R) of a conductor is directly ne2 W
proportional to its length (l), i.e., R v l
(ii) Area of cross-section (A) : The resistance (R) of a 5.3 Conductivity
conductor is inversely proportional to the area of cross- 1
section (A). of the conductor, i.e., R v 1/A Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity (V) i.e. V with
U
(iii) The resistance of conductor also depends upon the nature unit mho/m and dimensions [M 1 L3 T 3 A 2 ] .
of material and temperature of the conductor.
5.4 Conductance
A UA
From above ; R v or R .” 1
A A Reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance. C It’ss
R
U)
5.2 Resistivity (U 1
unit is or :–1 or “Siemen”.
:
1 Where U is constant of proportionality and is known as
specific resistance or electrical resistivity of the material of
the conductor
2. Specific resistance (or electrical resistivity) of the material
of a conductor is defined as the resistance of a unit length
with unit areas of cross section of the material of the
conductor.
(i) Unit and dimension : It’s S.I. unit is ohm × m and
5.5 Stretching of Wire
dimension is [ML3T–3A–2]
If a conducting wire stretches, it’s length increases, area of cross-
m
(ii) It’s formula : U section decreases so resistance increases but volume remain
ne 2 W constant.
(iii) Resistivity is the intrinsic property of the substance. It is Suppose for a conducting wire before stretching it’s length = l1,
independent of shape and size of the body (i.e. l and A). area of cross–section = A1, radius = r1, diameter = d1, and
(iv) For different substances their resistivity is also different l1
e.g. Usilver = minimum = 1.6 u 10 –8 : -m and resistance = R1 U
A1
Ufused quartz = maximum | 1016 : -m
Uinsulator ! Ualloy ! Usemi -conductor ! Uconductor
(Maximum for fused quartz) (Minimum for silver )

(v) Resistivity depends on the temperature. For metals

Ut U 0 (1  D't) i.e. resitivity increases with temperature.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Volume remains constant i.e., A1l1 = A2l2 3. Semiconductors : These are those material whose electrical
After stretching length = l2, area of cross-section = A2, conductivity lies inbetween that of insulators and conductors.
Semiconductors can conduct charges but not so easily as is
l
radius = r2, diameter = d2 and resistance R2 U 2 in case of conductors. When a small potential difference is
A2 applied across the ends of a semiconductor, a weak current
Ratio of resistances before and after stretching flows through semiconductor due to motion of electrons and
holes.
2 2 4 4
R1 l1 A 2 § l1 · § A2 · § r2 · § d 2 · Examples of semiconductors are germanium, silicon etc.
= × =¨ ¸ =¨ ¸ =¨ ¸ =¨ ¸
R 2 l2 A1 © l2 ¹ © A1 ¹ © r1 ¹ © d1 ¹ The value of elecrical resistance R increases with rise of
temperature.
2
R1 § l1 ·
(1) If length is given then R v l 2 Ÿ ¨ ¸ Rt  R0 increase in resistance
R2 © l2 ¹ D
R0 u t original resistance × rise of temp.

4
1 R § r2 · Thus, temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the
(2) If radius is given then R v 4 Ÿ 1 ¨ ¸ increase in resistance per unit original resistance per degree
r R2 © r1 ¹
celsium or kelvin rise of temperature.

6. CURRENT DENSITY, CONDUCTANCE 1. For metals like silver, copper, etc., the value of a is positive,
therefore, resistance of a metal increases with rise in
AND ELECTRIAL CONDUCTIVITY –1 –1
temperature. The unit of D is K or °C .

6.1 Relation between J, V and E 2. For insulators and semiconductors D is negative,

therefore, the resistance decreases with rise in temperature.
n Ae2 WE
We know, I = n Aevd = nAe §¨ W ¸·
eE 6.2 Non-Ohmic Devices
©m ¹ m
Those devices which do not obey Ohm’s law are called non-
ne 2 WE 1 ohmic devices. For example, vaccum tubes, semiconductor
or or J E
A m U diode, liquid electrolyte, transistor etc.
For all non-ohmic devices (where there will be failure of
? J VE
Ohm’s law), V–I graph has one or more of the following
1. Insulators : These are those materials whose electrical characteristics :
conducticity is either very very small or nil. (a) The relation between V and I is non-linear, figure
Insulators do not conduct charges. When a small potential
difference is applied across the two ends of an insulator, the
current through the insulator is zero.
Examples of insulators are glass, rubber, wood etc.
Variation of R, U with T
2. Conductors : These are those materials whose electrical
conductivity is very high
Conductor conduct charges very easily. When a small
potential difference is applied across the two ends of
(b) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. It
conductor, a strong current flows through the conductor.
means, if I is the current for a certain value of V, then
For super-conductor, the value of electrical conductivity is
reversing the direction of V, keeping its magnitude fixed,
infinite and electrical resistivity is zero.
does not produce a current of same magnitude I, in the
Examples of conductors are all metals like copper, silver, opposite direction, figure.
aluminium, tungsten etc.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

To remember the value of colour coding used for carbon

resistor, the following sentences are found to be of great
help (where bold letters stand for colours).
B B ROY Green, Britain Very Good Wife Gold Silver.
Way of finding the resistance of carbon resistor from its
colour coding.
In the system of colour coding, Strips of different colours
are given on the body of the resistor, figure. The colours on
strips are noted from left to right.
(c) Therelation between V and I isnot unique, i.e., there is more
than one value of V for the same current I, figure.

(i) Colour of the first stip A from the end indicates the first
significant figure of resistance in ohm.
(ii) Colour of the second strip B indicate the second significant
figure of resistance in ohm.
(iii) The colour of the third strip C indicates the multiplier,
i.e., the number of zeros that will follow after the two
7. COLOUR CODE FOR CARBON RESISTORS significant figure.
(iv) The colour of fourth strip R indicates the tolerance limit
The colour code for carbon resistance is given in the
of the resistance value of percentage accuracy of resistance.
following table.
8. COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
Colour code of carbon resistors

8.1 Resistances in Series

Colour Letter as No. Mulitplier Colour Tolerance
anAid to Resistors are said to be connected in series, if the same
memory current is flowing through each resistor when some poential
difference is applied across the combination.
0
Black B 0 10 Gold 5%
1
Brown B 1 10 Silver 10%
2
Red R 2 10 No colour 20%
3
Orange O 3 10
4
Yellow Y 4 10
5
Green 5 10
6
Blue B 6 10 1. Let V be the potential difference applied across A and B
7 using the battery H. In series combination, the same current
Violet V 7 10
(say I) will be passing through each resistance.
8
Grey 8 10
2. Let V1, V2, V3 be the potential difference across R1, R2 and
9
White W 9 10 R3 respectively. According to Ohm’s law
–1
Gold 10 V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
–2
Silver 10 3. Here, V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

branches are different and I1, I2, I3 be the current through

the resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively. Then,
I = I2 + I2 + I3
3. Here, potential difference across each resistor is V, therefore
4. If R s is the equivalent resistance of the given series V = I1R1 = I2 R2 = I3R3
combination of resistances, figure, then the potential
difference across A and B is, V V V
or I1 , I2 , I3
R1 R2 R3
V = IRs.
We have Putting values, we get
IRs = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
V V V
I  
or Rs R1  R 2  R 3 R1 R 2 R 3

Memory note 4. If Rp is the equivalent resistance of the given parallel

combination of resistance, figure, then
In a series resistance circuit, it should be noted that :
(i) the current is same in every resistor.
(ii) the current in the circuit is independent of the relative
positions of the various resistors in the series.
(iii) the voltage across any resistor is directly proportional to
the resistance of the resistor.
(iv) the total resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum of the V = IRp or I = V/Rp
individual resistances, plus the internal resistance of a cell we have
if any.
(v) The total resistance in the series circuit is obviously more V V V V 1 1 1 1
   
than the greatest resistance in the circuit. Rp R 1 R 2 R 3 or R p R1 R 2 R 3

Thus, the reciprocal of equivalent resistance of a number of

8.2 Resistances in Parallel
Any number of resistors are said to be connected in parallel
if potential difference across each of them is the same and
is equal to the applied potential difference.
resistor connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances.
Memory note

In a parallel resistance circuit, it should be noted that :

1. Let V be the potential difference applied across A and B
with the help of a battery H.
2. Let I be the main current in the circuit from battery. I divides
itself into three unequal parts because the resistances of these
(i) the potential difference across each resistor is the same
and is equal to the applied potential difference.
(ii) the current through each resistor is inversely proportional
to the resistance of that resistor.
(iii) total current through the parallel combination is the sum
of the individual currents through the various resistors.
(iv) The reciprocal of the total resistance of the parallel
combination is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual resistances.
(v) The total resistances are connected in series, the current
through each resistance is same. When the resistance are
in parallel, the pot-diff. accross each resistance is the same
and not the current.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

(iii) Potential drop inside the cell = ir

9. CELL
(iv) Equation of cell E V  ir (E > V)
The device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy
is known as electric cell. Cell is a source of constant emf but not §E ·
(v) Internal resistance of the cell r ¨  1¸ ˜ R
constant current. ©V ¹
(vi) Power dissipated in external resistance (load)
2
V2 § E ·
P Vi i2R ¨Rr¸ . R
R © ¹

E2
Power delivered will be maximum when R r so Pmax .
4r
This statement in generalised from is called “maximum
power transfer theorem”.

(1) Emf of cell (E) : The potential difference across the

terminals of a cell when it is not supplying any current is
called it’s emf.
(2) Potential difference (V) : The voltage across the
terminals of a cell when it is supplying current to external
resistance is called potential difference or terminal
voltage. Potential difference is equal to the product of (vii) When the cell is being charged i.e. current is given to the
current and resistance of that given part i.e. V = iR. cell then E = V – ir and E < V.
(3) Internal resistance (r) : In case of a cell the opposition (2) Open circuit : When no current is taken from the cell it
of electrolyte to the flow of current through it is called is said to be in open circuit.
internal resistance of the cell. The internal resistance of a
cell depends on the distance between electrodes (r v d),
area of electrodes [r v (1/A)] and nature, concentration
(r v C) and temperature of electrolyte [r v (1/ temp.)].
A cell is said to be ideal, if it has zero internal resistance.

9.1 Cell in Various Positions

(i) Current through the circuit i = 0
(1) Closed circuit : Cell supplies a constant current in the
circuit. (ii) Potential difference between A and B, VAB = E
(iii) Potential difference between C and D, VCD = 0
(3) Short circuit : If two terminals of cell are join together
by a thick conducting wire

E
(i) Current given by the cell i
Rr
(ii) Potential difference across the resistance V iR
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

(i) Maximum current (called short circuit current) flows

plates of cells are connected together their emf’s are added to
E each other while if their similar plates are connected together
momentarily isc
r their emf’s are subtractive.
(ii) Potential difference V = 0

Memory note
1. It is important to note that during charging of a cell, the
positive electrode of the cell is connected to positive
terminal of battery charger and negative electrodes of the
cell is connected to negative terminal of battery charger.
In this process, current flows from positive electrode to (1) Series grouping : In series grouping anode of one cell is
negative electrode through the cell. Refer figure connected to cathode of other cell and so on. If n identical
cells are connected in series

? V = H + Ir
Hence, the terminal potential difference becomes greater
than the emf of the cell.
(i) Equivalent emf of the combination E eq nE
2. The difference of emf and terminal voltage is called lost
voltage as it is not indicated by a voltmeter. It is equal to Ir. (ii) Equivalent internal resistance req nr

nE
9.2 Distinction between E.M.E. and Potential Difference (iii) Main current = Current from each cell i
R  nr
E.M.F. of a Cell Potential Difference (iv) Potential difference across external resistance V iR

1 The emf of a cells is the 1. The potential difference V

maximum potential
difference between the
two electrodes of a cell
when the cell is in the
open circuit.
2. It is independent of the
resistance of the circuit
and depends upon the
nature of electrodes and
the nature of electrolyte
of the cell.
3. The term emf is used for
the source of electric
current.
4. It is a cause.
(v) Potential difference across each cell V '
between the two points is n
the difference of potential
2
between those two points § nE ·
(vi) Power dissipated in the external circuit ¨ ¸ .R
in a closed circuit. © R  nr ¹
2. It depends upon the resis- § E2 ·
(vii) Condition for maximum power R nr and Pmax n¨ ¸
tance between the two points © 4r ¹
of the circuit and current
(viii) This type of combination is used when nr << R.
flowing through the
circuit. (2) Parallel grouping : In parallel grouping all anodes are
connected at one point and all cathode are connected together
3. The potential difference is at other point. If n identical cells are connected in parallel
measured between any two
E, r
points of the electric circuit.
4. It is an effect. E, r

E, r
9.3 Grouping of Cells
i
R
In series grouping of cell’s their emf’s are additive or subtractive
while their internal resistances are always additive. If dissimilar
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

(i) Equivalent emf Eeq = E (iii) Main current flowing through the load
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance Req r/n
nE mnE
i
E R
nr mR  nr
(iii) Main current i m
R r/n
(iv) Potential difference across external resistance = p.d. (iv) Potential difference across load V = iR
across each cell = V = iR V
(v) Potential difference across each cell V '
i n
(v) Current from each cell i '
n i
(vi) Current from each cell i '
2 n
§ E ·
(vi) Power dissipated in the circuit P ¨ ¸ .R
© R r/n ¹ nr
(vii) Condition for maximum power R and
m
§ E2 ·
(vii) Condition for max. power is R r / n and Pmax n¨ ¸ E2
© 4r ¹ Pmax (mn)
4r
(viii) This type of combination is used when nr >> R
(viii) Total number of cell = mn
Generalized Parallel Battery Memory note
Note that (i) If the wo cells connected in parallel are of the
same emf H and same internal resistance r, then

Hr  Hr
H eq H
rr

1 1 1 2 r
 or req
req r r r 2

(ii) If n identical cells are connected in parallel, then the

E1 E 2 E equivalent emf of all the cells is equal to the emf of one
  ... n
r1 r2 rn 1 1 1 1 cell.
E eq and   ... .
1 1 1 req r1 r2 rn
  ... 1 1 1 n or r = r/n
r1 r2 rn   ...  n terms eq
req r r r
(3) Mixed Grouping : If n identical cell’s are connected in a
row and such m row’s are connected in parallel as shown.
10. ELECTRIC CURRENT

(1) The time rate of flow of charge through any cross-section

ΔQ dQ
is called current. i Lim . If flow is uniform
Δt o 0 Δt dt

Q
then i . Current is a scalar quantity. It’s S.I. unit is
t
ampere (A) and C.G.S. unit is emu and is called biot (Bi),
or ab ampere. 1A = (1/10) Bi (ab amp.)
(2) Ampere of current means the flow of 6.25 u 10 18
(i) Equivalent emf of the combination Eeq = nE
electrons/sec through any cross–section of the conductor.
nr (3) The conventional direction of current is taken to be the
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance of the combination req
m direction of flow of positive charge, i.e. field and is
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

opposite to the direction of flow of negative charge as (i) Solids : In solid conductors like metals current carriers
shown below. are free electrons.
(ii) Liquids : In liquids current carriers are positive and
negative ions.
(iii) Gases : In gases current carriers are positive ions and
free electrons.
(iv) Semi conductor : In semi conductors current carriers are
(4) The net charge in a current carrying conductor is zero. holes and free electrons.
(5) For a given conductor current does not change with (v) The amount of charge flowing through a crossection of a
change in cross-sectional area. In the following figure conductor from t = ti to t = tf is given by :
i1 = i2 = i3
tf
q ³ti I dt

From Graphs
(i) Slope of Q vs t graph gives instantaneous current.

(6) Current due to translatory motion of charge : If n

particle each having a charge q, pass through a given area
in time t then

If n particles each having a charge q pass per second per (ii) Area under the I vs t graph gives net charge flown.
unit area, the current associated with cross-sectional area A
is i = nqA
If there are n particle per unit volume each having a charge
q and moving with velocity v, the current thorough, cross
section A is i = nqvA
(7) Current due to rotatory motion of charge : If a point
charge q is moving in a circle of radius r with speed v
(frequency Q, angular speed Z and time period T) then
q qv qω
corresponding current i = qν = = = 11. KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
T 2πr 2π
11.1 Kirchhoff’s first law or Kirchhoff’s junction law
or Kirchhoff’s current law.

1. the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in a

closed electric circuit is zero, i.e., ¦ I 0

(8) Current carriers : The charged particles whose flow in
a definite direction constitutes the electric current are
called current carriers. In different situation current
carriers are different.
2. Consider a junction O in the electrical circuit at which
the five conductors are meeting. Let I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 be
the currents in these conductors in directions, shown in
figure,
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

3. Let us adopt the following sign convention : the current

flowing in a conductor towards the junction is taken as
positive and the current flowing away from the junction is We adopt the following sign convention :
taken as negative.
Traverse a closed path of a circuit once completely in
4. According to Kirchhoff’s first law, at junction O clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
(–I1) + (–I2) + I3 + (–I4) + I5 = 0 Difference between Kirchhoff’s I and II laws
or –I1 – I2 + I3 – I4 + I5 = 0
or ¦I 0 First Law Second Law

or I 3 + I5 = I 1 + I2 + I 4 1. This law supports the 1. This law supports the law

law of conservation of of conservation of energy.
5. i.e., total current flowing towards the junction is equal to
charge.
total current flowing out of the junction.
2. According to this law 2. According to this law
6. Current cannot be stored at a junction. It means, no point/
junction in a circuit can act as a source or sink of charge. ¦I 0 ¦H ¦ IR

7. Kirchhoff’s first law supports law of conservation of 3. This law can be used in 3. This law can be used in
charge. open and closed circuits. closed circuit only.

11.2 Kirchhoff’s Second law or Kirchhoff’s loop law

or Kirchhoff’s voltage law. 12. EXPERIMENTS

The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed 12.1 Galvanometer
path of electric circuit (or closed loop) involving resistors
It is an instrument used to detect small current passing through it
and cells in the loop is zero, i.e., ¦ 'V 0.
by showing deflection. Galvanometers are of different types e.g.
In a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the emfs and algebraic moving coil galvanometer, moving magnet galvanometer, hot wire
sum of the products of current and resistance in the various galvanometer. In dc circuit usually moving coil galvanometer
arms of the loop is zero, i.e., ¦ H  ¦ IR 0. are used.
Kirchhoff’s second law supports the law of conservation of (i) It’s symbol : ; where G is the total
energy, i.e., the net change in the energy of a charge, after
internal resistance of the galvanometer.
the charge completes a closed path must be zero.
(ii) Full scale deflection current : The current required for
Kirchhoff’s second law follows from the fact that the
full scale deflection in a galvanometer is called full scale
electrostatic force is a conservative force and work done by
deflection current and is represented by ig.
it in any closed path is zero.
(iii) Shunt : The small resistance connected in parallel to
Consider a closed electrical circuit as shown in figure.
galvanometer coil, in order to control current flowing
containing two cells of emfs. H1 and H2 and three resistors of
through the galvanometer is known as shunt.
resistances R1, R2 and R3.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Table : Merits and demerits of shunt i

Merits of shunt
To protect the galvano-
meter coil from burning .
It can be used to convert
any galvanometer into
ammeter of desired range.
12.2 Ammeter
(c) To pass nth part of main current (i.e. i g ) through the
n
Demerits of shunt
G
Shunt resistance decreases the galvanometer, required shunt S = .
(n –1)
sensitivity of galvanometer.
12.3 Voltmeter
It is a device used to measure potential difference and is always
put in parallel with the ‘circuit element’ across which potential
difference is to be measured.

It is a device used to measure current and is always connected

in series with the ‘element’ through which current is to be
measured.

(i) The reading of a voltmeter is always lesser than true value.

(ii) Greater the resistance of voltmeter, more accurate will
be its reading. A voltmeter is said to be ideal if its
resistance is infinite, i.e., it draws no current from the
circuit element for its operation.
(iii) Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter : A
(i) The reading of an ammeter is always lesser than actual galvanometer may be converted into a voltmeter by
current in the circuit. connecting a large resistance R in series with the
(ii) Smaller the resistance of an ammeter more accurate will galvanometer as shown in the figure.
be its reading. An ammeter is said to be ideal if its
resistance r is zero.
(iii) Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter : A
galvanometer may be converted into an ammeter by
connecting a low resistance (called shunt S) in parallel to
the galvanometer G as shown in figure.

(a) Equivalent resistance of the combination = G + R

(b) According to ohm’s law Maximum reading of V which
can be taken V = ig (G + R); which gives

V §V ·
Required series resistance R = –G =¨ – 1¸ G
ig ¨ ¸
© Vg ¹
(c) If nth part of applied voltage appeared across galvanometer
GS
(a) Equivalent resistance of the combination V
G S (i.e. Vg ) then required series resistance R = (n – 1) G..
n
(b) G and S are parallel to each other hence both will have
equal potential difference i.e. i g G (i  i g ) S ; which 12.4 Wheatstone Bridge Principle
gives Wheatstone Bridge Principle states that if four resistances
ig P, Q, R and S are arranged to form a bridge as shown in
Required shunt S = G figure, if galvanometer shows no deflection, the bridge is
(i – i g )
balanced.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

In that case through the galvanometer or in other words VB = VD. In the

P R P R
balanced condition = , on mutually changing the
Q S Q S
position of cell and galvanometer this condition will not
change.
(ii) Unbalanced bridge : If the bridge is not balanced current
will flow from D to B if VD > VB i.e. (VA  VD )  (VA  VB )
which gives PS > RQ.
(iii) Applications of wheatstone bridge : Meter bridge, post
office box and Carey Foster bridge are instruments based
on the principle of wheatstone bridge and are used to
measure unknown resistance.

12.5 Slide Wire Bridge or Meter Bridge

Proof : A slide wire bridge is a practical form of Wheatstone bridge.

Let I be the total current given out by the cell. On reaching It consists of a wire AC of constantan or manganin of 1
the point A, it is divided into two parts : metre length and of uniform area of cross-section.
1. I1 is flowing through P A meter scale is also fitted on the wooden board parallel to
the length of the wire.
2. (I – I1) through R.
At B, the current I1 is divided into two parts, Ig through the Copper strip fitted on the wooden board in order to provide
galvanometer G and (I1 – Ig) through Q. two gaps in strips.

A current (I – I1 + Ig) through S. Across one gap, a resistance box R and in another gap the
unknown resistance S are connected.
Applying Kirchhoff’s Second Law to the closed circuit
ABDA, we get The positive pole of the battery E is connected to terminal
A and the negative pole of the battery to terminal C through
I1P + Ig G – (I – I1) R = 0 ...(1)
one way key K.
where G is the resistance of galvanometer.
The circuit is now exactly the same as that of the Wheatstone
Again applying Kirchhoff’s Second Law to the closed circuit bridge figure.
BCDB, we get
(I1 – Ig) Q – (I – I1 + Ig) S – IgG = 0 ...(2)
The value of R is adjusted such that the galvanometer shows
no deflection, i.e., Ig = 0. Now, the bridge is balanced. Putting
Ig = 0 in (1) and (2) we have
I1P – (I – I1) R = 0 or I1P = (I – I1) R ...(3)
and I1Q – (I – I1) S = 0 or I1Q = (I – I1) S ...(4)

P R
Dividing (3) by (4), we get
Q S

Note that in Wheatstone bridge circuit, arms AB and BC

having resistances P and Q form ratio arm. The arm AD,
having a resistance R, is a known variable resistance arm and Adjust the position of jockey on the wire (say at B) where
arm DC, having a resistance S is unknown resistance arm. on pressing, galvanometer shows no deflection.

(i) Balanced bridge : The bridge is said to be balanced when Note the length AB ( = l say) to the wire. Find the length BC
deflection in galvanometer is zero i.e. no current flows ( = 100 – l) of the wire.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
According to Wheatstone bridge principle
P R
Q S
If r is the resistance per cm length of wire, then
P = resistance of the length l of the wire AB = lr
Q = resistance of the length (100–l) of the wire BC=(100 – l) r.
Ar R § 100  A ·
? 100  A r
or S ¨ ¸u R
S © A ¹
Knowing l and R, we can calculate S.
12.6 Potentiometer and its principle of working
Potentiometer is an apparatus used for measuring the emf
of a cells or potential difference between two points in an
electrical circuit accurately.
A potentiometer consists of a long uniform wire generally
made of manganin or constantan, stretched on a wooden
board.
Its ends are connected to the binding screws A and B. A
meter scale is fixed on the board parallel to the length of the
wire. The potentiometer is provided with a jockey J with
the help of which, the contact can be made at any point on
the wire, figure. A battery H (called driving cell), connected
across A and B sends the current through the wire which is
kept constant by using a rheostat Rh.
Principle : The working of a potentiometer is based on the
fact that the fall of potential across any portion of the wire
is directly proportional to the length of that portion provided
the wire is of uniform area of cross-section and a constant
current is flowing through it.
Suppose A and U are respectively the area of cross-section
and specific resistance of the material of the wire.
Let V be the potential difference across the portion of the
wire of length l whose resistance is R.
If I is the current flowing through the wire, then from Ohm’s
law; V = IR; As, R = Ul/A
A § IU ·
? V IU KA, ¨ where K ¸
© ¹
or Vvl (if I and A are constant)
i.e., potential difference across any portion of potentiometer
wire is directly proportional to length of the wire of that
protion.
Here, V/l = K = is called potential gradient, i.e., the fall of
potential per unit length of wire.
12.7 Determination of Potential Difference
using Potentiometer
A battery of emf H is connected between the end terminals A
and B of potentiometer wire with ammeter A1, resistance
box R and key K in series. This circuit is called an auxillary
circuit. The ends of resistance R1 are connected to terminals
A and Jockey J through galvanometer G. A cell H1 and key
K1 are connected across R1 as shown in figure.
Working and Theory : Close key K and take out suitable
resistance R from resistance box so that the fall of potential
across the potentiometer wire is greater than the potential
difference to be measured.
It can be checked by pressing, firstly the jockey J on
potentiometer wire near end A and later on near end B, the
deflections in galvanometer are in opposite directions.
Close key K1. The current flows through R1. A potential
difference is developed across R1. Adjust the position of
jockey on potentiometer wire where if pressed, the
galvanometer shows no deflection. Let it be when jockey is
at J. Note the length AJ (= l) of potentiometer wire. This
would happen when potential difference across R1 is equal
to the fall of potential across the potentiometer wire of length
l. If K is the potential gradient of potentiometer wire, then
potential difference across R1, i.e.,
V = Kl

If r is the resistance of potentiometer wire of length L, then
current through potentiometer wire is
H wire.
I
Rr
Potential drop across potentiometer wire
§ H ·
Ir ¨ ¸r
©Rr¹
Potential gradient of potentiometer wire, i.e., fall of potential
per unit length is
§ H ·r § H ·r
K ¨ ¸ . V ¨ ¸ A
©Rr¹L ©Rr ¹L
Hence, V can be calculated.
12.8 Comparison of emfs of two cells using Potentiometer
A battery of emf H is connected between the end terminals A
and B of potentiometer wire with rheostat Rh, ammeter A1
and key K in series.
The positive terminals of both the cells are connected to
point A of the potentiometer. Their negative terminals are
connected to two terminals 1 and 2 of two ways key, while
its common terminal 3 is connected to jockey J through a
galvanometer G.
Insert the plug in the gap between the terminals 1 and 3 of
two way key so that the cell of emf H1 is in the circuit.
Adjust the position of jockey on potentiometer wire, where
if pressed, the galvanometer shows no deflection. Let it be
when jockey be at J1. Note the length AJ1 (= l1 say) of the wire.
There is no current in arm AH1J1. It means the potential of
positive terminal of cell = potential of the point A, and the
potential of negative terminal of cell = potential of the point J1.
Therefore, the e.m.f. of the cell ( =H1) is equal to potential
difference between the points A and J1 of the potentiometer
wire.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
i.e., H1 = Kl1 ...(1)
where K is the potential gradient across the potentiometer
Now remove the plug from the gap between 1 and 3 and
insert in the gap between 2 and 3 of two way key so that
cells of emf H2 comes into the circuit. Again find the position
of jockey on potentiometer wire, where galvanometer shows
no deflection. Let it be at J2. Note the length of the wire AJ2
( = l2 say). Then
H2 = Kl2 ...(2)
H1 A1
Dividing (1) by (2), we get
H2 A2
12.9 Precautions of experiment
1. The current in the potentiometer wire from driving cell must
be kept constant during experiment.
2. While adjusting the position of jockey on potentiometer wire,
the edge of jockey should not be rubbed on the wire,
otherwise area of cross-section of wire will not be uniform
and constant.
3. The current in the potentiometer wire from driving cell
should not be passed for long time as this would cause
heating effect, resulting the change in resistance of wire.
Memory note
A balance point is obtained on the potentiometer wire if
the fall of potential along the potentiometer wire, due to
driving cell is greater than the e.m.f. of the cells to be balanced.
12.10 Determination of Internal Resistance
of a Cell by Potentiometer Method
To find the internal resistance r of a cell of emf H using
potentiometer, set up the circuit as shown in figure.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Close key K and maintain suitable constant current in the potentiometer wire circuit with the help of rheostat and using
potentiometer wire with the help of rheostat Rh. Adjust the a single cell.
position of jockey on the potentiometer wire where if Difference between Potentiometer and Voltmeter
pressed, the galvanometer show no deflection. Let it be when
jockey is as J1. Note the length AJ1 (= l1) of the potentiometer Potentiometer Voltmere
wire. Now emf of the cell, H = potential difference across
1. It measures the emf of 1. It measures the emf of a
the length l1 of the potentiometer wire.
a cell very accurately. cell approximately.
or H = Kl1 ...(1)
2. While measuring emf it 2. While measuring emf, it
where K is the potential gradient across the wire. does not draw any current drws some current from
Close key K1 and take out suitable resistance R from the from the source of the source of emf.
resistance box in the cell circuit. Again find the position of known emf.
the jockey on the potentiometer wire where galvanometer 3. While measuring emf, 3. While measuring emf the
shows no deflection. Let it be at J2. Note the length of the the resistance of poten- resistance of voltmeter is
wire AJ2 ( = l2 say). As current is being drawn from the cell, tiometer becomes infinite. high but finite.
its terminal potential difference V is balanced and not emf 4. Its sensitivity is high. 4. Its sensitivity is low.
H. Therefore, potential difference between two poles of the 5. It is based on null 5. It is based on deflection
cell, V = potential difference across the length l2 of the deflection method. method.
potentiometer wire 6. It can be used for 6. It can be used only to
i.e. V = Kl2 ...(2) various purposes. measure emf or potential
difference.
Dividing (1) by (2), we have

H A1
...(3) 13. HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT
V A2

We know that the internal resistance r of a cell of emf H, When some potential difference V is applied across a resistance
when a resistance R is connected in its circuit is given by R then the work done by the electric field on charge q to flow
through the circuit in time t will be
HV §H ·
r uR ¨  1¸ R ...(4)
V ©V ¹ V2 t
W = qV = Vit = i2R Joule .
R
Putting the value (3) in (4), we get

§ A1 · A1  A 2
r ¨  1¸ R uR
A
© 2 ¹ A2

Thus, knowing the values of l1, l2 and R, the internal This work appears as thermal energy in the resistor.
resistance r of the cell can be determined. Heat produced by the resistance R is

12.11 Sensitiveness of Potentiometer W Vit i 2 Rt V2 t

H Cal. This relation is called joules
J 4˜ 2 4˜2 4 ˜ 2R
The sensitiveness of potentiometer means the smallest
heating.
potential difference that can be measured with its help.
Some important relations for solving objective questions are as
The sensitiveness of a potentiometer can be increased by
follow :
decreasing its potential gradient. The same can be achieved.
(i) By increasing the length of potentiometer wire.
(ii) If the potentiometer wire is of fixed length, the potential
gradient can be decreased by reducing the current in the
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

of any electrical appliance can be calculated by rated

Condition Graph
VR2
If R and t are constant power and rated voltage i.e. by using R = e.g.
PR
H v i 2 and H v V
2

220 u 220
Resistance of 100W, 220 volt bulb is R 484 :
100
If i and t are constant (series grouping) (4) Power consumed (illumination) : An electrical appliance
HvR (Bulb, heater, …. etc.) consume rated power (PR) only if
applied voltage (VA) is equal to rated voltage (VR) i.e. If
VA2
VA = VR so Pconsumed = PR. If VA < VR then Pconsumed
If V and t are constant (Parallel grouping) R

1 VR2
Hv also we have R so
R PR

If V, i and R constant H v t § VA2 ·

Pconsumed (Brightness) ¨ 2 ¸ .PR
© VR ¹

Pconsumed v (Brightness)
e.g. If 100 W, 220 V bulb operates on 110 volt supply then
13.1 Electric Power
2
§ 110 ·
The rate at which electrical energy is dissipated into other Pconsumed ¨ ¸ u 100 25 W
forms of energy is called electrical power i.e. © 220 ¹

W V2
P= = Vi = i 2 R =
t R
(1) Units : It’s S.I. unit is Joule/sec or Watt
If VA < VR then % drop in output power
Bigger S.I. units are KW, MW and HP,
(PR  Pconsumed )
remember 1 HP = 746 Watt u100
PR
(2) Rated values : On electrical appliances
(Bulbs, Heater … etc.) For the series combination of bulbs, current through
them will be same so they will consume power in the
ratio of resistance i.e., P v R {By P = i2R) while if they
are connected in parallel i.e. V is constant so power
consumed by them is in the reverse ratio of their
1
resistance i.e. P v
R

Wattage, voltage, ……. etc. are printed called rated values (5) Thickness of filament of bulb : We know that resistance
e.g. If suppose we have a bulb of 40 W, 220 V then rated VR2 l
power (PR) = 40 W while rated voltage (VR) = 220 V. It of filament of bulb is given by R , also R U ,
PR A
means that on operating the bulb at 220 volt, the power
dissipated will be 40 W or in other words 40 J of electrical 1
hence we can say that A v PR v i.e. If rated
energy will be converted into heat and light per second. Thickness R
(3) Resistance of electrical appliance : If variation of power of a bulb is more, thickness of it’s filament is also
resistance with temperature is neglected then resistance more and it’s resistance will be less.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

1
If applied voltage is constant then P(consumed) v
R
VA2 If quantity of water is given n litre then
(By P ). Hence if different bulbs (electrical
R
4180(4200) n 'T
appliance) operated at same voltage supply then t
p
1
Pconsumed v PR v thickness v
R
13.2 Electric Energy

The total electric work done or energy supplied by the

source of emf in maintaining the current in an electric circuit
Different bulbs
for a given time is called electric energy consumed in the
circuit.
? Electric energy, W = VIt = P.t
? Electric energy = electric power × time
Ÿ Resistance R25 > R100 > R1000 SI unit of electric energy is joule, wherre
Ÿ Thickness of filament t1000– > t100 > t40 1 joule = 1 volt × 1 ampere × 1 second = 1 watt × 1 second
Ÿ Brightness B1000 > B100 > B25 The commercial unit of electric energy is called a kilowatt-
hour (kWh) or Board to Trade Unit (BOT) or UNIT of
(6) Long distance power transmission : When power is Electricity, in brief, where
transmitted through a power line of resistance R, power-
1 kWh = 1 kilo watt × 1 hour = 1000 watt × 1 hour
loss will be i 2 R
Thus 1 kilo watt hour is the total electric energy consumed
Now if the power P is transmitted at voltage V
when an electrical appliance of power 1 kilo-watt works for
P2 one hours.
P = Vi i.e. i = (P/V) So, Power loss uR
V2 6
1 kWh = 1000 Wh = (1000 W) × (60 × 60 s) = 3.6 × 10 J.
Now as for a given power and line, P and R are constant
Note that the number of units of electricity consumed = No.
so Power loss v (1/V2)
So if power is transmitted at high voltage, power loss watt u hour
of kWh =
will be small and vice-versa. e.g., power loss at 22 kV 1000
is 10 –4 times than at 220 V. This is why long distance
power transmission is carried out at high voltage. Electric energy VI t I 2 Rt V2t / R

(7) Time taken by heater to boil the water : We know that

13.3 Electricity Consumption
heat required to raise the temperature 'T of any
substance of mass m and specific heat S is H = m.S.'T (1) The price of electricity consumed is calculated on the
basis of electrical energy and not on the basis of electrical
Here heat produced by the heater = Heat required to raise power.
the temp. 'T of water.
(2) The unit Joule for energy is very small hence a big
J(m.S.'T) practical unit is considered known as kilowatt hour
i.e. p u t = J u m.S.'T Ÿ t
p (KWH) or board of trade unit (B.T.U.) or simple unit.
{J = 4.18 or 4.2 J/cal) (3) 1 KWH or 1 unit is the quantity of electrical energy which
4180 ( or 4200) m 'T dissipates in one hour in an electrical circuit when the
for m kg water t electrical power in the circuit is 1 KWH thus
p
{S = 1000 cal/kgoC) 1 KWH = 1000 W u 3600 sec = 3.6 u 106 J.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

(4) Important formulae to calculate the no. of consumed units If they are connected If they are connected

Total watt u Total hours in series in parallel

is n
1000 1 1 1
 PP = P1 + P2
PS P1 P2
13.4 Combination of Bulbs (or Electrical Appliances)
1 1 1 HP H1 H 2
Bulbs (Heater etc.) Bulbs (Heater etc.) Ÿ  Ÿ 
HS / t S H1 / t1 H2 / t 2 tp t1 t2
are in series are in parallel
' HS=H1= H2 ' Hp = H 1 = H2
(1) Total power consumed (1) Total power consumed 1 1 1
so ts = t1+ t2 so 
1 1 1 tp t1 t 2
  .... Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 .... + Pn
Ptotal P1 P2 i.e. time taken by i.e. time taken by parallel
combinationto boil the combination to boil the
same quantity of water same quantity of water
t1t 2
ts = t1 + t2 tp
t1  t 2

(3) If three identical bulbs are connected in series as shown

(2) In ‘n’ bulbs are identical, (2) If ‘n’ identical bulbs are in figure then on closing the switch S. Bulb C short
circuited and hence illumination of bulbs A and B
P increases
Ptotal in parallel. Ptotal = nP
N

Pconsumed Brightness Pconsumed Brightness

1 1
vV v R v v PR v i v
Prated R
i.e. in series combination i.e. in parallel combination
bulb of lesser wattage will bulb of greater wattage will Reason : Voltage on A and B increased.
give more bright light and give more bright light and (4) If three bulbs A, B and C are connected in mixed
p.d. appeared across it will more current will pass combination as shown, then illumination of bulb A
be more. through it. decreases if either B or C gets fused

Some Standard Cases for Series and Parallel Combination

P
(1) If n identical bulbs first connected in series so PS and
n

PP
then connected in parallel. So PP = nP hence n2
PS
Reason : Voltage on A decreases.
(2) An electric kettle has two coils when one coil is switched
on it takes time t1 to boil water and when the second coil (5) If two identical bulb A and B are connected in parallel
is switched on it takes time t2 to boil the same water. with ammeter A and key K as shown in figure.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
It should be remembered that on pressing key reading of
ammeter becomes twice.
Reason : Total resistance becomes half.
Concepts
When a heavy current appliance such us motor, heater
or geyser is switched on, it will draw a heavy current
from the source so that terminal voltage of source
decreases. Hence power consumed by the bulb
decreases, so the light of bulb becomes less.
13.5 Some aspects of heating effects of current
1. The wire supplying current to an electric lamp are not
practically heated while the filament of lamp becomes white
hot.
We know that in series connections the heat produced due
to a current in a conductor is proportional to its resistance
(i.e. H v R). The filament of the lamp and the supply wires
are in series. The resistance of the wire supplying the current
to the lamp is very small as compared to that of the filament
of the lamp. Therefore, there is more heating effect in the
filament of the lamp than that in the supply wires. Due to it,
the filament of the lamp becomes white hot whereas the
wires remain practically unheated.
2. Electric Iron
3. Electric Arc
4. Incandescent electric lamp
5. Fuse wire
14. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTING
MATERIALS FOR SPECIFIC USE
(1) Filament of electric bulb : Is made up of tungsten which
has high resistivity, high melting point.
(2) Element of heating devices (such as heater, geyser or
press) : Is made up of nichrome which has high resistivity
and high melting point.
(3) Resistances of resistance boxes (standard resistances) :
Are made up of alloys (manganin, constantan or nichrome)
these materials have moderate resistivity which is
practically independent of temperature so that the
specified value of resistance does not alter with minor
changes in temperature.
(4) Fuse-wire : Is made up of tin-lead alloy (63% tin + 37%
lead). It should have low melting point and high resistivity.
It is used in series as a safety device in an electric circuit
and is designed so as to melt and thereby open the circuit
if the current exceeds a predetermined value due to some
fault. The function of a fuse is independent of its length.
Safe current of fuse wire relates with it’s radius as i v r 3/2
(5) Thermistors : A thermistor is a heat sensitive resistor
usually prepared from oxides of various metals such as
nickel, copper, cobalt, iron etc. These compounds are also
semi-conductor. For thermistors D is very high which
may be positive or negative. The resistance of thermistors
changes very rapidly with change of temperature.
Thermistors are used to detect small temperature change
and to measure very low temperature.
15. SUPER CONDUCTIVITY
Prof. K. Onnes, in 1911, discovered that certain metals and alloys
at very low temperature lose their resistance considerably. This
phenomenon is known as super-conductivity. As the temperature
decreases, the resistance of the material also decreases, but when
the temperature reaches a certain critical value (called critical
temperature or transition temperature), the resistance of the
material completely disappears i.e., it becomes zero. Then the
material behaves as if it is a super-conductor and there will be
flow of electrons without any resistance whatsoever. The critical
temperature is different for different materials. It has been found

that mercury at critical temperature 4.2 K, lead at 7.25 K and
niobium at critical temperature 9.2 K become super-conductors.
A team of scientists discovered that an alloy of plutonium, cobalt
and gallium exhibits super conductivity at temperatures below
18.5 K. Since 1987, many superconductors have been prepared
with critical temperature upto 125 K, as listed below
Bi2Ca2Sr2Cu3O10 at 105 K and Tl2Ca2Ba2Cu3O10 at 125 K.
The super-conductivity shown by materials can be verified by
simple experiment. If a current is once set up in a closed ring of
super-conducting material, it continues flowing for several weeks 4.
after the source of e.m.f. has been withdrawn.
The cause of super-conductivity is that, the free electrons in super-
conductor are no longer independent but become mutually
dependent and coherent when the critical temperature is reached.
The ionic vibrations which could deflect free electrons in metals
are unable to deflect this coherent or co-operative cloud of
electrons in super-conductors. It means the coherent cloud of
electrons makes no collisions with ions of the super-conductor
and, as such, there is no resistance offered by the super-conductor
to the flow of electrons. 5.
Super-conductivity is a very interesting field of research all over
the world these days. The scientists have been working actively 6.
to prepare super-conductor at room temperature and they have
met with some success only.
Application of super conductors
1. Super conductors are used for making very strong
electromagnets.
7.
2. Super conductivity is playing an important role in material
science research and high energy partical physics.
3. Super conductivity is used to produce very high speed
computers.
8.
4. Super conductors are used for the transmission of electric
power.
TIPS AND TRICKS
9.
1. Human body, though has a large resistance of the order of
k: (say 10 k:), is very sensitive to minute currents even
as low as a few mA. Electrocution, excites and disorders
the nervous system of the body and hence one fails to 10.
control the activity of the body.
2. dc flows uniformly throughout the cross-section of
conductor while ac mainly flows through the outer surface
area of the conductor. This is known as skin effect.
11.
3. It is worth noting that electric field inside a charged
conductor is zero, but it is non zero inside a current
12.
V
carrying conductor and is given by E where
A resistance will increase by n 2 times i.e. R 2
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
V = potential difference across the conductor and l =
length of the conductor. Electric field out side the current
carrying conductor is zero.
1
For a given conductor JA = i = constant so that J v
A
i.e., J1 A1 = J2 A2 ; this is called equation of continuity
The drift velocity of electrons is small because of the
frequent Collisions suffered by electrons.
The small value of drift velocity produces a large amount
of electric current, due to the presence of extremely large
number of free electrons in a conductor. The propagation
of current is almost at the speed of light and involves
electromagnetic process. It is due to this reason that the
electric bulb glows immediately when switch is on.
In the absence of electric field, the paths of electrons
between successive collisions are straight line while in
presence of electric field the paths are generally curved.
NA x d
Free electron density in a metal is given by n
A
where N A = Avogadro number, x = number of free
electrons per atom, d = density of metal and A = Atomic
weight of metal.
In the absence of radiation loss, the time in which a fuse will
melt does not depends on it’s length but varies with radius
as t v r 4
If length (l) and mass (m) of a conducting wire is given
A2
then R v
m
V
Macroscopic form of Ohm’s law is R , while it’ss
i
microscopic form is J = V E.
After stretching if length increases by n times then
n 2 R1
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Similarly if radius be reduced to 1/n times then area of 24. Resistance of a conducting body is not unique but
cross-section decreases 1/n2 times so the resistance depends on it’s length and area of cross-section i.e. how
becomes n4 times i.e. R 2 n 4 R1 the potential difference is applied. See the following
figures
13. After stretching if length of a conductor increases by x%
then resistance will increases by 2x % (valid only if x < 10%)
14. Decoration of lightning in festivals is an example of series
grouping whereas all household appliances connected in
parallel grouping.
15. Using n conductors of equal resistance, the number of
possible combinations is 2n – 1.
16. If the resistance of n conductors are totally different, then
the number of possible combinations will be 2n. Length = a Length = b
17. If n identical resistances are first connected in series and Area of cross-section = b u c Area of cross-section = a u c
then in parallel, the ratio of the equivalent resistance is
Resistance R U §¨
b ·
Resistance R U §¨
a ·
Rp n2 ¸ ¸
given by © buc ¹ ©auc¹
Rs 1
25. Some standard results for equivalent resistance
18. If a wire of resistance R, cut in n equal parts and then
these parts are collected to form a bundle then equivalent
R
resistance of combination will be .
n2
19. If equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in series and parallel
be Rs and Rp respectively then

1ª
R1 R s  R s2  4R s R p º» and
2 «¬ ¼
R1R 2 (R 3  R 4 )  (R1  R 2 )R 3R 4  R 5 (R1  R 2 ) (R 3  R 4 )
1ª R AB
R2 R s  R s2  4R s R p º» R 5 (R1  R 2  R 3  R 4 )  (R1  R 3 )(R 2  R 4 )
2 ¬« ¼
20. If a skeleton cube is made with 12 equal resistance each
having resistance R then the net resistance across

2R 1R 2  R 3 (R 1  R 2 )
R AB
2R 3  R1  R 2
5
21. The longest diagonal (EC or AG) R
6

3
22. The diagonal of face (e.g. AC, ED, ....) R
4

7
23. A side (e.g. AB, BC.....) R
12
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

32. If n identical cells are connected in a loop in order, then

1 1 1/ 2
R AB (R 1  R 2 )  ¬ª(R 1  R 2 ) 2  4R 3 (R 1  R 2 ) ¼º emf between any two points is zero.
2 2

1 ª §R ·º
R AB R 1 «1  1  4 ¨ 2 ¸»
2 « © R1 ¹ »¼ 33. In parallel grouping of two identical cell having no internal
¬
resistance
26. It is a common misconception that “current in the circuit
will be maximum when power consumed by the load is
maximum.”
27. Actually current i = E/(R + r) is maximum (= E/r) when
R = min = 0 with PL = (E/r)2 × 0 = 0 min. while power
consumed by the load E2R/(R + r)2 is maximum (= E2/4r)
when R = r and i (E / 2r) z max ( E / r).

28. Emf is independent of the resistance of the circuit and 34. When two cell’s of different emf and no internal resistance
depends upon the nature of electrolyte of the cell while are connected in parallel then equivalent emf is
potential difference depends upon the resistance between indeterminate, note that connecting a wire with a cell with
the two points of the circuit and current flowing through no resistance is equivalent to short circuiting. Therefore
the circuit. the total current that will be flowing will be infinity.
29. Whenever a cell or battery is present in a branch there
must be some resistance (internal or external or both)
present in that branch. In practical situation it always
happen because we can never have an ideal cell or battery
with zero resistance.
30. In series grouping of identical cells. If one cell is wrongly
connected then it will cancel out the effect of two cells 35. In the parallel combination of non-identical cell’s if they
e.g. If in the combination of n identical cells (each having are connected with reversed polarity as shown then
emf E and internal resistance r) if x cell are wrongly equivalent emf

connected then equivalent emf Eeq (n  2 x ) E and E1r2  E 2 r1

E eq
equivalent internal resistance req nr r1  r2

31. Graphical view of open circuit and closed circuit of a

cell.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
36. Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive if all the arms of
bridge have equal resistances i.e. P = Q = R = S
37. If the temperature of the conductor placed in the right
gap of metre bridge is increased, then the balancing length
decreases and the jockey moves towards left.
38. In Wheatstone bridge to avoid inductive effects the battery
key should be pressed first and the galvanometer key
afterwards.
39. The measurement of resistance by Wheatstone bridge is
not affected by the internal resistance of the cell.
40. In case of zero deflection in the galvanometer current
flows in the primary circuit of the potentiometer, not in
the galvanometer circuit.
41. A potentiometer can act as an ideal voltmeter.
GRAVITATION

GRAVITATION

1. INTRODUCTION
The constitutents of the universe are galaxy, stars, planets, Where  r̂12  is a unit vector drawn from particle m1 to
comets, asteriods, meteroids. The force which keeps them
particle m2.
bound together is called gravitational force. Gravitation is

a nature phenomenon by which material objects attract  
Similarly, the force F12 exerted on particle m1 by particle
towards one another.
m2 is given by
In 1687 A.D. English Physicist, Sir Isaac Netwon published
principia Mathematica, which explains the inverse-square  mm
F12   G 1 2 2  rˆ12  ...(ii)
law of gravitation. r

2. NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION Where  r̂12  is a unit vector drawn from particle m1 to
2. 1 Defintion particle m2
Every particle of matter attracts every other particle of From (i) and (ii)
matter with a force which is directly proportional to the  
 F12   F21
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
3. UNIVERSAL CONSTANT OF GRAVITATION

Fr 2
Universal gravitation constant is given as, G =
m1m 2

Suppose that, m1 = m2 = 1, and r = 1 then G = F

2.2 Mathematical Form  Universal gravitation constant is numerically equal to the
force of attraction between two unit masses placed at unit
If m1 and m2 are the masses of the particles and r is the
distance apart.
distance between them, the force of attraction F between
the particles is given by 3.1 Unit

m1m2
newton  metre 
2
F Nm 2
r2 SI unit : =
 kilogram 
2
kg 2
m1m 2
 F G CGS Unit : dyne cm /gm
2 2
r2
Where G is the universal constant of gravitation. 3.2 Value of G
–11 2 2
2.3 Vector Form G = 6.67 × 10 Nm /kg
Dimensions of G
In vector form, Newton’s law of gravitation is represented

 
in the following manner. The force F21 exerted on particle
[G] =
 F  r 2 
=
 M1L1T 2   M 0 L2 T 0 

m2 by particle m1 is given by,  m1m2   M 2 L0 T 0 

–1 3 –2
 mm = [M L T ]
F21   G 1 2 2  rˆ12  ...(i)
r
 GRAVITATION

GM
gh  ...(ii)
 R  h
2

1. The gravitational force is independent of the intervening

Dividing eq (ii) by eq (i), we get,
medium.
2. The gravtional force is a conservative force. gh R2

3. The force exerted by the first particle on the second is g  R  h 2
exactly equal and opposite to the force exerted by the
second particle on the first.
 R2 
4. The gravitational force between two particles act along  gh   g
  R  h  
2
the line joining the two particles and they from an action-
reaction pair.
4.2 Acceleration due to gravity at a very small height

4. VARIATION IN ‘g’ 2
Rh
gh  g  
4.1 The Acceleration due to Gravity at a height h above  R 
the Earth’s surface 2
 h
 g 1  
Let M and R be the mass and radius of the earth and g be  R
the acceleratio due to gravity at the earth’s surface.
Suppose that a body of mass m is placed on the surface of  2h h 2 
the earth.  g 1   2 ........ 
 R R 
The weight ‘mg’ of the body is equal to the gravitational
If h << R, then neglecting high power’s of ‘h’ we get,
force acting on it.
 2h 
GMm g h  g 1  
 mg   R 
R2
4.3 Effect of depth on a acceleration due to Gravity
GM
 g 2 ...(i) Also g in terms of 
R
Now suppose that the body is raised to a height h, above GM
g
the earth’s surface, the weight of the body is now mgh and R2
GMm If  is density of the material of earth, then
the gravitational force acting on it is
R  h
2
4
M R 3
3

4
G  R 3
 g 3
R2

4
 g GR ...(i)
3
Let gd be acceleration due to gravity at the point B at a
depth x below the surface of earth. A body at the point B
will experience force only due to the portion of the earth of
radius OB (R – d). The outer spherical shell, whose
GMm
mg h  thickness is d, will not exert any force on body at point B.
 R  h
2
Because it will acts as a shell and point is inside.
 GRAVITATION
2
g A  g’ = g – r cos
Now, r = R cos  (where R is the radius of the earth)
g' B d 2
Then g’ = g – (R cos )  cos 
R M 2 2
 g’ = g – R cos 
R–d
M' The effective acceleration due to gravity at a point ‘P’ is
O given by,
2 2
g’ = g – R cos .
Thus value of ‘g’ changes with ‘’ and ‘’
1. At poles,
 = 90,
2 2
4 g’ = g – R  cos 90.
R  x 
3
Now, M  
3 g’ = g
This is maximum acceleration due to gravity.
4
or gd  G  R  d   ...(ii) 2. At equator
3
= 0,
Dividing the equation (ii) by (i), we have 2 2
g’ = g – R cos 0
2
4 g’ = g – R
G  R  d    d
gd 3 R d
  or g d  g 1   ...(iii) This is minimum acceleration due to gravity.
g 4 R  R
GR
3

Therefore, the value of acceleration due to gravity

decreases with depth. The variation of acceleration due to gravity according to
the depth and the height from the earth’s surface can be
4.4 Variation of ‘g’with latitude due to Rotational motion of Earth
expressed with help of following graph.
2
Due to the rotational of the earth the force mr cos  acts
radially outwards. Hence the net force of attraction exerted
by the earth of the particle and directed towards the centre A
of the earth is given by g' Ou
2
mg’ = mg – mr cos a rth t si d
h ee et
where g’ is the value of the acceleration due to gravity at et he
sid ea
rth
the point P. In

B
O depth altitude
R

r P
5. SATELLITE
R mg
R
5.1 Definition

Any smaller body which revolves around another larer

body under the influence of its gravitation is called a
satellite. The satellite may be natural or artificial.
1. The moon which revolves around the earth, is a satellite
of the earth. There are sixteen satellites revolving around
the planet Jupiter. These satellite are called natural
satellites.

2. A satellite made and launched into circular orbit by man is
called an artificial satellite. The first satellite was launched
by USSR named SPUTNIK–I and the first Indian satellite
was ‘ARYABHATTA’.
5.2 Minimum two stage rocket is used to project
a satellite in a cirular orbit round a planet
Suppose that a single stage launching system (i.e. a rocket),
carrying satellite at its tip, is used to project the satellite
from the surface of the earth. When the fuel in the rocket
is ignited, the rocket begins to move upwards. The rocket
attains maximum velocity when all the fule is exhausted.
1. If the maximum velocity attained by the rocket is equal to
or greater than the escape velocity, the rocket overcomes
the eath’s gravitational influence and escapes into space
alogn with the satellite.
3. If the maximum velocity attained by the rocket is less
escape velocity, the rocket cannot overcome the earth’s
gravitational influence and both the rocket and the satellite
eventually fall on the earth’s surface due to gravity.
Thus a single stage rocket is unable to launch a satellite in
a circular orbit round the earth. Therefore a launching
system (i.e. a rocket) having two or more stages must be
used to launch a satellite in a circular orbit round the earth.
5.3 Different cases of Projection
When a satellite is taken to some height above the earth
and then projected in the horizontal direction, the following
four cases may occur, depending upon the magnitude of
the horizontal velocity.
GRAVITATION
1. If the velocity of the projection is less than the critical
velocity then the satellite moves in elliptical orbit, but the
point of projection is apogee and int he orbit, the satellite
comes closer to the earth with its perigee point lying at
180°. If it enters the atmosphere while coming towards
perigee it will loose energy and spirally comes down. If it
does not enters the atmosphere it will contiune to move in
elliptical orbit.
2. If the velocity of the projection is equal to the critical velocity
then the satellite moves in circular orbit round the earth.
3. If the velocity of the projection is greater than the critical
velocity but less than the escape velocity, then the satellite
moves in elliptical orbit and its apoagee, or point of greatest
distance from the earth, will be greater than projection
height.
4. If the velocity of the projection is equals to the escape
velocity, then the satellite moves in parabolic path.
5. It the velocity of the projection is greater than the escape
velocity, then orbit will hyperbolic and will escape the
gravitational pull of the earth and continue to travel
infinitely.
6. ORBITAL VELOCITY
6.1 Definition
The horizontal velocity with which a satellite must be
projected from a point above the earth’s surface, so that it
revolves in a circular orbit round the earth, is called the
orbital velocity of the satellite.
6.2 An Expression for the Critical Velocity of
a Satellite revolving round the Earth
Suppose that a satellite of mass m is raised to a height h
above the earth’s surface and then projected in a horizontal
direction with the orbital velocity vc. The satellite begins
to move round the earth in a circular orbit of radius, R + h,
where R is the radius of the earth.
GRAVITATION

GMm
The gravitational force acting on the satellite is ,
R  h
2

where M is the mass of the earth and G is the constant of

gravitation.
For circular motion,
Centrifugal force = Centripetal force

mvc2 GMm
  ,
 R  h   R  h 2
GM
GM  vc  ...(i)
vc  r
 R  h If T is the period of revolution of the satellite,
This expression gives the critical velocity of the satellite. circumference of orbit 2r
Period (T)  
From the expression, it is clear that the critical velocity critical velocity vc
depends upon.
2r
1. Mass of the earth T ...(From i)
GM
2. Radius of earth and r
3. Height of the satellite above the surface of the earth.
r3
 T  2
7. PERIOD OF REVOLUTION OF A SATELLITE GM
The time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution This expression gives the periodic time of the satellite.
round the earth is called its period or periodic time (T). Squaring the expression, we get
Consider a satellite of mass m revolving in a circular orbit
4 2 r 3
at a height h above the surface of  T2 
c
GM
w i t h a o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y v

the earth. Let M and R be the mass and the radius of the
2 3
earth respectively. The radius (r) of the circular orbit of the  T r ...(since G and M are constants)
satellite is r = R + h. Thus, the square of the period of revolution of a satellite
For the circular motion, is directly proportional to the cube of the radius of its
orbit.
GRAVITATION
GRAVITATION

8. GRAVITATIONAL FIELD point is equal to the potential energy of a unit mass placed
at that point.
The space surrounding any mass is called a gravitational
feld. If any other mass is brought in this space, it is acted 3. If a small point mass m is placed in a gravitational field at a
upon by a gravitational force. In short, the space in which point where the gravitational potential is V, the gravitational
any mass experiences a gravitational force, is called a potential energy (P.E.) of the mass m is given by.
gravitational field. P.E. = mass × gravitational potential
= mV
9. GRAVITATIONAL INTENSITY
The gravitational intensity at any point in a gravitational GMm
P.E.  
field is defined as the force acting on a unit mass placed at r
that point.
10.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
1. The gravitational intensity (E) at a point at distrance r
Gravitational potential energy of a body at a point is
from a point mass M is given by
defined as the work done in bringing the body from infinity
GM to that point.
E (Where G is the constant of gravitation.)
r2 Let a body of mass m is displaced through a distance ‘dr’
towards the mass M, then work done given by,
2. If a point mass m is placed in a gravitational field of intensity
E, the force (F) acting on the mass m is given by r
GMm GMm
F = mE. dW  F dr 
r2
dr   dW  

r2
dr

10. GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

GMm
Gravitational potential energy, U  
The gravitational potential at any point in a gravitational r
field is defined as the work done to bring a unit mass from
(i) From above equation, it is clear that gravitational potential
infinity to that point.
energy increases with increase in distance (r) (i.e. it
1. The gravitational potential (V) at a point at distance r from becomes less negative).
a point mass M is given by,
(ii) Gravitational P.E. becomes maximum (or zero) at r = .
GM
V (Where G is the constant of gravitation) 10.2 Expressions for different Energies of Satellite
r
2. The work done on a unit mass is converted into its 1. Potential Energy
potential energy. Thus, the gravitational potential at any 2. Kinetic Energy
 GRAVITATION

3. Total Energy and 4. Binding energy (B.E.) : From the expression for the total
4. Binding energy energy, it is clear that if the satellite is given energy equal

Let M = mass of the earth GMm

to  2  R  h  the satellite will escape to infinity where its
R = radius of the earth
m = mass of the satellite total energy is zero.
G = constant of gravitation
 GMm  GMm
h = height of satellite  B.E. = – (T.E.) =    
 
2 R  h   2R  h
1. Potential energy (P.E.) : The satellite is at a distance (R + h)
from the centre of the earth. 5. Binding Energy of a satellite
The minimum energy which must be supplied to a satellite,
so that it can escape from the earth’s gravitation field, is
called the binding energy of a satellite.
When the body of mass m is at rest on the earth’s surface,
its gravitational potential energy is given by,

GMm
U 
R

GMm
If the body is give an energy equal to  , it will
R
escape to infinity.

GMm
 Binding energy of the body = 
Gm1m 2 R
U
r
11. ESCAPE VELOCITY OF A BODY
GMm
 U 11.1 Expression for the escape velocity of
Rh
a body at rest on the earth’s surface
2. Kinetic energy (K.E.) : The satellite is revolving in a
circular orbit with the critical velocity (vc). Hence its kinetic The minimum velocity with which a body should be
energy is given by, projected from the surface of the earth, so that it escapes
from the earth’s gravitational field, is called the escape
1
K.E.  m v c2 velocity. Thus, if a body or a satellite is given the escape
2
velocity, its kinetic energy of projection will be equal to its
GM binding energy.
But vc 
Rh Kinetic Energy of projection = Binding Energy.

1  GM  GMm 1 GMm
 K.E.  m   2R  h  mv e2 
2 Rh 2 R
3. Total energy (T.E.)
2GM
T. E = P.E. + K.E.  ve 
R
GMm GMm GMm
   11.2 Expression for ‘Ve’ in terms’s of ‘g’
R  h 2R  h 2R  h 
The escape velocity for any object on the earth’s surface
The –ve sign indicates that the satellite is bound to the is given by.
earth.
 GRAVITATION

2GM 1 GMm
ve   mv e2 
R 2 2

If m is the mass of the object, its weight mg is equal to the 2GM

gravitational force acting on it.  ve  ...(ii)
R
GMm From Eq (i) and Eq. (ii), we get,
 mg 
R2
2 ve  2 vc
 G M = gR
Substituting this value in the expression for ve we get, 12. COMMUNICATION SATELLITE
ve  2gR An artificial satellite revolving in a circular obrit round the
earth in the same sense of the rotational of the earth and
11.3 Expression for the escape velocity of a body from having same period of revolution as the period of rotation
Earth in terms of mean density of the planet of the earth (i.e. 1 day = 24 hours = 86400 seconds) is
called as geo-stationary or communication satellite.
1. Derive expression for
As relative velocity of the satellite with respective to the
2 GM earth is zero it appears stationary from the earth’s surface.
ve  Therefore it is know as geo-stationary satellite or
R
geosynchronous satellite.
2. Let  be the mean density of the planet. Then,
1. The height of the communication satellite above the earth’s
4 surface is about 36000 km and its period of revolution is 24
M R 3
3 hours or 24 × 60 × 60 seconds.
2. The satellite appears to be at rest, because its speed relative
2G 4 3 to the earth is zero, hence it is called as geostationary or
ve   R 
R 3 geosynchronous satellite.

12.1 Uses of the communication satellite

2G
ve  2R 1. For sending TV signals over large distances on the earth’s
3
surface.
11.4 The escape velocity of a body from the surface of the 2. Telecommunication.
earth is 2 times its critical velocity when it 3. Weather forescasting.
revolves close to the earth’s surface 4. For taking photographs of astronomical objects.

Let M and R be the mass and radius of the earth and m be
the mass of the body. When orbiting close to the earth’s
surface, the radius of the orbit is almost equal to R. If vc is
the critical velocity of the body, then for a circular orbit.
Centripetal force = Gravitational force
GMm
 mv c2 
R2
GM
 vc  ...(i)
R earth. The surface of earth exerts an equal and opposte reaction
If ve is the escape velocity from the earth’s surface,
K.E. of projection = Binding energy
5. For studying of solar and cosmic radations.
13. WEIGHTLESSNESS
1. The gravitational force with which a body is attracted
towards the centre of earth is called the weight of body.
Weightlessness is a moving satellite is a feeling. It is not
due to weight equal to zero.
2. When an astronaut is on the surface of earth, gravitational
force acts on him. This gravitational force is the weight of
astronaut and astronant exerts this force on the surface of
and due to this reaction he feels his weight on the earth.
3. for an astronaut in an orbiting satellite, the satellite and
astronaut both have same acceleration towards the centre
 GRAVITATION

of earth and this acceleration is equal to the acceleration due to (The shaded areas are equal). Naturally the planet has to
gravity of earth. move faster from C to D.
4. Therefore astronaunt does not produce any action on the
floor of the satellite. Naturally the floor does not exert any
force of reaction on the astronaut. As there is no reaction,
the astronaut has a feeling of weightlessness. (i.e. no sense
of his own weight).

1. The sensation of weightlessness experienced by an

aastronaut is not the result of there being zero gravitational area swept
Areal velocity 
acceleration, but of there being zero difference between time
the acceleration of the spacecraft and the acceleration of
1
the astronaut. rrd
1 d
 2  r2  cosntant
2. The most common problem experienced by astronauts in dt 2 dt
the initial hours of weightlessness is known as space 1 2
adaptation snydrome (space sickness). Hence r  = constant.
2
14.3 Law of Periods
14. KEPLER’S LAWS
The square of the time for the planet to complete a
14.1 Law of Orbit revolution about the sun is proportional to the cube of
semimajor axis of the elliptical orbit.
Each Planet move surround the sun in an elliptical orbit
with the sun at one of the foci as shown in figure. The
eccentricity of an ellipse is defined as the ratio of the
SO
distance SO and AO i.e. e 
AO
SO
 e SO  ea
a i.e. Centripetal force = Gravitational force

mv 2 GMm GM
 2
  v2
R R R

Now, velocity of the planet is

Circumference of the circular orbit 2R

v 
Time period T

The distance of closest approach with sun at F1 is AS. Substituting Value in above equation
This distance is called perigee. The greatest distance (BS)
of the planet from the sun is called apogee. GM 4 2 R 2 2 4 2 R 3
  or T 
Perigee (AS) = AO – OS = a – ea = a (1 – e)
R T2 GM

apogee (BS) = OB + OS = a + ea = a (1 + e)  4 2 
Since   is constant,

14.2 Law of Area  GM 
The line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal intervals of time. A planet takes the same T2
 T 2  R 3 or  constant
time to travel from A to B as from C to D as shown in figure. R3
GRAVITATION

14.4 Gravity Astronomical Data

Gravity is the force of attraction exerted by earth towards is

centre on a body lying on or near the surface of earth. Gravity
is merely a special case of gravitation and is also called
earth’s gravitational pull.
Weight of a body is defined as the force of attraction exerted
by the earth on the body towards its centre.
The units and dimenstions of gravity pull or weight are the
same as those of force.

LAUNCHING OF AN ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE AROUND EARTH

The satellite is placed upon the rocket which is launched from the earth. After the rocket reaches its maximum vertical height
h, a spherical mechanism gives a thrust to the satellite at point A (figure) producing a horizontal velocity v. The total energy
of the satellite at A is thus,

1 GMm
E mv2 
2 Rh
The orbit will be an ellipse (closed path), a parabola, or an hyperbola depending on whether E is negative, zero, or positive. In all cases
the centre of the earth is at one focus of the path. If the energy is too low, the elliptical orbit will intersect the earth and the satellite will
fall back. Otherwise it will keep moving in a closed orbit, or will escape from the earth, depending on the values of v and R.
Hence a satellite carried to a height h (<< R) and given a horizontal velocity of 8 km/sec will be placed almost in a circular orbit
around the earth (figure). If launched at less than 8 km/sec, it would get closer and closer to earth until it hits the ground. Thus
8 km/sec is the critical (minimum) velocity.

14.5 Intertial mass GM m G F F

F or m G  
Inertial mass of a body is related to its inertia in linear motion; R 2
GM / R 2
 I 
and is defined by Newton’s second law of motion.
The mass mG of the body in this sence is the gravitational
Let a body of mass mi move with acceleration a under the mass of the body. The intertia of the body has no effect on
action of an external force F. According to Newton’s second the gravitational mass of the body.
law of motion, F = mi a or mi = F/a
mG = F
Thus, inertial mass of a body is equal to the magnitude of
Thus, Gravitational mass of a body is defined as the
external force required to produce unit acceleration in the
magnitude of gravitational pull experienced by the body in
body.
a gravitational field of unit intensity.
14.6 Gravitational mass
14.7 Centre of Gravity
Gravitational mass of a body is related to gravitational pull
Centre of gravity of a body placed in the gravitational field is
on the body, and is defined by Newton’s law of gravitational.
that point where the net gravitational force of the field acts.
 Mechanical Properties of Solids
1. Introduction
A rigid body generally means a hard solid
object having a definite shape and size. But
in reality, bodies can be stretched,
compressed and bent. Even the appreciably
rigid steel bar can be deformed when a
sufficiently large external force is applied on
it. This means that solid bodies are not
perfectly rigid. A solid has definite shape
and size. In order to change (or deform) the
shape or size of a body, a force is required.
2. Deforming Force
A force which produces a change in
configuration (size or shape) of the object
on applying it, is called a deforming force.
3. Elasticity
Elasticity is that property of the object by
virtue of which it regains its original
configuration after the removal of the
deforming force.
For example, if we stretch a rubber band
and release it, it snaps back to its original
length.
4. Perfectly Elastic Body
Those bodies which regain its original
configuration immediately and completely
after the removal of deforming force are
called perfectly elastic bodies. The nearest
approach to a perfectly elastic body is
quartz fibre.
5. Plasticity
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If a body does not regains its original size
and shape completely and immediately
after the removal of deforming force, it is
said to be a plastic body and this property is
called plasticity.
6. Perfectly plastic body
That body which does not regain its original
configuration at all on the removal of
deforming force are called perfectly plastic
bodies.Putty and paraffin wax are nearly
perfectly plastic bodies.
7. Stress
If a body gets deformed under the action of
an external force, then at each section of
the body an internal force of reaction is set
up which tends to restore the body into its
original state.
7.1 Definition
The internal restoring force set up per unit
area of cross section of the deformed body
is called stress.
7.2 Mathematical Form
Applied Force
Stress =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal.
Its dimensional formula is [ML-1T -2 ].
7.3 Types of stress
There are three different types of stress
1. Longitudinal Stress
1
 Mechanical Properties of Solids

If deforming force is applied normal to the area 8.1 Mathematical Equation

of cross section, then the stress is called
longitudinal stress. It is further categorized in change in dimension
Strain =
two types original dimension

(a) Tensile stress If there is an increase It has no unit and it is a dimensionless

in length of the object under the effect quantity.
of applied force, then stress is called
According to the change in
tensile stress.
configuration, the strain is of three
(b) Compressional stress If there is a
types
decrease in length of the object under
the effect of applied force, then stress is change in length
(1) longitudinal strain=
called compression stress. original length

change in volume
(2) Volumetric strain = Original volume

(3) 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 tangential applied force

Area of face

9. Hooke’s Law

Robert Hook found that within the

elastic limit, the stress is directly
2. Tangential or Shearing Stress proportional to strain. Thus we have

If deforming force acts tangentially to 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∝ 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

the surface of a body, it produces a
or
change in the shape of the body. The
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲. 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
tangential force applied per unit area is
called tangential stress. where K is the constant of
proportionality called “Elastic Modulus”
3. Normal Stress
of the material.
If a body is subjected to a uniform force
There are some materials that do not
from all sides, then the corresponding
obey Hooke’s law like rubber, human’s
stress is called hydrostatic stress.
muscle.
8.Strain
9.1 Types of Modulus of rigidity
When a deforming force acts on a body,
9.1.1 Young’s Modulus of rigidity (Y)
the body undergoes a change in its
shape and size. The fractional change in
configuration is called strain.

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 Mechanical Properties of Solids

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress Compressibility

to the longitudinal strain within the
Compressibility of a material is the
elastic limit.
reciprocal of its bulk modulus of elasticity.
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Compressibility (C) = 1 / k
Y=
Longitudinal strain Its SI unit is N-1m 2 and CGS unit is dyne-1
It has same units as stress because cm2 .
strain does not have any unit. Y is 9.1.3 Modulus of rigidity or shear
measured in N/m2 or Pa. Modulus (𝜼)
Metals generally have large values of 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Young’s modulus compare to other 𝜼=
shear strain
materials. In scientific terms, the higher
𝐹
the Young’s modulus of the material the 𝐹
𝜼= 𝐴 =
more elastic it is. ϒ 𝐴ϒ

9.1.2 Bulk Modulus of Rigidity 𝐹

𝜼=
Aϒ
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
κ=
Volumetric strain
−𝐹/𝐴
or κ= = - pV/∆𝑉
∆V/V

The SI unit of bulk modulus is N/m2

The SI unit of shear modulus is N/m2

The shear modulus of a material is

always considerably smaller than the
Young’s modulus for it.

10. Limit of elasticity

The maximum value of deforming force for
which elasticity is present in the body is
called its limit of elasticity.

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 Mechanical Properties of Solids
11.Stress- strain Curve
Figure shows the stress-strain curve for a
metal wire which is gradually being loaded.
(a) The initial part OA of the graph is a
straight line indicating that stress is
proportional to strain. Upto the point A,
Hooke’s law is obeyed. The point A is called
the proportional limit. In this region, the
wire is perfectly elastic.
(b) After the point A, the stress is not
proportional to strain and a curved portion
AB is obtained. However, if the load is
removed at any point between O and B, the
curve is retraced along BAO and the wire
attains its original length. The portion OB of
the graph is called elastic region and the
point B is called elastic limit or yield point.
The stress corresponding to B is called yield
strength.
(c) Beyond the point B, the strain increases
more rapidly than stress. If the load is
removed at any point C, the wire does not
come back to its original length but traces
dashed line. Even on reducing the stress to
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zero, a residual strain equal to OE is left in
the wire. The material is said to have
acquired a permanent set. The fact that
stress-strain curve is not retraced on
reversing the strain is called elastic
hysteresis.
(d) If the load is increased beyond the point
C, there is large increase in the strain or the
length of the wire. In this region, the
constrictions ( called necks and waists)
develop at few points along the length of
the wire and the wire breaks ultimately at
the point D, called the fracture point.
In the region between B and D, the length
of the wire goes on increasing even without
any addition of load. This region is called
plastic region and material is said to
undergo plastic flow or plastic deformation.
The stress corresponding to the braking
point is called ultimate strength or tensile
strength of the material.
12. Elastic after Effect
The bodies return to their original state on
the removal of the deforming force. Some
bodies return to their original state
immediately after the removal of the
deforming force while some bodies take
longer time to do so. The delay in regaining
the original state by a body on the removal
of the deforming force is called elastic after
effect.
13. Elastic Fatigue
The property of an elastic body by virtue of
which its behavior becomes less elastic
4
 Mechanical Properties of Solids
under the action of repeated alternating
deforming force is called elastic fatigue.
14. Ductile Materials
The materials which have large plastic range
of extension are called ductile materials.
Such materials undergo an irreversible
increase in length before snapping. So they
can be drawn into thin wires. For e.g.
copper, silver, iron, aluminium etc.
15 Brittle Materials
The materials which have very small range
of plastic extension are called brittle
materials. Such materials break as soon as
the stress is increased beyond the elastic
limit. For e.g. cast iron, glass, ceramics etc.
16. Elastomers
The materials for which strain produced is
much larger than the stress applied, with in
the limit of elasticity are called elastomers,
e.g., rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta, the
large vessel carrying blood from heart. etc.
Elastomers have no plastic range.
17. Elastic Potential Energy of
stretched wire
When a wire is stretched, interatomic
forces come into play which opposes the
change. Work has to done against these
restoring forces. The work done in
stretching the wire is stored in it as its
elastic potential energy.
18. Poisson’s Ratio
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When a deforming force is applied at the
free end of a suspended wire of length 1
and diameter D, then its length increases by
∆l but its diameter decreases by ∆𝐷. Now
two types of strains are produced by a
single force.
∆𝑙
(i) Longitudinal strain =
𝑙
−∆𝐷
(ii) Lateral strain = – D
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
∴ Poisson’s Ratio (σ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛=
−∆𝐷
D 𝑙∆𝐷
= ∆𝑙 =− 𝐷∆𝑙
𝑙
The negative sign shows that longitudinal
and lateral strains are in opposite sense.
As Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of two strains,
it has no units and dimensions.
The theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies
between – 1 and 0.5. Its practical value lies
between 0 and 0.5
19. Applications of elasticity
The elastic behavior of materials plays an
important role in everyday life. All
engineering designs require precise
knowledge of the elastic behavior of
materials. For example while designing a
building, the structural design of the
columns, beams and supports require
knowledge of strength of materials used.
A bridge has to be designed such that it can
withstand the load of the flowing traffic, the
force of winds and its own weight. Similarly,
in the design of buildings use of beams and
5
 Mechanical Properties of Solids

columns is very common. In both the cases,

the overcoming of the problem of bending
of beam under a load is of prime
importance. The beam should not bend too
much or break. Let us consider the case of a
beam loaded at the centre and supported
near its ends as shown in Fig.

A bar of length l, breadth b, and depth d

when loaded at the centre by a load W sags
by an amount given by δ = W l 3/(4bd3Y)

Bending can be reduced by using a material

with a large Young’s modulus Y. Depression
can be decreased more effectively by
increasing the depth d rather than the
breadth b. But a deep bar has a tendency to
bend under the weight of a moving traffic,
hence a better choice is to have a bar of I-
shaped cross section. This section provides
a large load bearing surface and enough
depth to prevent bending. Also this shape
reduces the weight of the beam without
sacrificing its strength and hence reduces
the cost.

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 EMI & AC

EMI & AC
THEORY

1. MAGNETIC FLUX
Various Methods of Producing induced E.M.F.
(1) The total number of magnetic lines of force passing
normally through an area placed in a magnetic field is equal We have learnt that e.m.f. is induced in a circuit, whenever
to the magnetic flux linked with that area. the amount of magnetic flux linked with the circuit is
changed. As I = BA cos T, the magnetic flux I can be
changed by changing B, A or T. Hence there are three
methods of producing induced e.m.f.
1. By changing the magnitude of magnetic field B,
2. By changing the area A, i.e., by shrinking or stretching or
changing the shape of the coil.
3. By changing angle T between the direction of B and normal
to the surface area A, i.e., changing the relative orientation
of the surface area and the magnetic field.
(2) Net flux through the surface I = ³ B. dA = BA cos T
3. LENZ’S LAW
(T is the angle between area vector and magnetic field
vector) If T = 0o then I= BA, If T = 90o then I = 0 This law gives the direction of induced emf/induced current.
According to this law, the direction of induced emf or current in a
(3) Unit and Dimension : Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity. It’s
circuit is such as to oppose the cause that produces it. This law is
S.I. unit is weber (wb), CGS unit is Maxwell or Gauss × cm2;
based upon law of conservation of energy.
(1wb = 108 Maxwell).
(1) When N-pole of a bar magnet moves towards the coil, the
Num Joule Volt u Coulomb
(4) Other units : Tesla × m 2 flux associated with loop increases and an emf is induced
Amp Amp Amp
in it. Since the circuit of loop is closed, induced current
= Volt × sec = Ohm × Coulomb = Henry × Amp. It’s also flows in it.
dimensional formula [I] = [ML2T–2A–1]
(2) Cause of this induced current, is approach of north pole
2. FARADAY’S LAWS OF EMI and therefore to oppose the cause, i.e., to repel the
approaching north pole, the induced current in loop is in
(1) First law : Whenever the number of magnetic lines of such a direction so that the front face of loop behaves as
force (magnetic flux) passing through a circuit changes an north pole. Therefore induced current as seen by observer
emf is produced in the circuit called induced emf. The O is in anticlockwise direction. (figure)
induced emf persists only as long as there is change or
cutting of flux.
(2) Second law : The induced emf is given by rate of change
dI
of magnetic flux linked with the circuit i.e. e  . . For
dt
NdI
N turns e  ; Negative sign indicates that induced
dt
emf (e) opposes the change of flux. (3) If the loop is free to move the cause of induced emf in the
coil can also be termed as relative motion. Therefore to
Induced current (i) Induced charge (q) Induced power (P) oppose the cause, the relative motion between the
e N dI e2 N 2 § dI ·
2 approaching magnet and the loop should be opposed.
N
i  . dq idt  .dI P ¨ ¸ For this, the loop will itself start moving in the direction of
R R dt R R R © dt ¹
motion of the magnet.
Induced charge It depends on (4) It is important to remember that whenever cause of induced
is time indepen- time and resistance emf is relative motion, the new motion is always in the
dent. direction of motion of the cause.
 EMI & AC

Table : The various positions of relative motion between the magnet and the coil

Position of magnet

Direction of Anticlockwise direction Clockwise direction Clockwise direction Anticlockwise direction

induced current

Behaviour of face As a north pole As a south pole As a south pole As a north pole
of the coil

Type of magnetic Repulsive force Attractive force Repulsive force Attractive force
force opposed

Magnetic field linked Cross (×), Increases Cross (×), Decreases Dots (˜) Increases Dots (˜) Decreases
with the coil and it’s
progress as viewed
from left

4. EDDY CURRENT
(i)
When a changing magnetic flux is applied to a bulk piece of
conducting material then circulating currents called eddy currents
are induced in the material. Because the resistance of the bulk
conductor is usually low, eddy currents often have large
magnitudes and heat up the conductor.
(1) These are circulating currents like eddies in water.
(2) Experimental concept given by Focault hence also named
as “Focault current”.
(ii)
(3) The production of eddy currents in a metallic block leads
to the loss of electric energy in the form of heat.
(4) By Lamination, slotting processes the resistance path for
circulation of eddy current increases, resulting in to
weakening them and also reducing losses causes by them
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(5) Application of eddy currents : Though most of the times
eddy currents are undesirable but they find some useful
applications as enumerated below
Dead-beat galvanometer : A dead beat galvanometer
means one whose pointer comes to rest in the final
equilibrium position immediately without any oscillation
about the equilibrium position when a current is passed
in its coil.
This is achieved by winding the coil on a metallic
frame the large eddy currents induced in the frame provide
electromagnetic damping.
Electric-brakes : When the train is running its wheel is
moving in air and when the train is to be stopped by
electric breaks the wheel is made to move in a field created
by electromagnet. Eddy currents induced in the wheels
due to the changing flux oppose the cause and stop
the train.
Induction furnace : Joule’s heat causes the melting of a
metal piece placed in a rapidly changing magnetic field.
Speedometer : In the speedometer of an automobile, a
magnet is geared to the main shaft of the vehicle and it
rotates according to the speed of the vehicle. The magnet
is mounted in an aluminium cylinder with the help of
hair springs. When the magnet rotates, it produces eddy
currents in the drum and drags it through an angle, which
indicates the speed of the vehicle on a calibrated scale.
Energy meter : In energy meters, the armature coil carries
a metallic aluminium disc which rotates between the poles
of a pair of permanent horse shoe magnets. As the
armature rotates, the current induced in the disc tends
to oppose the motion of the armature coil. Due to this
braking effect, deflection is proportional to the energy
consumed.
 EMI & AC

5. INDUCED CHARGE FLOW

When a current is induced in the circuit due to the flux change,
charge flows through the circuit and the net amount of charge
which flows along the circuit is given as :

1 dI 1
q ³ i dt ³ R dt
dt
R
dI ³ when r < a; E =
r dB
2 dt
; En v r

'I 'I 7. DYNAMIC (MOTIONAL) EMI DUE

Ÿ q and q N for N turns.
R R TO TRANSLATORY MOTION

6. INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD (1) Consider a conducting rod of length l moving with a

It is non-conservative and non-electrostatic in nature. Its field uniform velocity v perpendicular to a uniform magnetic
lines are concentric circular closed curves.
field B , directed into the plane of the paper. Let the rod be
dB moving to the right as shown in figure. The conducting
A time varying magnetic field always produced induced electrons also move to the right as they are trapped within
dt
the rod.
electric field in all space surrounding it.
Induced electric field (E in) is directly proportional to

induced emf so e = ³E in .d A ..…(i)

dI
From Faraday’s second laws e  ..…(ii)
dt

dI Conducting electrons experiences a magnetic force

From (i) and (ii) e ³ E in .dA 
dt
This is known as Fm = evB. So they move from P to Q within the rod. The
end P of the rod becomes positively charged while end Q
integral form of Faraday’s laws of EMI.
becomes negatively charged, hence an electric field is set
up within the rod which opposes the further downward
movement of electrons i.e. an equilibrium is reached and
in equilibrium Fe = Fm i.e. eE = evB or E = vB

ª Vº
Ÿ Induced emf e = El = Bvl «E
¬ A »¼

(2) If rod is moving by making an angle T with the direction of

magnetic field or length. Induced emf e = Bvl sinT

A uniform but time varying magnetic field B(t) exists in a

circular region of radius ‘a’ and is directed into the plane
of the paper as shown, the magnitude of the induced
electric field (Ein) at point P lies at a distance r from the
centre of the circular region is calculated as follows.

dI dB dB
So ³E in .dA e
dt
A
dt
i.e. E 2 Sr Sa 2
dt

a 2 dB 1
where r t a or E ; E in v (3) Motion of conducting rod on an inclined plane : When
2r dt r conductor start sliding from the top of an inclined plane
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 EMI & AC

as shown, it moves perpendicular to it’s length but at an (2) Magnetic force : Conductor PQ experiences a magnetic
angle (90  T ) with the direction of magnetic field. force in opposite direction of it’s motion and

§ BvA · B 2 vA 2
Fm BiA B¨ ¸A
© R ¹ R

(3) Power dissipated in moving the conductor : For uniform

motion of rod PQ, the rate of doing mechanical work by
external agent or mech. Power delivered by external source
is given as

dW B 2 vA 2 B2 v 2 A 2
Pmech Pext Fext .v uv
Hence induced emf across the ends of conductor dt R R
e = Bv sin(90 – T)l = Bvl cosT (4) Electrical power : Also electrical power dissipated in
BvA cos T resistance or rate of heat dissipation across resistance is
So induced current i (Directed from Q to P). given as
R
2
The forces acting on the bar are shown in following figure. H § BvA · B2v 2A 2
Pthermal i 2R ¨ ¸ .R ; Pthermal
The rod will move down with constant velocity only if t © R ¹ R
Fm cos T = mg cos (90 – T) = mg sin T (It is clear that Pmech. = Pthermal which is consistent with the
Ÿ Bil cos T = mg sin T principle of conservation of energy.)
(5) Motion of conductor rod in a vertical plane : If conducting
§ Bv A cos T · mgR sin T
B¨ T ¸A cos T mg sin T Ÿ vT rod released from rest (at t = 0) as shown in figure then
© R ¹ B 2 A 2 cos 2 T with rise in it’s speed (v), induces emf (e), induced current
(i), magnetic force (Fm) increases but it’s weight remains
8. MOTIONAL EMI IN LOOP BY GENERATED AREA constant.
Rod will achieve a constant maximum (terminal) velocity
If conducting rod moves on two parallel conducting rails
vT if Fm = mg
as shown in following figure then phenomenon of induced
emf can also be understand by the concept of generated B 2 v T2 A 2 mgR
area (The area swept of conductor in magnetic field, during So mg Ÿ vT
R B2 A 2
it’s motion)

As shown in figure in time t distance travelled by conductor = vt

SPECIAL CASES
Area generated A = lvt. Flux linked with this area I = BA =
Motion of train and aeroplane in earth’s magnetic field
dI
Blvt. Hence induced emf e BvA
dt

(1) Induced current :

e BvA
i
R R
 EMI & AC

Induced emf across the axle of the wheels of the train and it is
across the tips of the wing of the aeroplane is given by e = Bvlv
where l = length of the axle or distance between the tips of the
wings of plane, B v = vertical component of earth’s magnetic field
and v = speed of train or plane.

9. MOTIONAL EMI DUE TO ROTATIONAL MOTION

(1) Conducting rod : A conducting rod of length l whose one
end is fixed, is rotated about the axis passing through it’s
fixed end and perpendicular to it’s length with constant
angular velocity Z. Magnetic field (B) is perpendicular to
the plane of the paper.
emf induces across the ends of the rod
where Q = frequency (revolution per sec) and T = Time
period.
(4) Semicircular conducting loop : If a semi-circular
conducting loop (ACD) of radius ‘r’ with centre at O, the
plane of loop being in the plane of paper. The loop is now
made to rotate with a constant angular velocity Z, about
an axis passing through O and perpendicular to the plane
of paper. The effective resistance of the loop is R.

In time t the area swept by the loop in the field i.e. region II

(2) Cycle wheel : A conducting wheel each spoke of length l 1 1 2 dA r 2Z

A r rT r Zt ;
is rotating with angular velocity Z in a given magnetic 2 2 dt 2

field as shown below in fig. Flux link with the rotating loop at time t I = BA. Hence induced

Due to flux cutting each metal spoke becomes identical dI dA BZr 2

emf in the loop in magnitude e B and
cell of emf e (say), all such identical cells connected in dt dt 2
parallel fashion enet = e (emf of single cell). Let N be the e BZr 2
induced current i
R 2R
1
number of spokes hence e net BZA 2 ; Z 2 Sv
2 10. PERIODIC EMI
Suppose a rectangular coil having N turns placed initially in a
magnetic field such that magnetic field is perpendicular to it’s
plane as shown.
Z–Angular speed
v–Frequency of rotation of coil
R–Resistance of coil
Here e net v N 0 i.e. total emf does not depends on number
of spokes ‘N’.
(3) Faraday copper disc generator : A metal disc can be
assumed to made of uncountable radial conductors when
metal disc rotates in transverse magnetic field these
radial conductors cuts away magnetic field lines and
because of this flux cutting all becomes identical cells each

1
of emf ‘e’ where e BZr 2
2
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 EMI & AC

For uniform rotational motion with Z, the flux linked with coil at (1) Coefficient of self-induction : Number of flux linkages with
any time t the coil is proportional to the current i. i.e. NI v i or

I = NBA cos T = NBA cos Zt NI Li (N is the number of turns in coil and NI – total

I = I0 cosZt where I0 = NBA = maximum flux flux linkage). Hence L

NI
= coefficient of self-induction.
i
(1) Induced emf in coil : Induced emf also changes in periodic
manner that’s why this phenomenon called periodic EMI (2) If i = 1amp, N = 1 then, L = I i.e. the coefficient of self
dI induction of a coil is equal to the flux linked with the coil
e  = NBA Z sinZt Ÿ e = e0 sinZt where e0 = emf when the current in it is 1 amp.
dt
amplitude or max. emf = NBA Z = I0Z dI
(3) By Faraday’s second law induced emf e N . Which
dt
e e0
(2) Induced current : At any time t, i sinZt = i0
R R di di
gives e L ; If = amp/sec then | e |= L.
sinZt where i 0 = current amplitude or max. current dt dt

e0 NBAZ I0 Z Hence coefficient of self induction is equal to the emf

i0
R R R induced in the coil when the rate of change of current in
the coil is unity.
11. INDUCTANCE
(4) Units and dimensional formula of ‘L’ : It’s S.I. unit
(1) Inductance is that property of electrical circuits which
opposes any change in the current in the circuit. weber Tesla u m 2 Num Joule Coulomb u volt
2 2
Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp 2
(2) Inductance is inherent property of electrical circuits. It will
always be found in an electrical circuit whether we want it
or not. volt u sec
ohm u sec . But practical unit is henry (H).
amp
(3) A straight wire carrying current with no iron part in the
circuit will have lesser value of inductance. It’s dimensional formula [L] = [ML2T–2A–2]
(4) Inductance is analogous to inertia in mechanics, because (5) Dependence of self inductance (L) : ‘L’ does not depend
inductance of an electrical circuit opposes any change of upon current flowing or change in current flowing but it
current in the circuit. depends upon number of turns (N), Area of cross section
(A) and permeability of medium (P).
11.1 Self Induction
‘L’ does not play any role till there is a constant current
Whenever the electric current passing through a coil or circuit
flowing in the circuit. ‘L’ comes in to the picture only when
changes, the magnetic flux linked with it will also change. As a
there is a change in current.
result of this, in accordance with Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction, an emf is induced in the coil or the circuit which opposes (6) Magnetic potential energy of inductor : In building a
the change that causes it. This phenomenon is called ‘self steady current in the circuit, the source emf has to do
induction’ and the emf induced is called back emf, current so work against of self inductance of coil and whatever
produced in the coil is called induced current. energy consumed for this work stored in magnetic field
of coil this energy called as magnetic potential energy (U)
of coil

i 1 2
U ³0
Lidi
2
Li ;

1 NIi
Also U Li i
2 2

(7) The various formulae for L

 EMI & AC

Condition Figure 11.2 Mutual Induction

Whenever the current passing through a coil or circuit changes,

the magnetic flux linked with a neighbouring coil or circuit will
Circular coil also change. Hence an emf will be induced in the neighbouring
coil or circuit. This phenomenon is called ‘mutual induction’.
P 0 SN 2 r
L
2

Solenoid

P0 N 2r
L P 0 n 2 AA
A

(1) Coefficient of mutual induction : Total flux linked with the

secondary due to current in the primary is N2I2 and N2I2
P 0N 2r
Toroid L
2 v i1 Ÿ N2I2= Mi1 where N1 - Number of turns in primary;
N2 - Number of turns in secondary; I2 - Flux linked with
each turn of secondary; i1 - Current flowing through
primary; M-Coefficient of mutual induction or mutual
inductance.
Square coil (2) According to Faraday’s second law emf induces in

2 2P 0 N 2 a dI 2 di1
L secondary e 2 N 2 ; e2 M
S dt dt

Triangular coil di1 1Amp

(3) If then |e2| = M. Hence coefficient of mutual
dt sec
P 0 18 Ni
B . induction is equal to the emf induced in the secondary
4S A
coil when rate of change of current in primary coil is unity.

§ P 18 Ni · §¨ 3 2 ·¸ (4) Units and dimensional formula of M : Similar to self-

N¨ 0 . ¸u A
© 4S A ¹ ¨© 4 ¸
¹
inductance (L)
L
i (5) Dependence of mutual inductance
(i) Number of turns (N1, N2) of both coils
9 3 P0 N 2A
L Ÿ L v N2 (ii) Coefficient of self inductances (L1, L2) of both the coils
8S
(iii) Area of cross-section of coils

Coaxial cylinders (iv) Magnetic permeability of medium between the coils (Pr)
P0 r or nature of material on which two coils are wound
L log e 2
2 Sr r1
(v) Distance between two coils (As d increases so M
2.303 r decreases)
P 0 log10 2
2 Sr r1
(vi) Orientation between primary and secondary coil (for 90o
orientation no flux relation M = 0)
(vii) Coupling factor ‘K’ between primary and secondary
coil
 EMI & AC

(6) Relation between M, L1 and L2 : For two magnetically Condition Figure

coupled coils M K L1L 2 ; where k – coefficient of
Two concentric coplaner
coupling or coupling factor which is defined as
circular coils

K
Magnetic flux linked in sec ondary
; SP 0 N1N 2 r 2
M
Magnetic flux linked in primary 2R
0dKd1

Two Solenoids

P 0 N1 N 2 A
M
A

Two concentric
(7) The various formulae for M : coplaner square coils

P 0 2 2 N1 N 2 A 2
M
SL

12. COMBINATION OF INDUCTANCE

(1) Series : If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 having mutual inductance are in series and are far from each other, so that the
mutual induction between them is negligible, then net self inductance LS = L1 + L2

When they are situated close to each other, then net inductance LS = L1 + L2 ± 2M

Mutual induction is absent (k = 0) Mutual induction is present and Mutual induction is present and
favours self inductance of coils opposes self inductance of coils

Leq = L1 + L2

Current in same direction Current in opposite direction

Winding nature same Opposite winding nature
Their flux assist each other Their flux opposes each other
Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M Leq = L1 + L2 – 2M

(2) Parallel : If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 having When they are situated close to each other, then
mutual inductance are connected in parallel and are far
1 1 1 L1L 2  M 2
from each other, then net inductance L is  LP
LP L1 L 2 L1  L 2 r 2M

L1L 2
Ÿ LP
L1  L 2
 EMI & AC

Mutual induction is absent (k = 0) Mutual induction is present and Mutual induction is present and
favours self inductance of coils opposes self inductance of coil

L1L 2 L1L 2  M 2 L1L 2  M 2

L eq L eq L eq
L1  L 2 L1  L 2  2M L1  L 2  2M

13. GROWTH AND DECAY OF CURRENT IN LR­ CIRCUIT

If a circuit containing a pure inductor L and a resistor R in series

with a battery and a key then on closing the circuit current
through the circuit rises exponentially and reaches up to a certain
maximum value (steady state). If circuit is opened from it’s steady
state condition then current through the circuit decreases
exponentially.
(4) Behaviour of inductor : The current in the circuit grows
exponentially with time from 0 to the maximum value

§ E·
i¨ ¸ . Just after closing the switch as i = 0, inductor act
© R¹

as open circuit i.e. broken wires and long after the switch
has been closed as i = i0, the inductor act as a short circuit
i.e. a simple connecting wire.

(1) The value of current at any instant of time t after closing

the circuit (i.e. during the rising of current) is given by

ª  tº
R
E
i i 0 «1  e L » ; where i 0 i max = steady state
«¬ »¼ R

current.
(2) The value of current at any instant of time t after opening
from the steady state condition (i.e. during the decaying
R
 t
of current) is given by i i 0e L

L
(3) Time constant (W) : It is given as W ; It’s unit is second.
R
In other words the time interval, during which the current
in an inductive circuit rises to 63% of its maximum value at 14. LC­ OSCILLATION
make, is defined as time constant or it is the time interval,
during which the current after opening an inductive circuit When a charged capacitor C having an initial charge q0 is
falls to 37% of its maximum value. discharged through an inductance L, the charge and current in the
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 EMI & AC

circuit start oscillating simple harmonically. If the resistance of

the circuit is zero, no energy is dissipated as heat. We also assume
an idealized situation in which energy is not radiated away from
the circuit. The total energy associated with the circuit is constant.

1 rad
Frequency of oscillation is given by Z
LC sec

1 The oscillation of the LC circuit are an electromagnetic analog to

or Hz
2S LC the mechanical oscillation of a block-spring system.
 EMI & AC

15. DC MOTOR Ee E  kZ ; When motor

(5) Current in the motor : i
R R
It is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. E
is just switched on i.e. Z = 0 so e = 0 hence i =
(1) Principle : It is based on the fact that a current carrying R
coil placed in the magnetic field experiences a torque. This
maximum and at full speed, Z is maximum so back emf e is
torque rotates the coil.
maximum and i is minimum. Thus, maximum current is drawn
when the motor is just switched on which decreases when
motor attains the speed.
(6) Motor starter : At the time of start a large current flows
through the motor which may burn out it. Hence a starter
is used for starting a dc motor safely. Its function is to
introduce a suitable resistance in the circuit at the time of
(2) Construction : It consists of the following components starting of the motor. This resistance decreases gradually
figure. and reduces to zero when the motor runs at full speed.

The value of starting resistance is maximum at time t = 0

and its value is controlled by spring and electromagnetic
system and is made to zero when the motor attains its safe
ABCD = Armature coil, S1, S2 = split ring comutators speed.
B1, B2 = Carbon brushes, N, S = Strong magnetic poles (7) Mechanical power and Efficiency of dc motor :

(3) Working : Force on any arm of the coil is given by Pmechanical Pout e Back e.m.f .
Efficiency K
Psup plied Pin E Supply voltage
F i A u B in fig., force on AB will be perpendicular to
plane of the paper and pointing inwards. Force on CD will (8) Uses of dc motors : They are used in electric locomotives,
be equal and opposite. So coil rotates in clockwise sense electric ears, rolling mills, electric cranes, electric lifts, dc
when viewed from top in fig. The current in AB reverses drills, fans and blowers, centrifugal pumps and air
due to commutation keeping the force on AB and CD in compressors, etc.
such a direction that the coil continues to rotate in the
16. DC GENERATOR
same direction.
If the current produced by the generator is direct current, then the
(4) Back emf in motor : Due to the rotation of armature coil in
generator is called dc generator.
magnetic field a back emf is induced in the circuit. Which
is given by e = E – iR. dc generator consists of (i) Armature (coil) (ii) Magnet (iii)
Commutator (iv) Brushes
Back emf directly depends upon the angular velocity Z of
In dc generator commutator is used in place of slip rings. The
armature and magnetic field B. But for constant magnetic commutator rotates along with the coil so that in every cycle
field B, value of back emf e is given by e v Z or e = kZ when direction of ‘e’ reverses, the commutator also reverses or
(e = NBAZ sinZt) makes contact with the other brush so that in the external load the
current remains in the some direction giving dc
 EMI & AC

7. If an aeroplane is landing down or taking off and its wings

are in the east-west direction, then the potential difference
or emf will be induced across the wings. If an aeroplane is
landing down or taking off and its wings are in the north-
south direction, then no potential difference or emf will be
induced.

8. When a conducting rod moving horizontally on equator

of earth no emf induces because there is no vertical
component of earth’s magnetic field. But at poles BV is
maximum so maximum flux cutting hence emf induces.

9. When a conducting rod falling freely in earth’s magnetic

field such that it’s length lies along East - West direction
TIPS AND TRICKS then induced emf continuously increases w.r.t. time and
induced current flows from West - East.
1. If a bar magnet moves towards a fixed conducting coil,
then due to the flux changes an emf, current and charge 10. 1 henry = 109 emu of inductance or 109 ab-henry.
induces in the coil. If speed of magnet increases then
induced emf and induced current increases but induced 11. Inductance at the ends of a solenoid is half of it’s the
charge remains same
§ 1 ·
inductance at the centre. ¨ L end L centre ¸ .
© 2 ¹

12. A thin long wire made up of material of high resistivity

behaves predominantly as a resistance. But it has some
amount of inductance as well as capacitance in it. It is
thus difficult to obtain pure resistor. Similarly it is difficult
to obtain pure capacitor as well as pure inductor.
Induced parameter : e1, i1, q1
e2 ( > e1), i2( > i1), q2 (= q1 13. Due to inherent presence of self inductance in all electrical
circuits, a resistive circuit with no capacitive or inductive
2. Can ever electric lines of force be closed curve ? Yes,
element in it, also has some inductance associated with
when produced by a changing magnetic field.
it.
3. No flux cutting No EMI
G JG G
The effect of self-inductance can be eliminated as in the
4. Vector form of motional emf : e vuB A coils of a resistance box by doubling back the coil on itself.

5. In motional emf B, v and A are three vectors. If any two

vector are parallel – No flux cutting.

14. It is not possible to have mutual inductance without self

inductance but it may or may not be possible self
inductance without mutual inductance.

di
6. A piece of metal and a piece of non-metal are dropped from 15. If main current through a coil increases (in) so will be
dt
the same height near the surface of the earth. The non-
metallic piece will reach the ground first because there will positive (+ve), hence induced emf e will be negative (i.e.
be no induced current in it. opposite emf) Ÿ Enet = E – e

16. Sometimes at sudden opening of key, because of high
inductance of circuit a high momentarily induced emf
produced and a sparking occurs at key position. To
avoid sparking a capacitor is connected across the
key.
17. Sometimes at sudden opening of key, because of high
inductance of circuit a high momentarily induced emf
produced and a sparking occurs at key position. To
avoid sparking a capacitor is connected across the
key.
18. One can have resistance with or without inductance but
one can’t have inductance without having resistance.
19. The circuit behaviour of an inductor is quite different from
that of a resistor. while a resistor opposes the current i, an
di
inductor opposes the change in the circuit.
dt
EMI & AC
20. In RL-circuit with dc source the time taken by the current
to reach half of the maximum value is called half life time
L
and it is given by T = 0.693 .
R
21. dc motor is a highly versatile energy conversion device. It
can meet the demand of loads requiring high starting
torque, high accelerating and decelerating torque.
22. When a source of emf is connected across the two ends of
the primary winding alone or across the two ends of
secondary winding alone, ohm’s law can be applied. But
in the transformer as a whole, ohm’s law should not be
applied because primary winding and secondary winding
are not connected electrically.
23. Even when secondary circuit of the transformer is open it
also draws some current called no load primary current for
supplying no load Cu and iron loses.
24. Transformer has highest possible efficiency out of all the
electrical machines.
KINEMATICS

KINEMATICS

MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

IMPORTANT TERMS 2.3 Rest and Motion are relative

Rest and motion depends upon the observer. The object in

1. MECHANICS one situation may be at rest whereas the same object in
another situation may be in motion.
,t is the branch of Physics, which deals with the study of
motion of physical bodies. The driver of a moving car is in motion with respect to an
observer standing on the ground whereas, the same driver is at
Mechanics can be broadly classified into following branches rest with respect to the man(observer) in the passengers seat.
1.1 Statics 3. WHILE STUDYING THIS CHAPTER
It is the branch of mechanics, which deals with the study of ƒ We will treat the objects as Point mass object
physical bodies at rest. x An object can be considered as a point mass object if
during the course of motion it covers distances much
1.2 Kinematics
greater than its own size.
It is the branch of mechanics, which deals with study of ƒ We shall confine ourselves to the study of rectilinear motion
motion of physical bodies without taking into account the x Rectilinear motion is the study of motion of objects along
factors, which causes motion. a straight line.

1.3 Dynamics 4. POSITION, DISTANCE, DISPLACEMENT

It is the branch of mechanics, which deals with the study of 4.1 Position
motion of physical bodies taking into account the factors
which causes motion. x Position of an object is always defined with respect to
some reference point which we generally refer to as origin.
2. REST AND MOTION
x To define the change in position we have two physical
quantities
2.1 Rest
4.2 Distance
x An object is said to be at rest if it does not changes its
position with respect to the surrounding. x It is the actual path traversed by the body during the
course of motion
x The white board in the classroom is at rest with respect
x SI unit is ‘m’
to the classroom
x Dimensions [M0L1T0]
2.2 Motion
4.3 Displacement
x An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position x It is the difference between the final and initial positions
with respect to the surrounding. of the object during the course of motion
x When we walk, run or ride a bike we are in motion with x SI unit is ‘m’
respect to the ground. x Dimensions [M0L1T0]
 KINEMATICS

Difference between Distance and Displacement

Distance Displacement

It is the actual path traversed by the object during It is the difference between the initial and the final positions
the course of motion 'x x2 – x1 where, x2 and x1 are final and initial
position respectively

It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

The distance travelled by an object during the course of The displacement of an object may be positive,
motion is never negative or zero and is always positive negative or, zero during the course of motion

The distance travelled is either equal or greater The magnitude of displacement is less than or equal
than displacement and is never less than magnitude to the distance travelled during the course of motion
of displacement Distance t _Displacement_

The distance depends upon the path travelled The magnitude of displacement is independent of the
path taken by an object during the course of motion

Difference between Speed and Velocity

Speed Velocity

It is defined as the total path length travelled divided by It is defined as the change in position or displacement
the total time interval during which the motion has taken divided by the time intervals, in which displacement
place occurs of

It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

It is always positive during the course of the motion It may be positive, negative or zero during the course of
the motion

It is greater than or equal to the magnitude of velocity It is less than or equal to the speed

NOTE Example:- mass, length, time, distance, speed, work,

temperature
If the motion of an object is along a straight line and in the
same direction, the magnitude of displacement is equal to the 5.2 Vector quantities
total path length. In that case, the magnitude of average
velocity is equal to the average speed. This is not always the The physical quantities which have magnitude as well
case. The average velocity tells us how fast an object has as direction, are called vector quantities.
been moving over a given interval but does not tell us how Example:- displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
fast it moves at different instants of time during that interval. momentum, torque

5. SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES 6. AVERAGE VELOCITY AND AVERAGE SPEED

5.1 Scalar quantities 6.1 Average velocity

The physical quantities which have only magnitude but x It is defined as the change in position or
no direction, are called scalar quantities. displacement divided by the time intervals, in which
KINEMATICS

displacement occurs
where, v2 and v1 are velocities at time t2 and t1.
x SI unit of velocity is m/s, although km/hr is used in
x It is the average change of velocity per unit time.
many everyday applications
x SI unit m/s2
x Dimensions [M0L1T-1]
x Dimensions [M0L1T-2]
6.2 Average speed
8.2 Instantaneous Acceleration
x It is defined as the total path length travelled divided
by the total time interval during which the motion x Instantaneous acceleration is defined in the same
has taken place way as the instantaneous velocity :
x SI unit m/s a = 'lim ('v/'t) = dv/dt
t o0
x Dimensions [M0L1T-1] x SI unit m/s2
7. INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND x Dimensions [M0L1T-2]
INSTANTANEOUS SPEED x When the acceleration is uniform, obviously,
instantaneous acceleration equals the average
7.1 Instantaneous velocity acceleration over that period
x Since velocity is a quantity having both magnitude and
x It is velocity at an instant t. The velocity at an instant
direction, a change in the velocity may involve either or
is defined as the limit of the average velocity as the
both of these factors.
time interval 't becomes infinitesimally small.
x Acceleration, therefore, may result from a change in the
x Instantaneous velocity = Lt ('x/'t) = dx/dt
speed(magnitude), a change in direction or changes in
x The quantity on the right hand side of Eq is the both.
differential coefficient of x with respect to t and is
x Like velocity, acceleration can also be positive, negative
denoted by dx/dt.
or zero.
x It is the rate of change of position with respect to
NOTE
time at that instant.
x SI unit is m/s We will restrict ourselves to the study of constant acceleration
for this chapter. In this case average acceleration equals the
x Dimensions [M0L1T-1] constant value of acceleration during the interval
7.2 Instantaneous Speed x If the velocity of an object is vo at t=0 and v at time t, we
have
x Instantaneous speed or speed is the magnitude of
v  v0
velocity o a
t0
x SI unit is m/s
or, v = vo + at — This is first equation of motion
x Dimensions [M0L1T-1]
o Other equations of motion are :
8. ACCELERATION
S = v0t + ½ at2

8.1 Average Acceleration v2 – v02 = 2aS

x The average acceleration over a time interval is a

S = v0 + (2n – 1)
defined as the change of velocity divided by the 2
time interval : o In all the above equations acceleration is assumed
a = (v2 – v1)/(t2 – t1) to be constant
 KINEMATICS

9. GRAPHS

9.1 Uniform motion

x In an uniform motion a body covers equal distance in equal interval of time.

x Velocity is constant during the course of motion

x Acceleration is zero during the course of motion

If we try to represent the same on the number line with x, v, a on the Y-axis and t on the X-axis then we will have

displacement – time graph velocity – time graph acceleration – time graph

n
velocity = slope of x – t graph acc = slope of v – t graph

(i)

Nautre of slope : positive nature of slope : zero nature of slope of a – t

magnitude of slope : constant magnitude of slope : constant

(ii)

nature of slope : negative nature of slope : zero

magnitude of slope : constant magnitude of slope : constant
KINEMATICS

9.2 Non-Uniform motion

Uniformly accelerated motion

Accelerated motion
Magnitude of Velocity increases or decreases with time

displacement – time graph velocity – time graph acceleration – time graph

n
velocity = slope of x – t graph acc = slope of v – t graph

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

nature of slope : positive nature of slope : positive

magnitude of slope : Increasing magnitude of slope : constant

(iv)

nature of slope : positive nature of slope : negative

magnitude of slope : decreasing magnitude of slope : constant
 KINEMATICS

displacement – time graph velocity – time graph acceleration – time graph

n
velocity = slope of x – t graph acc = slope of v – t graph

(v)

nature of slope : negative nature of slope : negative

magnitude of slope : increasing magnitude of slope : constant

(vi)

nature of slope : negative nature of slope : positive

magnitude of slope : decreasing magnitude of slope : constant

SEMI CONDUCTOR
1. ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
In case of a single isolated atom, there are single energy levels in
case of solids, the atoms is arranged in a systematic space lattice
and hence the atom is greatly influenced by neighbouring atoms.
The closeness of atoms results in the intermixing of electrons of
neighbouring atoms of course, for the valence electrons in the
outermost shells which are not strongly bounded by nucleus.
Due to intermixing the number of permissible energy levels
increases or there are significant changes in the energy levels.
Hence in case of a solid, instead of single energy levels associated
with the single atom, there will be bands of energy levels.
1.1 Valence Band, Conduction Band & Forbidden Energy Gap
The band formed by a series of energy levels containing the
valence electrons is known as valence band. The valency band
may be defined as a band which is occupied by the valence
electrons or a band having highest occupied band energy.
The conduction band may also be defined as the lowest unfilled
energy band. The separation between conduction band and
valence band is known as forbidden energy gap. There is no
allowed energy state in this gap and hence no electron can stay
in the forbidden energy gap.
1.2 Insulators, Semiconductors and Conductors
On the basis of forbidden band, the insulators, semiconductors
and conductors are described as follows:
1.2.1 Insulators
In case of insulators, the forbidden energy band is very wide.
Due to this fact electrons cannot jump from valence band to
conduction band. In insulators the valence electrons are bond
very tightly to their parent atoms. Increase in temperature enables
some electrons to go to the conduction band.
1.2.2 Semiconductors
In semiconductors, the forbidden band is very small. Germanium
and silicon are the examples of semiconductors. A semiconductor
material is one whose electrical properties lies between insulators
and good conductors. When a small amount of energy is
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SEMI CONDUCTOR
supplied, the electrons can easily jump from valence band to
conduction band. For example when the temperature is increased
the forbidden band is decreased so that some electrons are
liberated into the conduction band.
12..3 Conductors
In case of conductors, there is no forbidden band and the valence
band and conduction band overlap each other. Here plenty of free
electrons are available for electric conduction. A slight potential
difference across the conductor cause the free electrons to constitute
electric current. The most important point in conductors is that due
to the absence of forbidden band, there is no structure to establish
holes. The total current in conductors is simply a flow of electrons.
2. SEMICONDUCTORS
Thus a substance which has resistively in between conductors
and insulators is known as semiconductor.
Semiconductors have the following properties.
(i) They have resistively less than insulators and more than
conductors.
(ii) The resistance of semiconductor decreases with the
increase in temperature and vice versa.
(iii) When suitable metallic impurity like arsenic, gallium etc.
is added to a semiconductors, its current conducting
properties change appreciably.
2.1 Effect of temperatue of Semiconductors
At very low temperature (say 0 K) the semiconductor crystal
behaves as a perfect insulator since the covalent bonds are very
strong and no free electrons are available. At room temperature some
of the covalent bonds are broken due to the thermal energy supplied
to the crystal. Due to the breaking of the bonds, some electrons
become free which were engaged in the formation of these bonds.
The absence of the electron in the covalent bond is represented
by a small circle. This empty place or vacancy left behind in the
crystal structure is called a hole. Since an electron unit negative
charge, the hole carries a unit positive charge.
2.2 Mechanism of conduction of Electrons and Holes
When the electrons are liberated on breaking the covalent bonds,
they move randomly through the crystal lattice.
When an electric field is applied, these free electrons have a
steady drift opposite to the direction of applied field. This
constitute the electric current. When a covalent bond is broken,
a hole is created. For one electron set free, one hole is created.
This thermal energy creates electron-hole pairs-there being as
SEMI CONDUCTOR
many holes as free electrons. These holes move through the
crystal lattice in a random fashion like liberated electrons. When
an external electric field is applied, the holes drift in the direction
of applied field. Thus they constitute electric current.
There is a strong tendency of semiconductor crystal to form a
covalent bonds. Therefore, a hole attracts an electron from the
neighbouring atom. Now a valence electron from nearby covalent
bond comes to fill in the hole at A. This results in a creation of
hole at B. The hole has thus effectively shift from A to B. This
hole move from B to C from C to D and so on.
This movement of the hole in the absence of an applied field is
random. But when an electric field is applied, the hole drifts
along the applied field.
2.3 Carrier Generation and Recombination
The electrons and holes are generated in pairs. The free electrons
and holes move randomly within the crystal lattice. In such a
random motion, there is always a possibility that a free electron
may have an encounter with a hole. When a free electron meets
a hole, they recombine to re-establish the covalent bond. In the
process of recombination, both the free electron and hole are
destroyed and results in the release of energy in the form of heat.
The energy so released, may in turn be re-absorbed by another
electron to break its covalent bond. In this way a new electrol-
hole pair is created.
T hus the process of breaking of covalent bonds and
recombination of electrons and holes take place simultaneously.
When the temperature is increased, the rate of generation of
electrons and holes increases. This is turn increases, the densities
of electrons and hole increases. As a result, the conductivity of
semiconductor increases or resistivity decreases. This is the
reason that semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient
of resistance.
2.4 Pure or Intrinsic Semiconductor and
Impurity or Extrinsic Semiconductors
A semiconductor in an extremely pure from is known as intrinsic
semiconductor or a semiconductor in which electrons and holes
are solely created by thermal excitation is called a pure or intrinsic
semiconductor. In intrinsic semiconductor the number of free
electrons is always equal to the number of holes.
2.4.1 Extrinsic Semiconductors
The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor can be
increased by adding some impurity in the process of
crystallization. The added impurity is very small of the order of
one atom per million atoms of the pure semiconductor. Such
semiconductor is called impurity or extrinsic semiconductor. The
process of adding impurity to a semiconductor is known as doping.
The doping material is either pentavalent atoms (bismuth,
antimony, arsenic, phosphorus which have five valence
electrons) or trivalent atoms (gallium, indium, aluminium, boron
which have three valence electrons). The pentavalent doping
atom is known as donor atom because it donates one electron to
the conduction band of pure semiconductor.
The doping materials are called impurities because they alter the
structure of pure semiconductor crystals.
2.4.2 N–Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting
crystal is called as N-type extrinsic semiconductor.
In case of N-type semiconductor, the following points should be
remembered
(i) In N-type semiconductor, the electrons are the majority
carriers while positive holes are minority carriers.
(ii) Although N-type semiconductor has excess of electrons
but it is electrically neutral. This is due to the fact that
electrons are created by the addition of neutral pentavalent
impurity atoms to the semiconductor i.e., there is no
addition of either negative changes or positive charges.
2.4.3 P–Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure
crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called a
P-type extrinsic semiconductor.
In case of P-type semiconductor, the following points should be
remembered
(i) In P-type semiconductor materials, the majority carriers
are positive holes while minority carriers are the electrons.
(ii) The P–type semiconductor remains electrically neutral
as the number of mobile holes under all conditions remains
equal to the number of acceptors.
2.5 P–N Junction Diode
When a P-type material is intimately joined to N-type, a P-N
junction is formed. In fact, merely-joining the two pieces a P-N
junction cannot be formed because the surface films and other
irregularities produce major discontinuity in the crystal structure.
Therefore a P-N junction is formed from a piece of semiconductor
(say germanium) by diffusing P-type material to one half side
and N-type material to other half side.When P-type crystal is
placed in contact with N-type crystal so as to form one piece, the
assembly so obtained is called P-N junction diode.
2.5.1 Forward Bias
When external d.c. source is connected to the diode with p–section
connected to +ve pole and n–section connected to –e pole, the

junction diode is said to be reverse biased.
2.5.2 Reverse Bias
When an external d.c. battery is connected to junction diode with
P–section connected to –ve pole and n–section connected to
+ve pole, the junction diode is said to be reverse biased.
P–N JUNCTION is such a device (any way) which offers
low resistance when forward biased and behaves like an
insulator when reverse biased.
Symbol :
2.6 Junction Diode as Rectifier
An electronic device which converts a.c. power into d.c. power
is called a rectifier.
2.6.1 Principle
Junction diode offers low resistive path when forward biased
and high resistance when reverse biased.
2.6.2 Arrangement
The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil (P) of step down
transformer. The secondary coil ‘S’ of transformer is connected
to the junction diode and load resistance RL. The output d.c.
voltage is obtained across RL.
2.6.3 Theory
Suppose that during first half of a.c. input cycle the junction
diode get forward biased. The conventional current will flow in
the direction of arrow heats.
SEMI CONDUCTOR
The upper end of RL will be at +ve potential w.r.t. the lower end.
The magnitude of output across RL during first half at any instant
will be proportional to magnitude of current through RL, which in
turn is proportional to magnitude of forward bias and which
ultimately depends upon the value of a.c. input at that time.
Thus output across RL will vary in accordance with a.c. input.
During second half, junction diode get reverse biased and hence
no–output will be obtained. Thus a discontinuous supply is
obtained.
2.7 Full Wave Rectifier
A rectifier which rectifies both halves of a.c. input is called full
wave rectifier.
2.7.1 Principle
Junction Diode offers low resistive path when forward biased
and high resistive path when reverse biased.
2.7.2 Arrangement
The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil (P) of step down
transformer. The two ends of S–coil (secondary) of transformer
are connected to P-section of junction diodes D1 and D2. A load
resistance RL is connected across the n–sections of two diodes
and central tapping of secondary coil. The d.c. output is obtained
across secondary.
2.7.3 Theory
Suppose that during first half of input cycle upper end of s-coil is
at +ve potential. The junction diode D1 gets forward biased,
while D2 gets reverse biased. The conventional current due to
D1 will flow along path of full arrows.
When second half of input cycle comes, the conditions will be
exactly reversed. Now the junction diode D2 will conduct and
the convensional current will flow along path of dotted arrows.
Since current during both the half cycles flows from right to left
through load resistance RL, the output during both the half cycles
will be of same nature.
The right end of RL is at +ve potential w.r.t. left end. Thus in full
wave rectifier, the output is continuous.
SEMI CONDUCTOR
2.8 Transistor
It is three section semiconductor, in which three sections are
combined so that the two at extreme ends have the same type of
majority carriers, while the section that separates them has the
majority carriers in opposite nature. The three sections of
transistor are called emitter (E), Base (B), collector (C).
Symbol :
2.8.1 Action of n-p-n Transistor
Fig. shows that, the n-type emitter is forward biased by connecting
it to -ve pole of VEB (emmitter-base battery) and n-type collector
is reverse biased by connected it to +ve pole of VCB (collector-
base battery).
The majority carriers (e–) in emitter are repelled towards base due
to forward biase. The base contains holes as majority carriers
but their number density is small as it is doper very lightly (5%)
as compared to emitter and collector. Due to the probability of e–
and hole combination in base is small. Most of e– (95%) cross
into collector region where they are swept away by +ve terminal
of battery VCB.
Corresponding to each electron that is swept by collector, an
electron enters the emitter from -ve pole of collector – base battery.
If Ie, Ib, Ic be emitter, base and collector current respectively then
using Kirchoff first law
Ie Ib  Ic
2.8.2 Action p–n–p Transistor
The p–type emitter is forward biased by connecting it to +ve
pole of emitter – base battery and p–type collector is reverse
biased by connected it to –ve pole of collection - base battery. In
this case, majority carriers in emitter i.e. holes are repelled towards
base due to forward biase. As base is lightly doped, it has low
number density of e–. When hole enters base region, then only
5% of e– and hole combination take place. Most of the holes
reach the collector and are swept away by –ve pole of VCB battery.
2.9 Common base Amplifier
In this base of the transistor is common to both emitter and
collector.
(a) Amplifier ckt. using n-p-n transistor : The emitter is
forward biased using emitter bias battery (Vcc) & due to
this, the resistance of input circuit bias battery (Vcc), due
to this, resistance of output circuit is large.

Low input voltage is applied across emitter – base ckt. and
amplified circuit is obtained across collector - base circuit. If Ie,
Ib, Ic be the emitter, base and collector current than
Ie Ib  I c …(i)
When current Ic flows in collector circuit, a potential drop IcRc
occurs across the resistance connected in collector - base circuit
and base collector voltage will be
Vcb Vcc  Ic R c …(ii)
(b) Amplifier circuit using p–n–p Transistor
1. When the positive half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage
comes, it supports the forward biasing of the emitter–base
circuit. Due to this, the emitter current increases and
consequently the collector current increases.
2. As Ic increases, the collector voltage Vc decreases.
3. Since the collector is connected to the negative terminal
of VCC battery of voltage VCB, therefore, the decrease in
collector voltage means the collector will become less
negative. This indicates that during positive half cycle of
input a.c. signal voltage, the output signal voltage at the
collector also varies through the positive half cycle.
4. During negative half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage,
the output signal voltage at the collector also varies
through the negative half cycle. Thus in common base
transitor amplifier circuit the input signal voltage and the
output collector voltage are in the same phase.
2.10 Common Emitter Amplifier
Amplifier circuit using n–p-n transitor
1. The input (emitter base) circuit is forward biased with
battery VBB of voltage VEB, and the output (collector-
emitter) circuit is reversed biased with battery VCC of
voltage VCE. Due to this, the resistance of input circuit is
low and that of output circuit is high. Rc is a load resistance
connected in collector circuit.
2. When no a.c. signal voltage is applied to the input circuit
but emitter base circuit is closed let us consider, that Ie, Ib
SEMI CONDUCTOR
and Ic be the emitter current, base current and collector
current respectively. Then according to Kirchhoff’s first
law
Ie = Ib + Ic
3. When the positive half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage
comes, it supports the forward biasing of the emitter-base
circuit. Due to this, the emitter current increases and
consequently the collector current increases. As a result
of which, the collector voltage Vc decreases.
4. Since the collector is connected to the positive terminal of
VCE battery, therefore decreases in collector voltage means
the collector will become less positive, which means
negative w.r. to initial value. This indicates that during
positive half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage, the output
signal voltage at the collector varies through a negative
half cycle.
5. When negative half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage
comes, it opposes the forward biasing of emitter-base
circuit, due to this the emitter current decreases and hence
collector current decreases; consequently the collector
voltage Vc increases i.e., the collector becomes more
positive. This indicate that during the negative half cycle
of input a.c. signal voltage, the output signal voltage varies
through positive half cycle.
2.11 Common base Amplifier
a.c. current gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in collector
current as constant collector voltage. It is denoted by Dac
§ 'I c ·
D ac ¨ ¸
¨ 'I ¸ [VCB = const.]
© e ¹
Voltage gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage
to the change in input voltage. It is denoted by A.
'I c R out 'I c R out
Av = u
'I e R in 'I e R in
Or Av = DAC × resistance gain,
where Rout/Rin is called resistance gain.
SEMI CONDUCTOR

Power gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in output power

to the change in input power. Therefore,

change in output power 'I c R out

a.c. power gain =
change in input power 'I e R in

'I 2 c R out
u
'I 2 e R in

Or a.c. power gain = D2ac × resistance gain.

4. DIGITAL SIGNALS
2.12 Common Emitter Amplifier
Signals having either of the two levels, 0 or 1, are called digital
a.c. current gain : It is defined as the ratio of the change in signals.
collector to the change in base current. It is denoted by Eac.

§ 'Ic ·
Therefore, Eac = ¨ 'I ¸ [Vce = const.]
© b ¹v

Its value is quite large as compared to 1 and lies between 15 to 50.

Voltage gain : It is the ratio of the change in output voltage to the
change in input voltage. It is denoted by A.

'I c u R out 'I c R out

Av = u
'I b u R in 'I b R in

Or Av = Eac × resistance gain.

a.c. power gain : It is the ratio of the change in output power to
the change in input power. 5. LOGIC GATES
A digital circuit which either stops a signal or allows it to pass
2
change in output power 'I c R out through it is called a gate. A logic gate is an electronic circuit
a.c. power gain = = 2
change in input power 'I b R in which makes logical decisions. Logic gate has one or more inputs
but one output. Logic gates are the basic building blocks for
Or a.c. power pain = E2ac × resistance gain. most of the digital systems. Variables used at the input and output
are 1’s and 0’s. These are three basic logic gates:
2.13 Relation between D and E
(i) OR gate (ii) AND gate
For both the types of amplifier, we have
(iii) NOT gate.
ie = ib + ic
5.1 OR Gate
Dividing both sides of the above equation by Ic, we get
OR gate is an electronic device that combines A and B to give Y
ie ib
1 as output. In this figure two inputs are A and B and output is Y.
ic ic In Boolean algebra OR is represented by +.
? 1/D = (1/E) + 1 or 1/E = (1/D) 1 = (1D)/D
or E = D/ (1D)

3. ANALOG SIGNALS
Truth Table: A truth table may be defined as the table which
Signals which varies continuously with time is called analog gives the output state for all possible input combinations.
signal. A typical analog signal is shown in figure. Circuit used
Logic operations of OR gate are given in its truth table for all
for generating analog signal is called analog electronic circuit.
possible input combinations.
 SEMI CONDUCTOR

Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1 Truth Table :

1 1 1 A B Y’ Y
0 0 0 1
5.2 AND Gate
0 1 1 0
In an AND gate there are two or more inputs and one output. In
1 0 1 0
Boolean algebra AND is represented by a dot (.).
1 1 1 0

Boolean expression for NOT gate is and it is read as Y = A  B

and it is read as Y equals A OR B negated. A NOR function is the
reverse of OR function.
Truth Table

In put Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0 Truth Table :
1 0 0
In put Output
1 1 1
A B Y
5.3 NOT Gate 0 0 1
NOT gate is an electronic circuit which has one input and one 0 1 0
output. This circuit is so called because output is NOT the same 1 0 0
as input. 1 1 0

5.5 NAND Gate

A NAND gate has two or more inputs and one output. Actually
a NAND gate is a NOT–AND gate. If a NOT gate is connected at
the output of a AND gate, we get NAND gate as shown in figure
Boolean expression for NOT gate is Y = A .
and its truth table is given in table.
Truth Table:

In put Output
A Y
0 1
1 0 A B Y’ Y

0 0 0 1
5.4 NOR Gate
0 1 0 1
A NOR gate has two or more inputs and one output. Actually 1 0 0 1
NOR gate is a NOT-OR gate. If a NOT gate is connected at the 1 1 1 0
output of an OR gate, we get NOR gate as shown in figure and its
truth table in table.

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SEMI CONDUCTOR

Truth Table :
Boolean expression for NAND gate, is Y = A . B and is read as Y
In put Output
equals A and B negated.
Logical symbol of NAND gate is shown in figure and its truth A B Y
table in table. 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Like NOR gate, NAND gate can also be used to realize all basic
gates : OR, AND and NOT. Hence it is also known as universal
Gate.
 LAWS OF MOTION

LAWS OF MOTION

1. FORCE 2. BASIC FORCES

(a) A force is something which changes the state of rest or
motion of a body. It causes a body to start moving if it is at
rest or stop it, if it is in motion or deflect it from its initial
path of motion.
(b) Force is also defined as an interaction between two bodies.
Two bodies can also exert force on each other even without
being in physical contact, e.g., electric force between two
charges, gravitational force between any two bodies of
the universe.
(c) Force is a vector quantity having SI unit Newton (N) and
dimension [MLT–2].
(d) Superposition of force : When many forces are acting on
a single body, the resultant force is obtained by using the
o o o o
laws of vector addition. F F1  F2  ...Fn
There are, basically, four forces, which are commonly
encountered in mechanics.
(a) Weight : Weight of an object is the force with which earth
attracts it. It is also called the force of gravity or the
gravitational force.
(b) Contact Force : When two bodies come in contact they
exert forces on each other that are called contact forces.
(i) Normal Force (N) : It is the component of contact
force normal to the surface. It measures how strongly
the surfaces in contact are pressed together.
(ii) Frictional Force (f) : It is the component of contact
force parallel to the surface. It opposes the relative motion
(or attempted motion) of the two surfaces in contact.

o o
The resultant of the two forces F1 and F2 acting at angle

T is given by :

F F12  F22  2F1F2 cos T (c) Tension : The force exerted by the end of a taut string,
rope or chain is called the tension. The direction of tension
The resultant force is directed at an angle D with respect is so as to pull the body while that of normal reaction is to
F2 sin T push the body.
to force F1 where tan D (d) Spring Force : Every spring resists any attempt to change
F1  F2 sin T
its length; the more you alter its length the harder it resists.
The force exerted by a spring is given by F = –kx, where
(e) Lami’s theorem : If three forces F1, F2 and F3 are acting
x is the change in length and k is the stiffness constant or
simultaneously on a body and the body is in equilibrium,
spring constant (unit Nm–1).
then according to Lami’s theorem,

F1 F2 F3
3. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
where DE and J
sin S  D sin S  E sin S  J 3.1 First law of motion
are the angles opposite to the forces F1, F2 & F3 respectively.
(a) Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by a resultant
force to change that state.
(b) This law is also known as law of inertia. Inertia is the
property of inability of a body to change its position of
rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless some
external force acts on it.
(c) Mass is a measure of inertia of a body.
 LAWS OF MOTION

(d) A frame of reference in which Newton’s first law is valid is force by B on A (i.e., reaction represented FBA). Thus,
called inertial frame, i.e., if a frame of reference is at rest or FAB= – FBA.
in uniform motion it is called inertial, otherwise non-inertial. (b) The two forces involved in any interaction between two bodies
3.2 Second law of motion are called action and reaction. But we cannot say that a
particular force is action and the other one is reaction.
(a) This law gives the magnitude of force.
(c) Action and Reaction always act on different bodies.
(b) According to second law of motion, rate of change of
momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force
4. LINEAR MOMENTUM
o
§ o ·
acting on the body, i.e., F v ¨ d p / dt ¸ The linear momentum of a body is defined as the
© ¹
product of the mass of the body and its velocity i.e.
Here, the change in momentum takes place in the direction Linear momentum = mass × velocity
G G
of the applied resultant force. Momentum, p m v is a
If a body of mass m is moving with a velocity v , its
G
measure of sum of the motion contained in the body. G
linear momentum p is given by
(c) Unit force : It is defined as the force which changes the
momentum of a body by unity in unit time. According to G
p mv
G
o o
o d p d § o· d v o dm
this, F v . Linear momentum is a vector quantity. Its direction is the
¨ m v¸ m
dt dt © ¹ dt dt same as the direction of velocity of the body.
If the mass of the system is finite and remains constant the SI unit of linear momentum is kg ms–1 and the cgs unit
w.r.t. time, then (dm/dt) = 0 and of linear momentum is g cm s–1.

o 4.1 Impulse
§ o · o
§ o o·
F m ¨ d v/ dt ¸ m a ¨ p 2  p1 ¸ / t
© ¹ © ¹ Impulse of a force, which is the product of average force
during impact and the time for which the impact lasts, is
(d) External force acting on a body may accelerate it either
measured by the total change in linear momentum
by changing the magnitude of velocity or direction of
produced during the impact.
velocity or both.
(i) If the force is parallel or antiparallel to the motion, impulse of a force is a measure
it changes only the magnitude of v but not the direction.
G of total effect of the force.
So, the path followed by the body is a straight line. The force which act on bodies for short time are called
(ii) If the force is acting A to the motion of body, it impulsive forces. For example :
changes only the direction but not the magnitude of (i) In hitting a ball with a bat,
v . So, the path followed by the body is a circle
G
(ii) In driving a nail into a wooden block with a hammer,
(uniform circular motion). (iii) In firing a gun, etc.
(iii) If the force acts at an angle to the motion of a body, An impulsive force does not remain constant, but changes
G
it changes both the magnitude and direction of v . In first from zero to maximum and then from maximum to
this case path followed by the body may be elliptical, zero. Thus it is not possible to measure easily the value of
non-uniform circular, parabolic or hyperbolic. impulsive force because it changes with time. In such cases,
(e) To apply Newton’s Second Law in non-inertial frame refer we measure the total effect of the force, called impulse.
Section 17 (Page no. 10 Hence
G G
3.3 Third law of motion Fav u t p 2  p1
G G
I

(a) According to this law, for every action there is an equal

5. APPARENT WEIGHT OF A BODY IN A LIFT
and opposite reaction. When two bodies A and B exert
force on each other, the force by A on B (i.e., action (a) When the lift is at rest or moving with uniform velocity,
represented by FAB), is always equal and opposite to the i.e., a=0 :
 LAWS OF MOTION

mg– R = 0 or R = mg ? Wapp. = W0 G G
If FAB is force on A exerted by B, and FBA is force on B
(b) When the lift moves upwards with an acceleration a :
exerted by A,
§ a· then, according to Newton’s second law.
R – mg = ma or R = m(g + a) = mg ¨1  ¸
© g¹ G G G
FAB u 't change in linear momentum of A p A'  p A

§ a· G G G
? Wapp. = W0 ¨1  ¸ FBA u 't change in linear momentum of B pB'  p B
g © ¹
G G
(c) When the lift moves downwards with an acceleration According to Newton’s third law, FAB  FBA
a:
G G G G G G G G
§ a·
?From eqns. p A'  p A  p 'B  p B or p A'  p'B p A  pB
mg – R = ma or R = m (g–a) = mg ¨1  ¸
© g¹ which shows that total final linear momentum of the
isolated system is equal to its total initial linear momentum.
§ a· This proves the principle of conservation of linear
? Wapp. =W0 ¨1  ¸
© g¹ momentum.

Here, if a > g, Wapp. will be negative. Negative apparent

7. FRICTION
weight will mean that the body is pressed against the roof Friction as an opposing force that comes into play when
of the lift instead of floor. one body actually moves (slides or rolls) or even tries
(d) When the lift falls freely, i.e., a = g : to move over the surface of another body.

R = m (g –g) = 0 ? Wapp. = 0
(Wapp. = R = reaction of supporting surface and W0= mg =
true weight.)
6. PRINCIPLE OF OF CONSERVATION
OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
According to this principle, in an isolated system, the
vector sum of the linear momenta of all the bodies of
the system is conserved and is not affected due to their
mutual action and reaction.
Thus, in an isolated system (i.e., a system with no external
force), mutual forces between pairs of particles in the
system can cause changes in linear momentum of
individual particles. But as the mutual forces for each
pair are equal and opposite, the linear momentum changes
cancel in pairs, and the total linear momentum remains
unchanged. Hence the total linear momentum of an
isolated system of interacting particles is conserved. This
principle is an important consequence of second and third
laws of motion.
Let us consider an isolated system comprising of two
G G
bodies A and B, with initial linear momenta p A and p B .
Let them collide for a small time 't and separate with
G G
final linear momenta p'A and p'B respectively. During
collision,
Thus force of friction is the force that developes at the
surfaces of contact of two bodies and impedes (opposes)
their relative motion.
(i) Frictional force is independent of the area of contact.
This is because with increase in area of contact, force of
adhesion also increases (in the same ratio). And the
adhesive pressure responsible for friction, remains the
same.
(ii) When the surfaces in contact are extra smooth, distance
between the molecules of the surfaces in contact decreases,
increasing the adhesive force between them. Therefore,
the adhesive pressure increases, and so does the force of
friction.
7.1 Static Friction, Limiting Friction and Kinetic Friction
The opposing force that comes into play when one body
tends to move over the surfac of another, but the actual
motion has yet not started in called Static friction.
Limiting friction is the maximum opposing force that
comes into play, when one body is just at the verge of
moving over the surface of the other body.
Kinetic frictioin or dynamic friction is the opposing force
that comes into play when one body is actually moving
over the surface of another body.
Kinetic friction is always slightly
less than the limiting friction.
 LAWS OF MOTION

Cause of rolling friction. Let us consider a wheel which

7.2 Laws of limiting friction
is rolling along a road. As the wheel rolls along the road,
(a) Static Friction it slightly presses into the surface of the road and is itself
slightly compressed as shown in Fig.
(i) The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite
to the direction of relative motion, i.e., friction is of
perverse nature.
(ii) The maximum force of static friction, fms (called
limiting friction) is directly proportional to the normal
reaction (R) between the two surfaces in contact. i.e.,

f ms v R ...(1)
Thus, a rolling wheel :
(iii) The force of limiting friction depends upon the nature
(i) constantly climbs a ‘hill’ (BC) in front of it, and
and the state of polish of the two surfaces in contact and it
acts tangential to the interface between the two surfaces. (ii) has to simultaneously get itself detached from the road
(AB) behind it. The force of adhesion between the wheel
(iv) The force of limiting friction is independent of the
and the road opposes this process.
extent of the area of the surfaces in contact so long as the
normal reaction remains the same. Both these processes are responsible for rolling friction.

7.3 Coefficient of Static Friction 9. ANGLE OF FRICTION

We know that, f ms v R or f ms Ps R
The angle of friction between any two surfaces in
contact is defined as the angle which the resultant of
f ms
or Ps ...(2) the force of limiting friction F and normal reaction R
R makes with the direction of normal reaction R.
Here, Ps is a constant of proportionality and is called the It is represented by T.
coefficient of static friction. Thus :
In fig. OA represents the normal reaction R which balances
Coefficient of static friction for any pair of surfaces in the weight mg of the body. OB represent F, the limiting
contact is equal to the ratio of the limiting friction and the force of sliding friction, when the body tends to move to
normal reaction. the right. Complete the parallelogram OACB. Join OC.
Ps, bei g a pure ratio, has got no units and its value depends This represents the resultant of R and F. By definition,
upon the nature of the surfaces in contact. Further, Ps, is ‘AOC = T is the angle of friction between the two bodies
usually less than unity and is never equal to zero. in contact.
Since the force of static friction (fs) can have any value
from zero to maximum (fms), i.e. fs < fms, eqn. (2) is
generalised to
fs < PsR ...(3)
Kinetic Friction
The laws of kinetic friction are exactly the same as those
for static friction. Accordingly, the force of kinetic friction
is also directly proportional to the normal reaction, i.e.,
The value of angle of friction depends on the nature of
f k v R or fk P kR ...(4) materials of the surfaces in contact and the nature of the
surfaces.
8. ROLLING FRICTION
Relation between P and T
The opposing force that comes into play when a body
AC OB F
rolls over the surface of another body is called the In 'AOC, tan T P ...(5)
rolling friction. OA OA R
LAWS OF MOTION
Hence P tan T ...(6)
i.e. coefficient of limiting friction between any two surfaces
in contact is equal to tangent of the angle of friction
between them.
10. ANGLE OF REPOSE OR ANGLE OF SLIDING
Angle of repose or angle of sliding is defined as the
minimum angle of inclination of a plane with the
horizontal, such that a body placed on the plane just
begins to slide down.
It is represented by D. Its value depends on material and
nature of the surfaces in contact.
In fig., AB is an inclined plane such that a body placed on
it just begins to slide down. ‘BAC D = angle of repose.
The various forces involved are :
(i) weight, mg of the body, acting vertically downwards,
(ii) normal reaction, R, acting perpendicular to AB,
(iii) Force of friction F, acting up the plane AB.
Now, mg can be resolved into two rectangular components :
mg cos D opposite to R and mg sin D opposite to F. In
equilibrium,
F = mg sin D ... (7)
R = mg cos D ... (8)
Dividing (7) by (8), we get
F mg sin D
, i.e., P tan D
R mg cos D
Hence coefficient of limiting friction between any two
surfaces in contact is equal to the tangent of the angle of
repose between them.
Combining (6) and (9), we obtain
P = tan T = tan D
? T D
i.e. angle of friction is equal to angle of repose.
11. METHODS OF CHANGING FRICTION
Some of the ways of reducing friction are :
(i) By polishing.
(ii) By lubrication.
(iii) By proper selection of materials.
(iv) By Streamlining.
(v) By using ball bearings.
12. DYNAMICS OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
CONCETP OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Centripetal force is the force required to move a body
uniformly in a circle. This force acts along the radius
and towards the centre of the circle.
Infact, when a body moves in a circle, its direction of
motion at any instant is along the tangent to the circle at
that instant. From fig., we find that the direction of motion
of the body moving in a circle goes on changing
continuously.
According to Newton’s first law of motion, a body cannot
change its direction of motion by itself. An external force
is required for this purpose. It is this external force which
is called the centripetal force.
On account of a continuous change in the direction of
motion of the body, thre is a change in velocity of the
body, an hence it undergoes an acceleration, called
centripetal acceleration or radial acceleration.
An expression for centripetal force is
i.e. F m v2 / r m r Z2
13. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
The natural tendency of a body is to move uniformly along
a straight line. When we apply centripetal force on the
body, it is forced to move along a circle. While moving
actually along a circle, the body has a constant tendency
to regain its natural straight line path. This tendency gives

rise to a force called centrifugal force. Hence
Centrifugal force is a force that arises when a body is
moving actually along a circular path, by virtue of
tendency of the body to regain its natural straight
line path.
Centrifugal forces can be regarded as the reaction of
centripetal force. As forces of action and reaction are always
equal and opposite, therefore, magnitude of centrifugal force
= m v2/r, which is same as that of centripetal force. However,
direction of centrifugal force is opposite to the direction of
centripetal force i.e. centrifugal force acts along the
radius and away from the centre of the circle.
Note that centripetal and centrifugal forces, being the forces
of action and reaction act always on different bodies. For
example, when a piece of stone tied to one end of a string is
rotated in a circle, centripetal force F1 is applied on the stone
by the hand. In turn, the hand is pulled outwards by
centrifugal force F2 acting on it, due to tendency of the stone
to regain its natural straight line path. The centripetal and
centrifugal forces are shown in Fig.
14. ROUNDING A LEVEL CURVED ROAD
When a vehicle goes round a curved road, it requires some
centripetal force. While rounding the curve, the wheels of
the vehicle have a tendency to leave the curved path and
regain the straight line path. Force of friction between the
wheels and the road opposes this tendency of the wheels.
This force (of friction) therefore, acts, towards the centre
of the circular track and provides the necessary centripetal
force.
Three forces are acting on the car, fig.
LAWS OF MOTION
(i) The weight of the car, mg, acting vertically downwards,
(ii) Normal reaction R of the road on the car, acting vertically
upwards,
(iii) Frictional Force F, along the surface of the road, towards
the centre of the turn, as explained already.
As there is no acceleration in the vertical direction,
R – mg = 0 or R = mg ...(1)
The centripetal force required for circular motion is along
the surface of the road, towards the centre of the turn. As
explained above, it is the static friction that provides the
necessary centripetal force. Clearly,
mv 2
dF ...(2)
r
where v is velocity of car while turning and r is radius of
circular track.
As F = PsR = Ps mg, [using (1)]
where Ps is coefficient of static friction between the tyres
and the road. Therefore, from (2),
mv2
d Ps mg or v d Ps rg ? vmax Ps rg ...(3)
r
Hence the maximum velocity with which a vehicle can go
round a level curve ; without skidding is
v P s rg .
The value of depends on radius r of the curve and on
coefficient of static friction (Ps) between the tyres and the
road. Clearly, v is independent of mass of the car.
15. BANKING OF ROADS
The maximum permissible velocity with which a vehicle
can go round a level curved road without skidding depends
on P, the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the
road. The value of P decreases when road is smooth or
tyres of the vehicle are worn out or the road is wet and so
on. Thus force of friction is not a reliable source for
providing the required centripetal force to the vehicle.
A safer course of action would be to raise outer edge of
the curved road above the inner edge. By doing so, a
componenet of normal reaction of the road shall be spared
to provide the centripetal force. The phenomenon of
raising outer edge of the curved road above the inner
edge is called banking of roads. We can calculate the
angle of banking T, as detailed below:
In Fig., OX is a horizontal line. OA is the level of banked
 LAWS OF MOTION

curved road whose outer edge has been raised. ‘XOA = But F < Ps R, where Ps is coefficient of static friction
T = angle of banking. between the banked road and the tyres. To obtain vmax, we
put F = Ps R in (1) and (2).
R cos T = mg + Ps R sin T ...(3)

mv 2
and R sin T + Ps R cos T = ...(4)
r
From (3), R (cos T– Ps sin T) = mg

mg
R ...(5)
cos T  P s sin T

mv 2
From (4), R(sin T + Ps cos T) =
r

mg sin T  Ps cos T mv 2
Using (5),
cos T  Ps sin T r

rg sin T  P s cos T
? v2
cos T  Ps sin T
rg cos T tan T  Ps
Three forces are acting on the vehicle as shown in Fig.
cos T 1  Ps tan T
(i) Weight mg of the vehicle acting vertically downwards.
(ii) Normal reaction R of the banked road acting upwards in a 1/ 2
ª rg Ps  tan T º
direction perpendicular to OA. v « » ...(6)
(iii) Force of friction F between the banked road and the tyres, «¬ 1  Ps tan T »¼
acting along AO.
This is the max. velocity of vehicle on a banked road.
R can be resolved into two rectangular components :-
Discussion
(i) R cos T, along vertically upward direction
(ii) R sin T, along the horizontal, towards the centre of the 1. If Ps = 0, i.e., if banked road is perfectly smooth, then
curved road. from eqn. (51),

F can also be resolved into two rectangular components : 1/ 2

v0 rg tan T ...(7)
(i) F cos T, along the horizontal, towards the centre of curved
road This is the speed at which a banked road can be rounded
(ii) F sin T, along vertically downward direction. even when there is no friction. Driving at this speed on a
As there is no acceleration along the vertical direction, banked road will cause almost no wear and tear of the
the net force along this direction must be zero. Therefore, tyres.

R cos T= mg + F sin T...(1)

From (7), v 20 = rg tan T or tan T v20 / rg ...(8)
If v is velocity of the vehicle over the banked circular
road of radius r, then centripetal force required = mv2/r. 2. If speed of vehicle is less than v0, frictional force will be
This is provided by the horizontal components of R and F up the slope. Therefore, the vehicle can be parked only if
as shown in Fig. tan T < Ps.
Roads are usually banked for the average speed of vehicles
mv 2
? R sin T  Fcos T ...(2) passing over them. However, if the speed of a vehicle is
r
 LAWS OF MOTION

somewhat less or more than this, the self adjusting static In equilibrium, R cos T balances the weight of the cyclist i.e.
friction will operate between the tyres and the road, and
R cos T = mg ...(1)
the vehicle will not skid.
and R sin Tprovides the necessary centripetal force (m v2/r)
The speed limit at which the curve can be negotiated safely
is clearly indicated on the sign boards erected along the m v2
curved roads. ? R sin T ...(2)
r
Note that curved railway tracks are also banked for the
same reason. The level of outer rail is raised a little above R sin T m v2
Dividing (2) by (1), we get
the level of inner rail, while laying a curved railway track. R cos T r mg

16. BENDING OF A CYCLIST v2

tan T
When a cyclist takes a turn, he also requires some rg
centripetal force. If he keeps himself vertical while turning,
Clearly, Twould depend on v and r.
his weight is balanced by the normal reaction of the ground.
In that event, he has to depend upon force of friction For a safe turn, T should be small, for which v should be
between the tyres and the road for obtaining the necessary small and r should be large i.e. turning should be at a slow
centripetal force. As force of friction is small and uncertain, speed and along a track of larger radius. This means, a
dependence on it is not safe. safe turn should neither be fast nor sharp.
To avoid dependence on force of friction for obtaining
17. PSEUDO FORCE
centripetal force, the cyclist has to bend a little inwards
from his vertical position, while turning. By doing so, a G
If observer O is non-inertial with acceleration a 0 and still
component of normal reaction in the horizontal direction
provides the necessary centripetal force. To calculate the wants to apply Newton’s Second Law on particle P, then
angle of bending with vertical, suppose observer has to add a “Pseudo force” in addition to real
forces on particle P.
m = mass of the cyclist,
G G
v = velocity of the cyclist while turning, FPseudo m P a 0
r = radius of the circular path,
Thus, Newton Second Law with respect to O will be
T = angle of bending with vertical.
In Fig., we have shown weight of the cyclist (mg) acting
vertically downwards at the centre of gravity C. R is force
of reaction of the ground on the cyclist. It acts at an angle
Twith the vertical. G G G
FRe al  FPseudo m P a P, O
G G G
i.e., FRe al  m P a O mP a P,O
G
Where a P, O is acceleration of P with respect to observer O.

If observer is in rotating frame then Pseudo force is called

“Centrifugal force”.

R can be resolved into two rectangular components: Remember : Pseudo force is required only and only if
R cos T, along the vertical upward direction, observer is non-inertial.e.g.

R sin T, along the horizontal, towards the centre of the (i) Study of motion with respect to accelerating lift.
circular track. (ii) Study of motion with respect to accelerating wedge.
 LAWS OF MOTION

18. FORCE (a) Weight : Weight of an object is the force with which earth
attracts it. It is also called the force of gravity or the
(a) A force is something which changes the state of rest or gravitational force.
motion of a body. It causes a body to start moving if it is
(b) Contact Force : When two bodies come in contact they
at rest or stop it, if it is in motion or deflect it from its
exert forces on each other that are called contact forces.
initial path of motion.
(i) Normal Force (N) : It is the component of contact
(b) Force is also defined as an interaction between two bodies. force normal to the surface. It measures how strongly
Two bodies can also exert force on each other even without the surfaces in contact are pressed together.
being in physical contact, e.g., electric force between two (ii) Frictional Force (f) : It is the component of contact
charges, gravitational force between any two bodies of force parallel to the surface. It opposes the relative
the universe. motion (or attempted motion) of the two surfaces in
contact.
(c) Force is a vector quantity having SI unit Newton (N) and
dimension [MLT–2].
(d) Superposition of force : When many forces are acting
on a single body, the resultant force is obtained by using
o o o o
the laws of vector addition. F F1  F2  ...Fn

(c) Tension : The force exerted by the end of a taut string, rope or
o o
The resultant of the two forces F1 and F2 acting at angle chain is called the tension. The direction of tension is so as to
pull the body while that of normal reaction is to push the body.
T is given by : (d) Spring Force : Every spring resists any attempt to change
its length; the more you alter its length the harder it resists.
F F  F  2F1F2 cos T
1
2 2
2
The force exerted by a spring is given by F = –kx, where
The resultant force is directed at an angle D with respect x is the change in length and k is the stiffness constant or
spring constant (unit Nm–1).
F2 sin T
to force F1 where tan D
F1  F2 sin T 20. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

(e) Lami’s theorem : If three forces F1, F2 and F3 are acting 20.1 First law of motion
simultaneously on a body and the body is in equilibrium, (a) Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
then according to Lami’s theorem, motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by a
F1 F2 F3 resultant force to change that state.
where DE and J
sin S  D sin S  E sin S  J (b) This law is also known as law of inertia. Inertia is the
property of inability of a body to change its position of
are the angles opposite to the forces F 1, F 2 and F 3
rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless some
respectively.
external force acts on it.
(c) Mass is a measure of inertia of a body.
(d) A frame of reference in which Newton’s first law is valid
is called inertial frame, i.e., if a frame of reference is at
rest or in uniform motion it is called inertial, otherwise
non-inertial.
20.2 Second law of motion
(a) This law gives the magnitude of force.

19. BASIC FORCES (b) According to second law of motion, rate of change of
momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force
There are, basically, five forces, which are commonly o
§ o ·
encountered in mechanics. acting on the body, i.e., F v ¨ d p / dt ¸
© ¹

Here, the change in momentum takes place in the direction
G G
of the applied resultant force. Momentum, p m v is a
measure of sum of the motion contained in the body.
(c) Unit force : It is defined as the force which changes the
momentum of a body by unity in unit time. According to
o o
o d p d § o· d v o dm
this, F ¨ m v¸ m v . (ii) Isolate the object of interest whose motion is being
dt dt © ¹ dt dt
If the mass of the system is finite and remains constant
w.r.t. time, then (dm/dt) = 0 and
o
§ o · o
§ o o·
F m ¨ d v/ dt ¸ m a ¨ p 2  p1 ¸ / t
© ¹ © ¹
(d) External force acting on a body may accelerate it either
by changing the magnitude of velocity or direction of
velocity or both.
(i) If the force is parallel or antiparallel to the motion,
G sure that all terms have units of force.
it changes only the magnitude of v but not the
direction. So, the path followed by the body is a
straight line.
(ii) If the force is acting A to the motion of body, it
changes only the direction but not the magnitude of
G solutions for extreme values of the variables. You
v . So, the path followed by the body is a circle
(uniform circular motion).
(iii) If the force acts at an angle to the motion of a body,
G
it changes both the magnitude and direction of v . In
this case path followed by the body may be elliptical,
non-uniform circular, parabolic or hyperbolic.
20.3 Third law of motion
(a) According to this law, for every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction. When two bodies A and B exert
force on each other, the force by A on B (i.e., action
represented by FAB), is always equal and opposite to the
force by B on A (i.e., reaction represented FBA). Thus,
FAB= – FBA.
(b) The two forces involved in any interaction between two
bodies are called action and reaction. But we cannot say
that a particular force is action and the other one is reaction.
(c) Action and Reaction always act on different bodies.
20.4 Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion
There are two kinds of problems in classical mechanics :
(a) To find unknown forces acting on a body, given the body’s
acceleration, and
LAWS OF MOTION
(b) to predict the future motion of a body, given the body’s
initial position and velocity and the forces acting on it.
For either kind of proble, we use Newton’s second law
¦ F ma . The following general strategy is useful for
solving such problems :
(i) Draw a simple, neat diagram of the system.
analyzed. Draw a free body diagram for this object,
that is, a diagram showing all external forces acting
on the object. For systems containing more than one
object, draw separate diagrams for each objects. Do
not include forces that the object exerts on its
surroundings.
(iii) Establish convenient coordinate axes for each body
and find the components of the forces along these
axes. Now, apply Newton’s second law, 6 F = ma,
in component form. Check your dimensions to make
(iv) Solve the component equations for the unknowns.
Remember that you must have as many independent
equations as you have unknowns in order to obtain a
complete solution.
(v) It is a good idea to check the predictions of your
can often detect errors in your results by doing so.
21. SOME IMPORTANT POINTS CONCERNING
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
(a) The forces of interaction between bodies composing a
system are called internal forces. The forces exerted on
bodies of a given system by bodies situated outside are
called external forces.
(b) Whenever one force acts on a body it gives rise to another
force called reaction i.e., a single isolated force is
physically impossible. This is why total internal force
in an isolated system is always zero.
o o
(c) According to Newton’s second law, F §¨ d p/ dt ¸· . If
© ¹
o o
§ o · § o ·
F 0, ¨ d p/ dt ¸ 0 or ¨ d v/ dt ¸ 0 or v = constant or
© ¹ © ¹
zero, i.e., a body remains at rest or moves with uniform
velocity unless acted upon by an external force. This is
Newton’s Ist law.
(d) The ratio of times for which the same force acts on two
bodies of different masses initially at rest to have
(i) equal displacement is : (t1/t2) = m1 / m2 ;
 LAWS OF MOTION

(ii) equal final velocity is : (t1/t2) = (m1/m2); (in translatory equilibrium), then T0 =mg.
(iii) equal final momentum is : (t1/t2) = 1/1. (b) If the carriage is accelerated up with an acceleration
Newton’s second law can also be expressed as : Ft= p2– a, then
p1. Hence, if a car and a truck are initially moving with
§ a·
the same momentum, then by the application of same T = m(g + a) = mg §¨ 1  a ¸· = T0 ¨1 ¸
breaking force, both will come to rest in the same time. © g¹ © g¹
(c) If the carriage is accelerated down with an acceleration
22. APPARENT WEIGHT OF A BODY IN A LIFT a, then
(a) When the lift is at rest or moving with uniform velocity, § a· § a·
i.e., a=0 : T = m(g – a) = mg ¨ 1  ¸ T0 ¨1  ¸
© g¹ © g¹
mg– R = 0 or R = mg ? Wapp. = W0
(d) If the carriage begins to fall freely, then the tension in
(b) When the lift moves upwards with an acceleration a :
the string becomes zero.
§ a·
R – mg = ma or R = m(g + a) = mg ¨1  ¸
© g¹ (e) If the carriage is accelerated horizontally, then

§ a· (i) mass m experiences a pseudo force ma opposite to

? Wapp. = W0 ¨1  ¸ acceleration;
© g¹
(c) When the lift moves downwards with an acceleration a : (ii) the mass m is in equilibrium inside the carriage and
§ a· T sin T = ma, T cos T = mg, i.e.,
mg – R = ma or R = m (g–a) = mg ¨1  ¸
© g¹
T = m g2  a 2 ;
§ a·
? Wapp. =W0 ¨1  ¸
© g¹ (iii) the string does not remain vertical but inclines to
the vertical at an angle T = tan–1 (a/g) opposite to
Here, if a > g, Wapp. will be negative. Negative apparent acceleration;
weight will mean that the body is pressed against the roof (iv) This arrangement is called accelerometer and can be
of the lift instead of floor. used to determine the acceleration of a moving
(d) When the lift falls freely, i.e., a = g : carriage from inside by noting the deviation of a
R = m (g –g) = 0 ? Wapp. = 0 plumbline suspended from it from the vertical.
(Wapp. = R = reaction of supporting surface and W0= mg =
true weight.) 25. CONSTRAINED METHOD
Let us try to visualize this situation
23. PROBLEM OF MONKEY CLIMBING A ROPE
Let T be the tension in the rope.
(i) When the monkey climbs up with uniform speed
: T = mg.
(ii) When the monkey moves up with an acceleration
a : T – mg = ma or T = m (g + a).
(iii) When the monkey moves down with an acceleration a
: mg – T = ma or T = m (g – a).

24. PROBLEM OF A MASS SUSPENDED FROM (i) If m3 was stationary, then magnitude of displacements of
A VERTICAL STRING IN A MOVING CARRIAGE m1 and m2 would be same and in opposite direction.

Following cases are possible : Let us say x (displacement of m1 and m2 when m3 is

stationary).
(a) If the carriage (say lift) is at rest or moving uniformly
(ii) Now consider the case when m3 displaces by x1, then
 LAWS OF MOTION

net displacement of m1 = x1 – x
m2 = x1 + x
m3 = x1
(iii) Differentiate it twice we have

a m3 a1 Note : If Length is decreasing then differentiation of that length

will be negative.
a m1 a1  a
? On differentiating twice we have
a m2 a1  a 0 = a + (–a3)
a = a3
This problem can be approached in other way. Which is
more mathematical and do not require much of Now, we can apply F = ma for different blocks.
visualisation. Solve for a3, a1 a2 and Tension.
Steps involved to approach problems of multiple
pulleys of system having different accelerations :
26. FORCE OF FRICTION
(i) Define a fixed point/axis. Whenever two rough surfaces are in contact, sliding between the
surfaces is opposed by the force of friction which the surfaces
(ii) Locate positions of all movable points from fixed point/axis.
exert on each other. The force of friction acts parallel to the
(iii) (a) Write down the relation between length of the string surfaces in contact and on both the surfaces.
and the position of different movable points.
(b) No. of relation must be equal to no. of string. 26.1 Static Friction
(iv) Differentiate it twice to get the relationship between If the tendency to slide against each other is too small to cause
acceleration of different objects.
actual sliding motion, the force of friction is called as the force
of static friction. The magnitude of this force balances the net
applied force. Hence if there is no sliding between the surfaces.
Force of static friction = net applied force parallel to the surfaces.

26.2 Critical Point (Maximum Static friction)

If the sliding between the surfaces is about to begin, the static

friction is at its maximum value which is equal to PsN, where N =
normal reaction between the surfaces and Ps = coefficient of static
friction. In this situation, we say that the surfaces are at their
point of sliding and are exerting a force PsN on each other so as
to oppose sliding.
For string connecting m1 and m2 :
26.3 Kinetic Friction
Let the length of the string be l1
If actual sliding is taking place between the surfaces, the force of
friction is called as force of kinetic friction or the force of sliding
friction (fk).
fk Pk N where Pk = coefficient of kinetic friction.
On differentiating it twice :
a1  a 2
0 = (a2 – a) + (a1 – a) + 0 Ÿ a
2
For string connective m3 and pulley :
Frictia always opposes relative motion between the
Let the string length be l2 surfaces in contact.
LAWS OF MOTION

SOME IMPORTANT CASES

Case Diagram Result

F m1F
(a) When two bodies are kept in contact (i) a , (ii) N
m1  m 2 m1  m2
and force is applied on the body of
mass m1.

F m2 F
(b) When two bodies are kept in contact (i) a , (ii) Nc
m1  2 m1  m2
and force is applied on the body of
mass m2.

F m1 F
(c) When two bodies are connected by (i) a , (ii) T
m1  2 m1  m 2
a string and placed on a smooth

F
(d) When three bodies are connected (i) a
m1  m 2  m 3

m1F
through strings as shown in fig and (ii) T1
(m1  m2  m3 )

placed on a smooth horizontal surface. (iii) T2 m1  m 2 F

m1  m 2  m 3

m1  m 2 g
(e) When two bodies of masses m1 & m2 (i) a
m1  m 2

§ 2m 1 m 2 ·
are attached at the ends of a string (ii) T ¨¨ ¸¸ g
© m1  m 2 ¹
passing over a pulley as shown in the
figure
 LAWS OF MOTION

m 2g m1 m 2 g
(f) When two bodies of masses m1 & m2 (i) a , (ii) T
m1  m 2 m1  m 2
are attached at the ends of a string
passing over a pulley in such a way
that mass m1 rests on a smooth
horizontal table and mass m2 is
hanging vertically.

m 2  m1 sin T g
(g) If in the above case, mass m1 is placed (i) a
m1  m 2

m1m 2 g 1  sin T
on a smooth inclined plane making an (ii) T
m1  m 2
angle Twith horizontal as shown in (iii) If the system remains in equilibrium,
figure, then. then m1g sin T = m2g

g m1 sin D  m 2 sin E
(h) In case (f), masses m1 and m2 are (i) a
m1  m 2

m1 m 2
placed on inclined planes making (ii) T sin D  sin E g
m1  m 2

angles D & E with the horizontal

respectively, then

(i) When a body is moving on smooth a = g sin T, N = mg cos T

inclined plane.

(j) When a body is moving down on

a rough inclined plane. g (sin T – P cos T)

(k) When a body is moving up on a au = g (sin T+ P cos T)

rough inclined plane.
FLUID MECHANICS

FLUID MECHANICS

1. FLUID MECHANICS and tan T = a/g, where T is the angle which the liquid’s free
surface is making with horizontal.
i The liquids and gases together are termed as fluids, in
other words, we can say that the substances which can (d) Pressure at two points within a liquid
flow are termed as fluids. at vertical separation of h when the
liquid container is accelerating up are
i We assume fluid to be incompressible (i.e., the density of
related by expression
liquid is independent of variation in pressure and remains
constant) and non-viscous (i.e. the two liquid surfaces in p2 – p1 = U (g + a) h
contact are not exerting any tangential force on each other). If container is accelerating down, then p2 – p1 = U(g – a) h.
1.1 Fluid Statics
1.1.2 Atmospheric Pressure
1.1.1 Fluid Pressure
i It is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere. Normal
Pressure p at every point is defined as the normal force atmospheric pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1
5
per unit area. atmosphere (atm) that is equal to 1.013 × 10 Pa.
i The excess pressure above atmospheric pressure is called
dFA gauge pressure, and total pressure is called absolute
p
dA pressure.
2
The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal and 1 Pascal = 1 N/m i Barometer is a device used to measure atmospheric
i Fluid force acts perpendicular to any surface in the fluid, pressure while U–tube manometer or simply manometer is
no matter how that surface is oriented. Hence pressure, a device used to measure the gauge pressure.
has no intrinsic direction of its own, it is a scalar. 1.1.3 Pascal’s Law
Pressure
i A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
(a) Pressure at two points in
transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and
a horizontal plane or at
to the walls of the containing vessel.
same level when the fluid
is at rest or moving with i There are a lot of practical applications of Pascal’s law one
constant velocity is same. such application is hydraulic lift.

(b) Pressure at two points which 1.1.4 Archimedes Principle

are at a depth separation of h
i When a body is partially or fully dipped into a fluid, the
when fluid is at rest of moving
fluid exerts contact force on the body. The resulatant of all
with constant velocity is
these contact forces is called buoyant force (upthrust).
related by the expression
i F = weight of fluid displaced by the body.
p2 – p1 = Ugh, where U is the density of liquid.
i This force is called buoyant force and acts vertically
(c) Pressure at two points in a upwards (opposite to the weight of the body) through the
horizontal plane when fluid centre of gravity of the displaced fluid.
container is having some
F = VVg
constant horizontal acceleration
are related by the expression where, v = volume of liquid displaced
p1 – p2 = lUa V = density of liquid.
 FLUID MECHANICS

i Apparent decrease in weight of body = upthrust = weight

of liquid displaced by the body. C P2
A2 v2
i Floation :
(a) A body floats in a liquid if the average density of the body P1 B
v1 h2
is less than that of the liquid.
A1
h1
(b) The weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of
body must be equal to the weight of the body.
(c) The centre of gravity of the body and centre of buoyancy
i Bernoulli’s equation is valid only for incompressible
must be along the same vertical line.
steady flow of a fluid with no viscosity.

1.2 Fluid Dynamics i Application of Bernoulli’s Theorem.

(a) Velocity of Efflux

i Steady Flow (Stream Line Flow)
The flow in which the velocity of fluid particles crossing a
particular point is the same at all the times. Thus, each
particle takes the same path as taken by a previous particle h C
v 2 gh
H
through that point. U

i Line of flow
x
It is the path taken by a particle in flowing liquid. In case of a
steady flow, it is called streamline. Two steamlines can never
intersect. Let us find the velocity with which liquid comes out of a
hole at a depth h below the liquid surface.
1.2.1 Equation of Continuity Using Bernoulli’s theorem,

In a time 't, the volume of liquid entering the tube of flow 1 1

PA  UV  Ugh A PB  UV  Ugh B
2 2

in a steady flow is A1 V1 't. The same volume must flow 2 A 2 B

out as the liquid is incompressible. The volume flowing
1 1
out in 't is A2 V2 't. Ÿ Patm  UV  Ugh
2
Patm  UV  0
2

2 A 2
(Note: PB = Patm, because we have opened the liquid to
atmosphere)
2 2
Ÿ V = VA + 2gh
Using equation of continuity
AVA = aV
i A1 V1 = A2 V2
i mass flows rate = UAV A: area of cross-section of vessel

(where U is the density of the liquid.) a: area of hole

1.2.2 Bernoulli’s Theorem a2

Ÿ V2 2
V 2  2gh
A
In a stream line flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of pressure
energy per unit volume, potential energy per unit volume 2gh
Ÿ V | 2gh (if the hole is very small)
and kinetic energy per unit volume is always constant at 1 a2 / A2
all cross section of the liquid.
(b) Venturi Meter
ρV 2
P+ρgh+ =Constant
2 This is an instrument for measuring the rate of flow of
fluids.
FLUID MECHANICS

i The viscous drag on a spherical body of radius r, moving with

velocity v, in a viscous medium of viscosity K is given by
D Fviscous = 6SKrv
h
E This relation is called Stoke’s law.
A C
i Importance of Stoke’s law
B
a1 a2 (a) This law is used in the determination of electronic charge
v2 with the help of milikan’s experiment.
v1
(b) This law accounts the formation of clouds.
(c) This law accounts why the speed of rain drops is less
If PA is pressure at A and PB is pressure at B,
then that of a body falling freely with a constant velocity
PA – PB = hUg [h : difference of heights of liquids of density from the height of clouds.
U in vertical tubes]
(d) This law helps a man coming down with the help of a
If V1 is velocity at A and V2 is velocity at B parachute.
Q = A1V1 = A2 2
[equation of continuity]
1.3.2 Terminal Velocity
2 2
V V It is maximum constant velocity acquired by the body while
PA  U 1
PB  U 2
[Bernoulli’s Theorem]
2 2 falling freely in a viscous medium.

2r U  U0 g
2
2 2 2 2
Ÿ V2  V1 PA  PB hUg vr
U U 9K

Q
2
Q
2 1.3.3 Poiseuille’s Formula
Ÿ 2
 2
2 hg (Q = AV)
A 2 A
1 Poiseuille studied the stream-line flow of liquid in capillary
tubes.
2hg Volume of liquid coming out of tube per second in given by
Ÿ Q A1A 2 2 2
A1  A 2 S Pr
4

8KA
1.3 Viscosity

The property of a fluid by virtue of which it opposes the
relative motion between its different layers is known as
viscosity and the force that is into play is called the viscous
force.
Viscous force is given by :
dv
F KA
dx
where K is a constant depending upon the nature of the
liquid and is called the coefficient of viscosity and velocity
gradient = dv/dx
–2
S.I. unit of coefficient of viscosity is Pa.s or Nsm .
CGS unit of viscocity is poise. (1 Pa.s = 10 Poise)
1.3.1 Stoke’s Law
i When a solid moves through a viscous medium, its motion
is opposed by a viscous force depending on the velocity
and shape and size of the body.
1.3.4 Reynold Number
i The stability of laminar flow is maintained by viscous
forces. It is obverved, however that laminar or steady flow
is disrupted it the rate of flow is large. Irregular, unsteady
motion, turbulence, sets in at high flow rates.
i Reyonlds defined a dimensionless number whose value
gives one an approximate idea, whether the flow rate would
be turbulent.
This number, called the Reynolds number Re is defined as,
UvD
Re
K
where, U = the density of the fluid flowing with a speed v.
D = the diameter of the tube.
K = the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.
i It is found that flow is streamline or laminar for Re less
than 1000. The flow is turbulent for Re > 2000. The flow
becomes unsteady for Re between 1000 and 2000.
 FLUID MECHANICS

1.4 Surface Tension this action is termed as capillarity.

The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force per
unit length in the plane of the liquid surface at right angles
to either side of an imaginary line drawn on that surface.

F
So, S where S = surface tension of liquid.
A
2
Unit of surface tension in MKS system : N/m, J/m
2
CGS system  Dyne/cm, erg/cm
1.4.1 Surface Energy 2Scos T 2S
h
In order to increase the surface area, the work has to be rUg RUg
done over the surface of the liquid. This work done is
where, S = surface tension,
stored in the liquid surface as its potential energy. Hence
the surface energy of a liquid can be defined as the excess T = angle of contact,
potential energy per unit area of the liquid surface. r = radius of capillary tube,
R = radius of meniscus, and
U = density of liquid.
i Capillary rise in a tube of insufficient length :
If the actual height to which a liquid will rise in a capillary
tube is ‘h’ then a capillary tube of length less than ‘h’ can
W = S'A, where 'A = increase in surface area. be called a tube of “insufficient length”.
In such a case, liquid rises to the top of the capillary tube
1.4.2 Excess Pressure
of length l (l < h) and adjusts the radius of curvature of its
i Excess pressure in a liquid drop or bubble in a liquid is meniscus until the excess pressure is equalised by the
pressure of liquid column of length l. (Note liquid does
2T not overflow).
P
R
2V
4T Ÿ AUg ... (i)
i Excess pressure in a soap bubble is P rc
R
If r were the actual radius of curvature,
(because it has two free surfaces)
2V
1.4.3 Angle of Contact Ÿ h Ug ...(ii)
r
i The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the Comparing (i) and (ii)
point of contact and the solid surface inside the liquid is
called the angle of contact.
i If the glass plate is immersed in mercury, the surface is
curved and the mercury is depressed below. Angle of
contact is obtuse for mercury.
i If the plate is dipped in water with its side vertical, the
water is drawn-up along the plane and assumes the curved
shape as shown. Angle of contact is acute for water.
2V
1.4.4 Capillary Tube and Capillarity Action Ar c hr
Ug
i A very narrow glass tube with fine bore and open at both
ends is known as capillary tube. When a capillary tube in hr
Ÿ rc i.e. radius of curvature r’ can be calculated.
dipped in a liquid, then liquid will rise or fall in the tube, A
FLUID MECHANICS

Adhesion > Cohesion Adhesion = Cohesion Adhesion < Cohesion

1. Liquid will wet the solid.
2. Meniscus is concave.
3. Angle of contact is acute T = 90°).
4. Pressure below the meniscus is
lesser than above it by (2T/r),
Critical. Liquid will not wet the solid.
Meniscus is plane. Meniscus is convex.
Angle of contact is 90°. Angle of contact is obtuse T = 90°).
Pressure below the Pressure below the meniscus
meniscus is same as more then above it by (2T/r),

2T . 2T .
i.e. P P0  above it, i.e. P = P0. i.e., P P0 
r r
5. In capillary there will be ascend. No capillarity. In capillary there will be descend.
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

WORK, POWER & ENERGY

1. WORK W ˆi F  ˆjF  kˆ F . ˆi x  ˆj y  kˆ z
x y z

In Physics, work stands for ‘mechanical work’.

Work is said to be done by a force when the body is W x Fx  y Fy  zFz
displaced actually through some distance in the direction
Obviously, work is a scalar quantity, i.e., it has magnitude
of the applied force.
only and no direction. However, work done by a force can
However, when there is no displacement in the direction be positive or negative or zero.
of the applied force, no work is said to be done, i.e., work
done is zero, when displacement of the body in the direction 2. DIMENSIONS AND UNITS OF WORK
of the force is zero. 1 1 –2
As work = force × distance ? W = (M L T ) × L
G
Suppose a constant force F acting on a body produces a
G W ª¬ M1 L2 T 2 º¼
displacement s in the body along the positive x-direction,
figure This is the dimensional formula of work.
The units of work are of two types :
1. Absolute units 2. Gravitational units
(a) Absolute unit
1. Joule. It is the absolute unit of work on SI.
Work done is said to be one joule, when a force of one
newton actually moves a body through a distance of one
metre in the direction of applied force.
G
If T is the angle which F makes with the positive x– From W = F cos T
G 1 joule = 1 newton × 1 metre × cos 0° = 1 N–m
direction of the displacement, then the component of F in
the direction of displacement is (F cos T). As work done 2. Erg. It is the absolute unit of work on cgs system.
by the force is the product of component of force in the Work done is said to be one erg, when a force of one dyne
direction of the displcement and the magnitude of the actually moves a body through a distance of one cm.in
displacement, the direction of applied force.
From W = Fs cos T
? W F cos T s ...(1)
1 eg = 1 dyne × 1 cm × cos 0°
If displacement is in the direction of force applied, T = 0°. (b) Gravitational units
From (1), W = (F cos 0°) s = F s
These are also called the practical units of work.
G G
Equation (1) can be rewritten as W F.s ...(2) 1. Kilogram-metre (kg–m). It is the gravitational unit of
work on SI.
Thus, work done by a force is the dot product of force and Work done is said to be one kg–m, when a force of 1 kg f
displacement. move a body through a distance of 1 m in the direction of
G G the applied force.
In terms of rectangular cmponent, F and s, may written as
G From W = F s cos T
F ˆ and Gs
ˆi F  ˆjF  kF ˆix  ˆjy  kz
ˆ
x y z 1 kg–m = 1 kg f × 1 m × cos 0° = 9.8 N × 1 m = 9.8 joule, i.e.,
G G 1kg  m 9.8 J
From (2), W F.s
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

2. Gram-centimetre (g-cm). It is the gravitational unit of (c) Zero work

work on cgs system. G G
When force applied F or the displacement s or both are
Work done is said to be one g-cm, when a force of 1 g f zero, work done W = F s cos T is zero. Again, when angle
moves a body through a distance of 1 cm. in the direction G G
of the applied force. T between F and s is 90°, cos T = cos 90° = 0. Therefore
work done is zero.
From W = F s cos T
For example :
1 g-cm = 1 g f × 1 cm × cos 0°
When we push hard against a wall, the force we exert on
1 g-cm = 980 dyne × 1 cm × 1 G
the wall does no work, because s 0. However, in this
1g  m 980 ergs process, our muscles are contracting and relaxing
alternately and internal energy is being used up. That is
3. NATURE OF WORK DONE why we do get tired.

Although work done is a scalar quantity, its value may be 4. WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE
positive, negative, negative or even zero, as detailed below:
(a) Graphical Method
(a) Positive work
G G A constant force is rare. It is the variable force which is
As W = F.s = F s cos T encountered more commonly. We can, therefore, learn to
when T is acute (< 90°), cos T is positive. Hence, work calculate work done by a variable force, let us consider a
?
done is positive. force acting along the fixed direction, say x–axis, but
having a variable magnitude.
For example :
We have to calculate work done in moving the body from
(i) When a body falls freely under the action of gravity, A to B under the action of this variable force. To do this,
T = 0°, cos T = cos 0° = + 1. Therefore, work done by we assume that the entire displacement from A to B is
gravity on a body falling freely is positive. made up of a large number of infinitesimal displacements.
(b) Negative work One such displacement shown in figure from P to Q.
G G As the displacement PQ = dx is infinitesimally small, we
As W = F. s = F s cos T
consider that all along this displacement, force is constant
? When T is obtuse (> 90°), cos T is negative. Hence, work in magnitude (= PS) as well in same direction.
done is negative. ? Small amount of work done in moving the body from P to
For example : Q is
(i) When a body is thrown up, its motion is opposed by dW = F × dx = (PS) (PQ) = area of strip PQRS
G Total work done in moving the body from A to B is given by
gravity. The angle T between gravitational force F and
the displacement sG is 180°. As cos T = cos 180° = –1, W = 6 dW
therefore, work done by gravity on a body moving W = 6 F × dx
upwards is negative.
If the displacement are allowed to approach zero, then the
number of terms in the sum increases without limit. And
the sum approaches a definite value equal to the area under
the curve CD.

A B
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

G JJG
dW F.ds
JJG
When ds o 0, total work done in moving the body from A
to B can be obtained by integrating the above expression
between SA and SB.

SB

³ F.ds
G JJG
? W
SA

5. CONSERVATIVE & NON­CONSERVATIVE FORCES

Hence, we may rewrite, W = limit 6 F dx Conservative force
dx ox

In the language of integral calculus, we may write it as A force is said to be conservative if work done by or against
the force in moving a body depends only on the initial and
xB
final positions of the body, and not on the nature of path
W ³ F dx
xA
, where xA = OA and xB = OB followed between the initial and the final positions.
This means, work done by or against a conservative force
xB
in moving a body over any path between fixed initial and
W ³ area of the strip PQRS
xA
final positions will be the same.
For example, gravitational force is a conservative force.
= total area under the curve between F and x-axis from
x = xA to x = xB Properties of Conservative forces :
1. Work done by or against a conservative force, in moving
W Area ABCDA a body from one position to the other depends only on
the initial position and final position of the body.
Hence, work done by a variable force is numerically equal
to the area under the force curve and the displacement axis. 2. Work done by or against a conservative force does not
depend upon the nature of the path followed by the body
Mathematical Treatment (of work done by a variable
in going from initial position to the final position.
force).
3. Work done by or against a conservative force in moving a
Suppose we have to calculate work done in moving a body
body through any round trip (i.e., closed path, where final
from a point A (SA) to point B (SB) under the action of a
position coincides with the initial position of the body) is
varying force, figure. Here, SA and SB are the distance of
always zero.
the points A and B with respect to some reference point.
Non-conservative Forces
A force is said to be non-conservative, if work done by or
against the force in moving a body from one position to
another, depends on the path followed between these two
positions.
For example, frictional forces are non-conservative forces.

6. POWER
At any stage, suppose the body is at P, where force on the
G
body is F . Under the action of this force, let the body Power of a person or machine is defined as the time rate at
JJJG JJG which work is done by it.
undergo an infinitesimally small displacement PQ ds .
During such a small displacement, if we assume that the work done
i.e., Power = Rate of doing work =
force remains constant, then small amount of work done time taken
in moving the body from P to Q is
Thus, power of a body measures how fast it can do the
work.
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

Formula for Kinetic Energy

dW
P Kinetic Energy of a body can be obtained either from
dt
G JJG (i) the amount of work done in stopping the moving body, or
G JJG
Now, dW = F.ds, where F is the force applied and ds is from
the small displacement. (ii) the amount of work done in giving the present velocity
G JJG today he body from the state of rest.
F.ds
? P Let us use the second method :
dt
suppose m = mass of a body at rest (i.e., u = 0).
JJG
ds G F = Force applied on the body
But v, the instantaneous velocity..
dt a = acceleration produced in the body in the direction of
force applied.
G G
? P F.v v = velocity acquired by the body in moving through a
distance s, figure
Dimensions of power can be deduced as :

W M1 L2 T 
¬ª M L T ¼º
1 2 3
P
t T1

Units of power
The absolute unit of power in SI is watt, which is denoted From v – u = 2 a s
2
by W. v – 0 = 2 as
From P = W/t
v
a
1 joule 2s
1 watt = , i.e., 1W 1Js 1
1sec
§ v2 ·
Power of a body is said to be one watt, if it can do one As F = m a ? using, F = m ¨ ¸
© 2s ¹
joule of work in one second.
Work done on the body, W = Force × distance
1 h.p. 746 W
v
W m us
7. ENERGY 2s

Energy of a body is defined as the capacity or ability of

1
the body to do the work. W mv

8. KINETIC ENERGY This work done on the body is a measure of kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of a boyd is the energy possessed by (K.E.) acquired by the body,
the body by virtue of its motion.
1
For example : ? K.E. of body W mv
(i) A bullet fired from a gun can pierce through a target on
account of kinetic energy of the bullet. Alternative method
(ii) Wind mills work on the kinetic energy of air. For example, The formula for kinetic energy of a body is also obtained
sailing ships use the kinetic energy of wind. by the method of calculus :
(iii) Water mills work on the kinetic energy of water. For Let m = mass of a body, which is initially at rest
example, fast flowing stream has been used to grind corn. (i.e., u = 0)
(iv) A nail is driven into a wooden block on account of kinetic G
energy of the hammer striking the nail. F = Force applied on the body,,
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

JJG This is shown in figure (b).

ds = small displacement produced in the body in the
2
direction of the force applied. If m = constant, p v K.E. or p v K.E.
? Small amount of work done by the force, This is shown in figure (c)
G JJG
dW = F.ds = F ds cos = 0° = F ds

If a is acceleration produced by the force, then from

dv
F= ma=m
dt

§ dv · § ds ·
From, dW = ¨ m ¸ ds m ¨ ¸ dv
© dt ¹ © dt ¹

§ ds ·
dW = m v d v ¨' v¸
© dt ¹

? Total work done by the force in increasing the velocity of

the body from zero to v is

v v
ª2º
W ³ m vd v m ³ vd v
0 0
m« »
¬ 2 ¼0

1
W mv
10. WORK ENERGY THEOREM OR
Thus, kinetic energy of a body is half the product of mass
of the body and square of velocity of the body.
WORK ENERGY PRINCIPLE
According to this principle, work done by net force in
9. RELATION BETWEEN KINETIC ENERGY
displacing a body is equal to change in kinetic energy of
AND LINEAR MOMENTUM the body.
Let m = mass of a body, v = velocity of the body. Thus, when a force does some work on a body, the kinetic
? Linear momentum of the body, p = mv energy of the body increases by the same amount.
Conversely, when an opposing (retarding) force is applied
1 1 on a body, its kinetic energy decreases. The decrease in
and K.E. of the body mv m2v
2m kinetic energy of the body is equal to the work done by
the body against the retarding force. Thus, according to
p work energy principle, work and kinetic energy are
? K.E.
2m equivalent quantities.
Proof : To prove the work-energy theorem, we confine
This is an important relation. It shows that a body cannot
ourselves to motion in one dimension.
have K.E. without having linear momentum. The reverse
is also true. Suppose m = mass of a body, u = initial velocity of the
body, F = force applied on the body along it direction of
1 motion, a = acceleration produced in the body, v = final
Further, if p = constant, K.E. v
m velocity of the body after t second.
This is showin in figure (a) Small amount of work done by the applied force on the
2
If K.E. = constant, p v m or p v m body, dW = F (ds) when ds is the small distance moved by
the body in the direction of the force applied.
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

§ dv ·
Now, F = ma = m ¨ ¸
© dt ¹

§ dv · § ds ·
? dW = F (ds) = m ¨ ¸ ds = m ¨ ¸ dv = mv dv
© dt ¹ © dt ¹

§ ds ·
¨' v¸
© dt ¹
Total work done by the applied force on the body in
increasing its velocity from u to v is If we assume that height h is not too large and the value of
g is practically constant over this height, then the force
v
v v
ª v2 º applied just to overcome gravitational attraction is
W ³m vd v
u
m ³ vdv
u
m« »
¬ 2 ¼u F = mg
As the distance moved is in the direction of the force
1 1 1 applied, therefore,
W m v u mv  mu
Work done = force × distance
W = F × h = mgh
1 2 1 2
But mv = Kf = final K.E. of the body and mu = Ki = Note that we have taken the upward direction to be positive.
2
Therefore, work done by applied force = + mgh. However,
initial K.E. of the body work done by gravitational force = – mgh.
? W = Kf – Ki = Increases in K.E. of body This work gets stored as potential energy. The gravitational
i.e., work done on the body = increase in K.E. of body. potential energy of a body, as a function of height (h) is
denoted by V (h), and it is negative of work done by the
11. POTENTIAL ENERGY gravitational force in raising the body to that height.

The potential energy of a body is defined as the energy
possessed by the body by virtue of its position or
configuration in some field.
Thus, potential energy is the energy that can be associated
with the configuration (or arrangement) of a system of
objects that exert forces on one another. Obviously, if
configuration of the system changes, then its potential
energy changes.
Two important types of potential energy are :
1. Gravitational potential energy
2. Elastic potential energy.
Gravitational P.E. = V (h) = mgh
11.2 Potential Energy of a spring
Potential energy of a spring is the energy associated with
the state of compression or expansion of an elastic spring.
To calculate it, consider an elastic spring OA of negligible
mass. The end O of the spring is fixed to a rigid support
and a body of mass m is attached to the free end A. Let the
spring be oriented along x–axis and the body of mass m lie
on a perfectly frictionless horizontal table.

11.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy of a body is the energy
possessed by the body by virtue of its position above the
surface of the earth.
To calculate gravitational potential energy, suppose
m = mass of a body
g = acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth.
h = height through which the body is raised, figure.
The position of the body A, when spring is unstretched is
chosen as the origin.
When the spring is compressed or elongated, it tends to
recover to its original length, on account of elasticity. The
force trying to bring the spring back to its original
configuration is called restoring force or spring force.
For a small stretch or compression, spring obeys Hook’s
law, i.e., for a spring,
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

Restoring Force v stretch or compression
– F v x or – F = kx
where k is a constant of the spring and is called spring
constant.
1 work energy theorem,
It is established that for a spring, k v
A change in K.E. = work done
i.e., smaller the length of the spring, greater will be the
force constant and vice-versa.
The negative sign in equation indicates that the restoring
force is directed always towards the equilibrium position.
Let the body be displaced further through an infinitesimally
small distance dx, against the resotring force.
? Small amount of work done in increasing the length of the
spring by dx is
dW = – F dx = kx dx
Total work done in giving displacement x to the body can
be obtained by integrating from x = 0 to x = x, i.e.,
This is called the principle of conservation of total
mechanical energy.
For simplicity, we assume the motion to be one dimensional
only. Suppose a body undergoes a small displacement 'x
under the action of a conservative force F. According to
'K = F (x) 'x
As the force is conservative, the potential energy function
V (x) is defined as
– 'V = F (x) 'x or 'V = – F (x) 'x
Adding, we get 'K + 'V = 0 or ' (K + V) = 0,
which means
KV E constant
12.1 Illustration of the law of conservation
of mechanical energy

x x To illustrate the law further, let us calculate kinetic energy

ªx º ªx º
x x
1
W ³x 0 k x dx k «¬ »¼ x k «  0»
¬ 2 ¼
kx K.E., potential nergy P.E. and total energy T.E. of a body
0 falling freely under gravity.
This work done is stored in the spring at the point B. Let m be the mass of the body held at A, at a height h
above the ground, figure.
1
? P.E. at B W kx

The variation of potential energy with distance x is shown

in figure

As the body is at rest at A, therefore,

At A : K. E. of the body = 0
12. MECHANICAL ENERGY AND ITS CONSERVATION P.E. of the body = mg, where g is acceleration due to gravity
at A.
The mechanical energy (E) of a body is the sum of kinetic
T.E. of the body = K.E. + P.E. = 0 + mgh
energy (K) and potential energy (V) of the body
E1 = mgh ...(1)
i.e., E KV Let the body be allowed to fall freely under under gravity,
Obviously, mechanical energy of a body is a scalar quantity when it strikes the ground at C with a velocity v.
2 2
measured in joule. From v – u = 2 a s
2
We can show that the total mechanical energy of a system v – 0 = 2 (g) h
is conserved if the force, doing work on the system are 2
v = 2 gh ...(2)
conservative.
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

particular configuration of its molecules and also their

1 1
? At C : K.E. of the body mv 2 m 2 gh mgh random motion. Thus, internal energy of a body is the
2 2
sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of the
P.E. of the body = mgh = mg (0) = 0 molecules of the body.
Total energy of the body = I.E. + P.E. 3. Electrical Energy
E2 = mgh + 0 = mgh ...(3) The flow of electric current causes bulbs to glow, fans to
In free fall, let the body cross any point B with a velocity rotate and bells to ring. A definite amount of work has to
v1, where AB = x be done in moving the free charge carriers in a particular
2 2
From v – u = 2 as direction through all the electrical appliances.
4. Chemical Energy
v12  0 2 g x ...(4)
Chemical energy arises from the fact that the molecules
v12 2 gx participating in the chemical reaction have different
binding energies. A chemical reaction is basically a
1 1 rearrangement of atoms. For example, coal consists of
At B : K.E. of the body mv12 m 2 gx mgx
2 2 7
carbon and a kilogram of it. When burnt releases 3 × 10 J
Height of the body at B above the ground = CB = (h – x) of energy.
? P.E. of the body at B = mg (h – x) 5. Nuclear Energy
Total energy of the body at B = K.E. + P.E. It is the energy obtainable from an atomic nucleus. Two
E3 = mgx + mg (h – x) = mgx + mgh – mgx distinct modes of obtaining nuclear energy are (i) Nuclear
fission (ii) Nuclear fusion.
E3 = mgh ...(5)
Nuclear fission involves splitting of a heavy nucleus into
From (1), (3), (5) we find that
two or more lighter nuclei, whereas nuclear fusion involves
E1 E2 E3 mgh fusing of two or more lighter nuclei to form a heavy
nucleus.
13. DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY
14. MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE
We have studies some details of potential energy and
kinetic energy. These are not the ony two forms of energy. Einstein made an incredible discovery that energy can
Energy may manifest itself in several other forms. Some of be transformed into mass and mass can be transformed
the examples are : into energy. One can be obtained at the cost of the other.
1. Heat Energy The mass energy equivalence relation as put forth by
Einstein is
It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of random
motion of the molecules of the body.
E mc 2
Heat is also associated with the force of friction. When a
block of mass m sliding on a rough horizontal surface with where m = mass that disappears, E = energy that appears,
speed v, stops over a distance x, work done by the force of c = velocity of light in vacuum.
kinetic friction f over a distance x is –f (x). By the work Mass and energy are not conserved separately, but are
1 conserved as a single entity called ‘mass-energy’.
energy theorem, mv2 f x . We often say that K.E. of
2
15. THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
the block is lost due to frictional force, However, when we
examine the block and the horizontal surface carefully, we
If we account for all forms of energy, the total energy of an
detect a slight increase in their temperatures. Thus, work
isolated system does not change.
done by friction is not lost, but it is transferred as heat
energy of the system. The principle of conservation of energy cannot be proved
as such. However, no violation of this principle has ever
2. Internal Energy
been observed.
It is the total energy possessed by the body by virtue of

16. WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE
When the force is an arbitrary function of position, we need the
techniques of calculus to evaluate the work done by it. The
figure shows F (x) as some function of the position x. To calculate
work done by F from A to B, we find area under the graph from
XA to XB.
Thus, the work done by a force F (x) form an initial point A to final
point B is
xB
WA oB ³x A Fx dx
17. CONSERVATIVE & NON­CONSERVATIVE FORCES
17.1 Conservative Forces
There are two ways in which we can characterize a Conservative
Force :
A force is conservative if :
i The net work done against the force in moving a mass
between two points depends only on the location of two
points and not on the path followed
17.2 Non-Conservative Forces
Those forces which do not satisfy the above mentioned criteria.
Friction and viscous forces are the most common examples of
non-conservative forces.
17.3 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy
For every conservative force, there is a corresponding potential
energy function. In each cases, the potential energy expression
depends only on position.
For every conservative force Fx that depends only on the position
x, there is an associated potential energy function U(x). When
conservative force does positive work, the potential energy of
the system decreases. Work done by, conservative force is
F(x) 'x = – 'U
Ÿ F(x) = – 'U / 'x
WORK, POWER & ENERGY
dU
which, in the limit, becomes F(x) = –
dx
Integrating both sides for a displacement from x = a to x = b, we
have :
b
Ub  Ua ³
 F x dx
a
18. DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION
18.1 Force on the Particle
In uniform circular motion, acceleration is of magnitude v2/r and is
directed towards centre. Hence a force of magnitude mv2/r and
directed towards centre is required to keep a particle in circular
motion. This force (acting towards centre) is known as the
centripetal force. Centripetal force is not an extra force on a body.
Whatever force is responsible for circular motion becomes the
centripetal force.
Example : When a statellite revolves around the earth, the
gravitational attraction of earth becomes the centripetal force for
the circular motion of the satellite; when an electron revolves
around the nucleus in an atom, the electrostatic attraction of
nucleus becomes the centripetal force for the electron’s circular
motion; in case of a conical pendulum, T sin T (component of
tension) becomes the centripetal force.
18.2 Main steps for analysing forces
in uniform circular motion
Take one axis along the radius of circle (i.e., in direction of
acceleration) and other axis perpendicular to the radius. Resolve
all the forces into components.
Net force along perpendicular axis = 0
Net force along radial axis (towards centre)
mv 2
mZ 2 r
r
18.3 Main steps for analysing forces in
Non–uniform Circular Motion
After resolving all the forces along tangential and radial axes :
net tangential force = Ft = m at
net radial force = Fr = m ar = mv2/r
Example of non-uniform circular motion : the motion of particle
in verticle circle. If a particle is revolved in a vertical circle with the
help of a string, the forces are : tension (T) towards centre and
weight (mg). In case of a particle moving along the outside surface
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

of a circular track (or sphere), the forces are : normal reaction (N) its own weight & the tension in the string.
away from the centre and weight (mg). Let the radius of the circle = l
18.4 Conical Pendulum
A small block of mass m is rotated in a horizontal circle with the
help of a string of length l connected to m. The other end of the
string is fixed to a point O vertically above the cnetre of the circle
so that the string is always inclined with the vertical at an angle T.
This arrangement is known as a conical pendulum. (a) At the top : Let vt = velocity at the top

mv 2t
net force towards centre =
A

mv 2t mv 2t
T  mg ŸT  mg
A A
For the movement in the circle, the string should remain tight i.e.
the tension must be positive at all positions.
From the force diagram of the block. As the tension is minimum at the top Ttop t0
Along the vertical : T cos T = mg ...(i)
mv 2t
Net force towards centre : T sin T = ma Ÿ  mg t 0 Ÿ v t t Ag
A
T sin T = mZ2 r ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we have Ÿ minimum or critical velocity at the top = 1g

g tan T g tan T g
Z2
r A sin T A cos T

2S A cos T
Ÿ Time period = T = 2S
Z g

(b) Let Vb be the velocity at the bottom. As the particle goes

i If h is the height of point O above the centre of the circle. up, its KE decreases and GPE increases.
then time period = 2S h / g Ÿ loss in KE = gain in GPE

i For a conical pendulum, Z2 A cos T g 1 1

Ÿ mv 2b  mv12 mg 21
2 2
Ÿ Z ! g / A (Because cos T < 1)
v 2b v 2t  4 gA

18.5 Motion in a Vertical Circle (vb)min = v 2t min  4 gA 5 gA

Example : A mass m is tied to a string of length l and is rotated in

a vertical circle with centre at the other end of the string.
(a) Find the minimum velocity of the mass at the top of the
When a particle moves in a vertical circle, its speed
circle so that it is able to complete the circle.
decreases as it goes up and its speed increases as it
(b) Find the minimum velocity at the bottom of the circle. comes down. Hence it is an example of non-uniform
At all positions, there are two forces acting on the mass : circular motion.
WAVE OPTICS

WAVE OPTICS
1. WAVEFRONT
A source of light sends out disturbance in all directions. In a
homogeneous medium, the disturbance reaches all those
particles of the medium in phase, which are located at the
same distance from the source of light and hence at any instant,
all such particles must be vibrating in phase with each other.
The locus of all the particles of medium, which at any instant
are vibrating in the same phase, is called the wavefront.
Depending upon the shape of the source of light, wavefront can
be the following types :
1.1 Spherical wavefront
A spherical wavefront is produced by a point source of light. It is
because, the locus of all such points, which are equidistant from
the point source, is a sphere figure (a).
2. HUYGENS’S PRINCIPLE
Huygen’s principle is a geometrical construction, which is used
to determine the new position of a wavefront at a later time from
its given position at any instant. In order words, the principle
gives a method to know as to how light spreads out in the medium.
Huygen’s principle is based on the following assumptions :
1. Each point on the given or primary wavefront acts as a source
of secondary wavelets, sending out disturbance in all directions
in a similar manner as the original source of light does.
2. The new position of the wavefront at any instant (called
secondary wavefront) is the envelope of the secondary
wavelets at that instant.
The above two assumptions are known as Huygen’s
principle or Huygens’construction.

1.2 Cylindrical wavefront

When the source of light is linear in shape (such as a slit), a
cylindrical wavefront is produced. It is because, all the points,
which are equidistant from the linear source, lie on the surface Key points
of a cylinder figure (b). Huygen’s principle is simply a geometrical construction
1.3 Plane wavefront to find the position of wavefront at a later time.
A small part of a spherical or a cylindrical wavefront originating 3. PRINCIPLE OF SUPER POSITION
from a distant source will appear plane and hence it is called a
plane wavefront figure (c). When two or more than two waves superimpose over each
other at a common particle of the medium then the resultant
1.4 Ray of light displacement (y) of the particle is equal to the vector sum of
An arrow drawn normal to the wavefront and pointing in the the displacements (y1 and y2) produced by individual waves.
i.e. y y1  y 2
G G G
direction of propagation of disturbance represents a ray of
light. A ray of light is the path along which light travels. In
3.1 Graphical view
figure thick arrows represent the rays of light.
Since the ray of light is normal to the wavefront, it is sometimes called
as the wave normal.

Key points
(i)
The phase difference between any two points on a
wavefront is zero.
 WAVE OPTICS

Resultant amplitude : After superimposition of the given

waves resultant amplitude (or the amplitude of resultant wave)
is given by A a 12  a 22  2a 1a 2 cos I
For the interfering waves y1 = a 1 sinZ t and y2 = a 2 cosZ t,
(ii)
Phase difference between them is 90o. So resultant amplitude

A a12  a 22

3.2 Phase/Phase difference/Path difference/Time difference
(i) Phase : The argument of sine or cosine in the expression
for displacement of a wave is defined as the phase. For
displacement y = a sin Z t ; term Z t = phase or
instantaneous phase
(ii) Phase difference (I) : The difference between the phases
of two waves at a point is called phase difference i.e. if
1
= a1 sin Zt and y2 = a2 sin (Zt + I) so phase difference = I
(iii) Path difference (') : The difference in path length’s of
two waves meeting at a point is called path difference
O
between the waves at that point. Also ' uI
2S
(iv) Time difference (T.D.) : Time difference between the
T
waves meeting at a point is T.D. uI
2S
3.3 Resultant amplitude and intensity
If suppose we have two waves y1 = a1 sin Zt & y2 = a2 sin (Zt + I);
where a1, a 2 = Individual amplitudes, I = Phase difference
between the waves at an instant when they are meeting a
point. I1, I2 = Intensities of individual waves
Resultant intensity : As we know intensity v (Amplitude) 2
Ÿ I1 ka12 , I 2 ka 22 and I = kA 2 (k is a proportionality
constant). Hence from the formula of resultant amplitude, we
get the following fo rmula of resultant i ntensity
I I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 cos I
The term 2 I1 I 2 cos I is called interference term. For
incoherent interference this term is zero so resultant intensity
I = I1 + I2.
3.4 Coherent sources
The sources of light which emits continuous light waves of the
same wavelength, same frequency and in same phase or having a
constant phase difference are called coherent sources.
4. INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
When two waves of exactly same frequency (coming from two
coherent sources) travels in a medium, in the same direction
simultaneously then due to their superposition, at some points
intensity of light is maximum while at some other points intensity
is minimum. This phenomenon is called Interference of light.
4.1 Types of Interference

Constructive interference Destructive interference

(i) When the waves meets a point with same phase, (i) When the wave meets a point with opposite phase, destructive
constructive interference is obtained at that point interference is obtained at that point (i.e. minimum light)
(i.e. maximum light)
(ii) Phase difference between the waves at the point of (ii) I = 180° or (2n – 1) S; n = 1,2, ....
observation I = 0° or 2 nS or (2n + 1) S; n = 0, 1,2, .....
O
(iii) Path difference between the waves at the point of (iii) ' 2n  1 (i.e. odd multiple of O/2)
2
observation ' = nO (i.e. even multiple of O/2)
(iv) Resultant amplitude at the point of observation (iv) Resultant amplitude at the point of observation will be
will be maximum minimum
a1 = a 2 Ÿ Amin = 0 Amin = a1 – a2
If a1 = a 2 = a0 Ÿ Amax = 2a0 If a1 = a2 Ÿ Amin = 0
(v) Resultant intensity at the point of observation (v) Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be minimum
will be maximum
2 2
I max I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 I max I1  I 2 I min I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 I min I1  I 2

If I1 = I2 = I0 Ÿ Imax = 2 I0 If I1 = I2 = I0 Ÿ Imin = 0
WAVE OPTICS

4.2 Resultant intensity due to two identical waves = Wavelength of monochromatic light emitted from
source
For two coherent sources the resultant intensity is given by

I I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 cos I
For identical source I1 = I2 = I 0

I
Ÿ I I0  I0  2 I0 I0 cos I 4 I0 cos 2
2

T
[1 + cosT 2 cos 2 ]
2

(1) Central fringe is always bright, because at central

Ÿ In interference redistribution of energy takes place in position I= 0° or '= 0
the form of maxima and minima. (2) The fringe pattern obtained due to a slit is more bright
than that due to a point.
I max  I min
Ÿ Average intensity : I av I1  I 2 a 12  a 22 (3) If the slit widths are unequal, the minima will not be
2
co mplete da rk. Fo r very large wi dth uniform
Ÿ Ratio of maximum and minimum intensities : illumination occurs.
2
§ I1  I 2 · § I1 / I 2  1 ·
2 2 2 (4) If one slit is illuminated with red light and the other slit
I max ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ § a1  a 2 · § a1 / a 2  1 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ is illuminated with blue light, no interference pattern is
I min ¨ I  I ¸ ¨ I / I 1 ¸ ¨ a a ¸ ¨ a / a 1 ¸
© 1 2 ¹ © 1 2 ¹ © 1 2 ¹ © 1 2 ¹ observed on the screen.
(5) If the two coherent sources consist of object and it’s
§ I max ·
¨ 1 ¸ reflected image, the central fringe is dark instead of
I1 a1 ¨ I min ¸ bright one.
also ¨ ¸
I2 a2 ¨ I max  1 ¸ 5.1 Path difference
¨ I ¸
© min ¹
Path difference between the interfering waves meeting at a
Ÿ If two waves having equal intensity (I1 = I2 = I0) meets yd
at two locations P and Q with path difference '1 and '2 point P on the screen is given by x d sin T where x is
D
respectively then the ratio of resultant intensity at point
the position of point P from central maxima.
I1 § S' ·
cos 2 cos 2 ¨ 1 ¸
P and Q will be
IP 2 © O ¹
IQ I § S' ·
cos 2 2 cos 2 ¨ 2 ¸
2 © O ¹

5. YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT (YDSE)

Monochromatic light (single wavelength) falls on two narrow
slits S 1 and S 2 which are very close together acts as two
coherent sources, when waves coming from two coherent
sources (S 1, S2) superimposes on each other, an interference For maxima at P : x nO ;
pattern is obtained on the screen. In YDSE alternate bright
where n = 0, r 1, r 2, …….
and dark bands obtained on the screen. These bands are called
Fringes. 2n  1 O
and For minima at P : x ;
d = Distance between slits 2
D = Distance between slits and screen where n = r 1, r 2, …….
 WAVE OPTICS

Note :- If the slits are vertical, the path difference (x) is If film is put in the path of upper wave, fringe pattern shifts
d sinT , so as T increases, ' also increases. But if slits upward and if film is placed in the path of lower wave, pattern
are horizontal path difference is d cos T , so as T shift downward.
increases, x decreases.

D E
Fringe shift = P 1 t P 1 t
d O
Ÿ Additional path difference = (P – 1)t

P 1 t
Ÿ If shift is equivalent to n fringes then n
O
5.2 More about fringe nO
or t
(i) All fringes are of equal width. Width of each fringe is P 1
OD O Ÿ
E and angular fringe width T Shift is independent of the order of fringe (i.e. shift of
d d zero order maxima = shift of nth order maxima.
(ii) If the whole YDSE set up is taken in another medium then Ÿ Shift is independent of wavelength.
changes so E changes
6. ILLUSTRATIONS OF INTERFERENCE
Oa Ea 3
e.g. in water O w Ÿ Ew Ea
Pw Pw 4 Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films when
their thickness is comparable to wavelength of incident light (If it
1 is too thin as compared to wavelength of light it appears dark and
(iii) Fringe width E v i.e. with increase in separation between if it is too thick, this will result in uniform illumination of film). Thin
d
layer of oil on water surface and soap bubbles shows various
the sources, E decreases.
colours in white light due to interference of waves reflected from
(iv) Position of n th bright fringe from central maxima the two surfaces of the film.
nO D
xn nE ; n = 0, 1, 2, ....
d
(v) Position of n th dark fringe from central maxima
2 n  1 OD 2n  1 E
xn ; n = 1, 2, 3....
2d 2

(vi) In YDSE, if n1 fringes are visible in a field of view with

light of wavelength O1, while n2 with light of wavelength
2
in the same field, then n1O1 = n2O2 .

5.3 Shifting of fringe pattern in YDSE

If a transparent thin film of mica or glass is put in the path of

one of the waves, then the whole fringe pattern gets shifted.
WAVE OPTICS

6.1 Thin films If v = actual frequency, v’ =Apparent frequency, v = speed of

In thin films interference takes place between the waves reflected source w.r.t stationary observer, c = speed of light
from it’s two surfaces and waves refracted through it. Source of light moves Source of light moves
towards the stationary away from the stationary
observer (v << c) observer (v << c)
(i) Apparent frequency (i) Apparent frequency
§ v· § v·
Qc v ¨1  ¸ and Qc v ¨1  ¸ and
© c¹ © c¹
Apparent wavelength Apparent wavelength
§ v· § v·
O c O ¨1  ¸ Oc O¨ 1  ¸
© c¹ © c¹
Interference in reflected Interference in refracted
light light (ii) Doppler’s shift : Apparent (ii) Doppler’s shift : Apparent
wavelength < actual wavelength > actual
Condition of constructive Condition of constructive
wavelength, So spectrum of wavelength, So spectrum
interference (maximum interference (maximum
the radiation from the source of the radiation from the
intensity) intensity)
of light shifts towards the source of light shifts
O O
' 2P t cos r 2n r 1 ' 2P t cos r 2n red end of spectrum. This towards the violet end of
2 2
For normal incidence r = 0 For normal incidence is called Red shift Doppler’s spectrum. This is called

O v
so 2Pt 2n r 1 2Pt = nO shit 'O O. Violet shift Doppler’s shift
2 c

Condition of destructive Condition of destructive v

'O O.
interference interference c
(minimum intensity) (minimum intensity)
O O 8. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
' 2P t cos r 2n ' 2P t cos r 2n r 1
2 2 It is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners
For normal incidence 2Pt = nO For normal incidence of an obstacle/aperture of the size of the wavelength of light.
O
2Pt = (2n ± 1)
2

The Thickness of the film for interference in visible light

is of the order of 10,000 Å.

7. DOPPLER’S EFFECT IN LIGHT

The phenomenon of apparent change in frequency (or
wavelength) of the light due to relative motion between the source
of light and the observer is called Doppler’s effect.
According to special theory of relativity

v' 1r v / c
v 1  v 2 / c2
 WAVE OPTICS

8.1 Types of diffraction (ii) Minima occurs at a point on either side of the central
maxima, such that the path difference between the
The diffraction phenomenon is divided into two types
waves from the two ends of the aperture is given by
' = nO; where n = 1, 2, 3 ..... i.e. d sin T = nO;
Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

(i) If either source or screen (i) In this case both source nO

or both are at finite distance
from the diffracting device
(obstacle or aperture), the
diffraction is called Fresnel
type.
(ii) Common examples :
Diffraction at a straight edge
narrow wire or small opaque
disc etc.
and screen are effectively
at infinite distance from
the diffracting device.
(ii) Common examples :
Diffraction at single slit,
double slit and diffraction
grating.
Ÿ sin T
d
(iii) The secondary maxima occurs, where the path
difference between the waves from the two ends of the
O
aperture is given by ' 2n  1 ; where n = 1, 2, 3 .....
2
O 2n  1 O
i.e. d sin T 2n  1 Ÿ sin T
2 2d

8.3 Comparison between interference and diffraction

Interference Diffraction
Results due to the superposition Results due to the super-
of waves from two coherent position of wavelets from
source. different parts of same
wave front. (single coherent
8.2 Diffraction of light at a single slit source)
In case of diffraction at a single slit, we get a central bright All fringes are of same width All secondary fringes are of
band with alternate bright (maxima) and dark (minima) bands
OD
of decreasing intensity as shown E same width but the central
d
maximum is of double the
width
OD
E0 2E 2
d

All fringes are of same intensity Intensity decreases as the

order of maximum increases.
Intensity of all minimum may be Intensity of minima is not
zero. Positions of nth maxima zero. Positions of nth
and minima secondary maxima and

nOD , OD
Xn Xn Bright 2n  1 ,
Bright
d d
OD nOD
Xn Dark 2n  1 Xn Dark
d d

Path difference for nth maxima for nth secondary maxima

O
2O D ' = nO ' 2n  1
(i) Width of central maxima E 0 and angular width 2
d
Path difference for nth minima Path difference for nth
2O
d ' = (2n – 1)O minima ' = nO
WAVE OPTICS

8.4 Diffraction and optical instruments 9.2 Polarised light

The objective lens of optical instrument like telescope or The light having oscillations only in one plane is called Polarised or
microscope etc. acts like a circular aperture. Due to diffraction plane polarised light.
of light at a circular aperture, a converging lens cannot form a (i) The plane in which oscillation occurs in the polarised light
point image of an object rather it produces a brighter disc is called plane of oscillation.
known as Airy disc surrounded by alternate dark and bright
(ii) The plane perpendicular to the plane of oscillation is called
concentric rings.
plane of polarisation.
(iii) Light can be polarised by transmitting through certain
crystals such as tourmaline or polaroids.

9. 3 Polarization by Scattering
When a beam of white light is passed through a medium
containing particles whose size is of the order of
1.22 O wavelength of light, then the beam gets scattered.
The angular half width of Airy disc = T (where D =
D When the scattred light is seen in a direction
aperture of lens) perpendicular to the direction of incidence, it is found
to be plane polarized (as detected by the analyser).
The lateral width of the image fT (where f = focal length of
The phenomenon is called polarization by scattering.
the lens)

Diffraction of light limits the ability of optical

instruments to form clear images of objects when they
are close to each other.

9. POLARISATION OF LIGHT
Light propagates as transverse EM waves. The magnitude of
electric field is much larger as compared to magnitude of
magnetic field. We generally prefer to describe light as electric
field oscillations.
9.4 Polarization of Light by Reflection
9.1 Unpolarised light
The light having electric field oscillations in all directions in When unpolarized light is reflected from a surface, the
the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation is reflected light may be completely polarised, partially
called Unpolarised light. The oscillation may be resolved into polarized or unpolarized. This would depend on the
horizontal and vertical component. angle of incidence.
The angle of incidence at which the reflected light is
completely plane polarized is called polarizing angle or
Brewster’s angle. (i p)
 WAVE OPTICS

9.5 Polaroids
It is a device used to produce the plane polarised light. It is based
on the principle of selective absorption and is more effective than
the tourmaline crystal. or
It is a thin film of ultramicroscopic crystals of quinine idosulphate
with their optic axis parallel to each other.

(i) Polaroids allow the light oscillations parallel to the I = I0 cos 2 T and and A 2 A 20 cos 2 T ŸA = A0 cos T
transmission axis pass through them. If T = 0°, I = I0, A = A0,
(ii) The crystal or polaroid on which unpolarised light is
If T = 45°, I =I0/2, A A0 / 2
incident is called polariser. Crystal or polaroid on which
polarised light is incident is called analyser. If T = 90°, I = 0, A = 0
(ii) If Ii = Intensity of unpolarised light.
Ii
So I 0 i.e. if an unpolarised light is converted into
2
plane polarised light (say by passing it through a
polaroid or a Nicol-prism), its intensity becomes half
Ii
and I cos 2 T
2

I max  I min
Percentage of polarisation u100
I max  I min

9.7 Brewster’s law

Brewster discovered that when a beam of unpolarised light is
reflected from a transparent medium (refractive index =P), the
When unpolarised light is incident on the reflected light is completely plane polarised at a certain angle
polariser, the intensity of the transmitted polarised light of incidence (called the angle of polarisation Tp).
is half the intensity of unpolarised light. Also P = tan Tp Brewster’s law
(i) For i < Tp or i > Tp
(iii) Main uses of polaroids are in wind shields of automobiles,
sun glassess etc. They reduce head light glare of cares
and improve colour contrast in old paintings. They are
also used in three dimensional motion pictures and in optical
stress analysis.
9.6 Malus law
This law states that the intensity of the polarised light
transmitted through the analyser varies as the square of the
cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission of the
analyser and the plane of the polariser.

Lakshya Educare
WAVE OPTICS

Both reflected and refracted rays becomes partially

1
polarised Resolving Power (R.P.) =
Limit of Revolution
(ii) For glass T P | 57q , for water T P | 53q
11.1 Resolving power of Microscope
10. VALIDITY OF RAY­OPTICS
2 P sin T
R. P. of microscope
When a parallel beam of light travels upto distances as large O
as few metres it broadens by diffraction of light travels.

10.1 Fresnel Distance

Fresnel distance is the minimum distance a beam of

light can travel before its deviation from straight line
path becomes significant/noticeable.

a2
ZF
O

Since wavelength of light is very small deviation is

very small and light can be assumed as travelling in a
straight line. 11.2 Resolving power of Telescope
Hence we can ignore broadening of beam by diffraction
upto distances as large as a few meters, i.e., we can 1 D
R.P. of telescope
assume that light travels along straight lines. Hence dT 1.22 O
ray optics can be taken as a limiting case of wave optics.
where D is aperture of telescope.
Hence Ray optics can be taken as a limiting case of
waveoptics.

11. RESOLVING POWER

When two point objects are close to each other their

images diffraction patterns are also close and overlap
each other.

The minimum distance between two objects which can

be seen seperately by the object instrument is called
limit of resolution of the instrument.
 Chapter 13
Kinetic Theory
Introduction
What is Kinetic Theory?

• Kinetic theory explains the behaviour of gases based on the idea that the gas consists of rapidly moving
atoms or molecules.
• In solids the molecules are very tightly packed as inter molecular space is not present In liquids inter
molecular spaces are more as compared to solids and in gases the molecules are very loosely packed as
intermolecular spaces are very large.
• The random movement of molecules in a gas is explained by kinetic theory of gases.
• We will also see that why kinetic theory is accepted as a success theory.
• Kinetic theory explains the following:-
a) Molecular interpretation of pressure and temperature can be explained.
b) It is consistent with gas laws and Avogadro’s hypothesis.
c) Correctly explains specific heat capacities of many gases.
13.2 Molecular nature of matter
• Atomic hypothesis was given by many scientists. According to which everything in this universe is made
up of atoms.
• Atoms are little particles that move around in a perpetual order attracting each other when they are little
distance apart. But if they are forced very close to each other then they repel.
• Dalton’s atomic theory is also referred as the molecular theory of matter. This theory proves that matter
is made up of molecules which in turn are made up of atoms.
• According to Gay Lussac’s law when gases combine chemically to yield another gas, their volumes are in
ratios of small integers.
• Avogadro’s law states that the equal volumes of all gases at equal temperature and pressure have the
same number of molecules.
• Conclusion: - All these laws proved the molecular nature of gases.
• Dalton’s molecular theory forms the basis of Kinetic theory.
Why was Dalton’s theory a success?
• Matter is made up of molecules, which in turn are made up of atoms.
• Atomic structure can be viewed by an electron microscope.

Solids, Liquids, Gases in terms of molecular structure

Basis of difference Solids Liquids Gases
Molecules are very Molecules are not so Molecules are loosely
tightly packed. Inter tightly packed. Inter packed .Free to move.
Inter Atomic atomic distance is atomic distance is more Inter atomic distance is
Distance(distance minimum. as compared to solids. maximum.
between molecules).
Mean Free Path is the No mean free path. Less mean free path. There is mean free path
average distance a followed by the
molecule can travel molecules.
without colliding.

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13.3 Behaviour of Gases
o Gases at low pressures and high temperatures much above that at which they liquify (or solidify)
approximately satisfy a relation between their pressure, temperature and volume:
PV=KT … … …(i)
This is the universal relation which is satisfied by all gases.
where P, V, T are pressure, volume and temperature respectively, and K is the constant for a given
volume of gas. It varies with volume of gas.
K=NkB where, N=number of molecules and kB = Boltzmann Constant and its value never change.
o From equation (i) PV= NkB
Therefore PV/NT = constant=(kB) (Same for all gases).
o Consider there are 2 gases :- (P1,V1,T1) and (P2, V2,T2) where P, V and T are pressure, volume and
temperature resp.
o Therefore P1,V1/(N1T1) = P2V2/(N2T2)
o Conclusion: - This relation is satisfied by all gases at low pressure and high temperature.
Justification of the Avogadro’s hypothesis from equation of gas
o Avogadro’s hypothesis states that equal volumes of all gases at equal temperature and pressure have the
same number of molecules.
o Consider the equation PV/NT = constant and if P,V and T are same for 2 gases then N(number of
molecules) is also same.
o According to Avogadro’s hypothesis number of molecules per unit volume is same for all gases at a fixed P
and T.
Avogadro number is denoted by NA. Where, NA = 6.02x1023. It is universal value.
o Experimentally it has been found that the mass of 24.4 litres of any gas is equal to molecular weight in
grams at standard temperature and pressure.

Perfect Gas Equation

o Perfect gas equation is given by 𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇,
Where P,V are pressure, volume, T =absolute temperature, μ = number of moles and R =universal gas
constant, R= kBNA where, kB = Boltzmann constant and NA = Avogadro’s Number
o This equation tells about the behaviour of gas at a particular situation.
o If a gas satisfies this equation then the gas is known as Perfect gas or an ideal gas.
Different Forms of Perfect Gas Equation
1. PV=μRT … … …(i)
Where μ (no. of moles) = N/NA where N=no of molecules and NA = Avogadro number(no of molecules in 1
mole of gas).Orμ = M/Mo where M=mass of sample of gas and Mo = molar mass.
PV = (N/NA)RT (putting μ=N/NA in equation(i))
By simplifying PV = NkBT
PV=NkBT => P = (N/V) kBT => P=nkBT
Where, n(number density) =N/V. where, N=number of molecules and V=volume.

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 ∴ PV=nkBT
2. Substitute μ = M/Mo in equation(i)
PV=(M/Mo) RT => P=(M/V)1/MoRT where M/V =ρ (mass density of the gas)
∴ P=ρRT/Mo

Ideal Gas
o A gas that satisfies the perfect gas equation exactly at all pressures and temperatures.
o Ideal gas is a theoretical concept.
o No real gas is truly ideal. A gas which is ideal is known as real gas.
o Real gases approach the ideal gas behaviour for low pressures and high temperatures.
Real gases deviation from ideal gas
o Real gases approach the ideal gas behaviour for low pressures and high temperatures.
o Ideal gas equation PV=μRT, for 1 mole ,μ=1,PV=RT
=>PV/RT=constant
Graph should be a straight line(parallel to x-axis) for ideal gas. This means it has constant value at all
temperature and all pressure.
o But in case of real gases graph approach ideal gas behaviour at high temperature and low pressure.
o At high temperature and low pressure molecules are far apart. When temperature is increased the
molecules will move randomly far from each other.
o As a result molecular interaction decreases the gas behaves as an ideal gas.
o The ideal behaviour comes into picture when the molecular present inside the gas don’t interact with
each other.

Deduction of Boyle’s law and Charles law from perfect gas equation
1. Boyle’s law: -Deriving Boyle’s law from perfect gas equation, PV=μRT
o Consider T (temperature) and μ (no. of moles) constant.
o Therefore PV=constant.
o According to Boyle’s law, at a constant temperature, pressure of a given mass of gas varies inversely with
volume.

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2. Charles’s law:-Consider If P(Pressure) is constant, then
o From Perfect gas equation PV =μRT,=> V/T=μR/P =constant
o Therefore V/T = constant.
o According to Charles’s law for a fixed pressure, volume of a gas is ∝ to its absolute temperature.
o Conclusion: - Ideal gas satisfies the Boyle’s law and Charles’s law.

Deducing Dalton’s Law of partial pressures

o Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that the total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is the sum of
partial pressures.
o Consider if there are several ideal gases mixed together in a vessel, then the total pressure of that vessel
is equal to sum of partial pressure.
o Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by a particular gas if only that gas is present in the vessel.
o For example: -
Consider if in a vessel there is a mixture of 3 gases, A,B and C.So the partial pressure of A is equal to
pressure exerted only by Aand considering B and C are not present.
Similarly partial pressure of B is equal to the pressure exerted only by B and considering A and C are not
there.
Similarly for C.
According to Dalton’s law the total pressure of mixture is sum of partial pressure of A, partial pressure of
B and partial pressure of C.
To show how perfect gas equation concludes Dalton’s law of partial pressure:-
o Suppose there is a mixture of ideal gases which means these gases do not interact with each other.
By perfect gas equation, PV=μRT
Where V=volume of vessel,P=Pressure and T=temperature andμ (no. of moles).
As there are mixture of gases therefore μ=μ1 + μ2 + … so on.
PV=( μ1 + μ2 + …)RT

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 P = ( μ1+μ2+…)RT/V
=>P = μ1RT/V + μ2RT/V + …
∴ P=P1+P2 + …
Where P1=partial pressure of gas 1 and P2=partial pressure of gas 2.
∴ P= P1+P2+---total pressure due to the mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of the
gas.

13.4 Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas

Basis of Kinetic Theory: -
1. Molecules of gas are in incessant random motion, colliding against one another and with the walls of the
container.
2. All collisions are elastic.
3. Total Kinetic energy is conserved.
4. Total momentum is conserved.
5. In case of an elastic collision total Kinetic energy and momentum before collision is equal to the total
Kinetic energy and momentum after collision.
What does Kinetic Theory tells?
1. At ordinary temperature and pressure the molecular size is very small as compared to inter molecular
distance between them.
2. In case of gas, molecules are very far from each other and the size of molecules is small as compared to
the distance between them.
3. As a result, interaction between them is negligible. As there is no interaction between the molecules, there
will be no force between the molecules.
4. As a result molecules are moving freely as per newton’s first law of motion.
5. The molecules should move along straight line but when they come closer they experience the
intermolecular forces and as a result their velocities change.
6. This phenomenon is known as collision. These collisions are elastic.

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13.4.1 Pressure of an ideal gas based on Kinetic theory
Assumptions:-
o Consider a cube shape container filled with an ideal gas. We will consider only one molecule; the
molecule hits the walls of the container and bounces back.
o Let the velocity of the molecule when it is moving be (𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧 ).
o When the molecule bounces back, the velocity will be (−𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧 ).
o Change in momentum = Pf − Pi where Pf = final momentum and Pi = initial momentum)
o 𝑃𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖 = −𝑚𝑣𝑥 − 𝑚𝑣𝑥 = −2𝑚𝑣𝑥
o This change in momentum is imparted to the wall due to the collision.
o Momentum imparted to the wall in collision by one molecule = 2𝑚𝑣𝑥
• But there are as many molecules, we have to calculate total momentum imparted to the wall by
all of them.
• To calculate the number of molecules that hit the wall:
Area of wall= A
∴ in time ∆𝑡, all molecules within a distance of 𝐴𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑡 can hit the wall.
but on an average half of molecules move towards the wall and half away from the wall.
1
∴ (2) 𝐴𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑡 will hit the wall.
1
o ∴ total momentum imparted to the wall =2𝑚𝑣𝑥 × 2 𝑛 𝐴𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑣𝑥2 ∆𝑡𝑚
o Force exerted on the wall= rate of change of momentum=𝐴𝑛𝑣𝑥2 𝑚
𝐹
o Pressure on the wall 𝑃 = 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑚𝑣𝑥2
o ∴ 𝑃 = 𝑛𝑚𝑣𝑥2 is true for group of molecules moving with velocity 𝑣𝑥
Note:

i. All the molecules inside the gas will not have the same value of velocity. All will have different
velocities
ii. The above equation therefore, is valid for pressure due to the group of molecules with speed 𝑣𝑥 in
the x-direction and n stands for the number density of that group of molecules.
• Therefore total pressure due to all such groups will be obtained by summing over the
contribution due to the molecule 𝑃 = 𝑛𝑚𝑣 ̅̅̅
2
𝑥
• Where, 𝑣 ̅̅̅
2 2
𝑥 is the average of 𝑣𝑥 .
o Since the gas is isotropic the molecules move randomly which means the velocity of all the molecules can
be in any direction. Therefore
̅̅̅
𝑣 2 ̅̅̅2 ̅̅̅2 1 ̅̅̅2 ̅̅̅2 ̅̅̅2
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑧 = (𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑧 ) = 𝑣
1 2
3 3
1
o Therefore, Pressure, 𝑃 = 𝑛𝑚𝑣 2 , where 𝑣 2 = average squared speed.
3

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Justifying the assumptions:-
• We have assumed the container containing the gas is a cube. The shape of the container is immaterial.
• For a vessel of any arbitrary shape, we can choose a small infinitesimal (planar) area and can prove the
above derivation.
• We will see A and Δt are not there in the final result.
• By Pascal’s law pressure in one portion of gas in equilibrium is the same as anywhere else.
• All collisions are neglected.
1
a) The number of molecules hitting the wall in time Δt was found to be (2) 𝐴𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑡, with random collisions
and a steady state of gas.
b) Thus, if a molecule with velocity (vx, vy, vz) acquires a different velocity due to collision with some
molecules, there will always be some other molecule with a different initial velocity which after a
collision acquires the velocity (vx, vy, vz).
c) Molecular collision, when they are not too frequent and the time spent in collision is very small
compared to the time between collisions, will not have any affect in the above calculation.

13.4.2 Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature

• The average kinetic energy of a molecule is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the
gas.
• It is independent of pressure, volume or nature of the ideal gas.
• Multiplying with V on both sides,
1 ̅̅̅2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑉𝑚𝑣
3
After simplifying,
2 1 ̅̅̅2 , where, 𝑛 = 𝑁/𝑉
𝑃𝑉 = 3 𝑁 × 2 𝑚𝑣
𝑁- Number of molecules in a sample.
2
• Therefore 𝑃𝑉 = 3 𝐸 … … … . (𝑖)
1 ̅̅̅2
𝐸- Kinetic energy = 𝑁 × 𝑚𝑣
2
This is the basis of Kinetic interpretation of temperature.
• Combining eq(i) with the ideal gas equation, we get
3
𝐸 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑁𝑇 … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
2
𝐸 1 ̅̅̅2 3
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑁 2 2
This is the average kinetic energy
∴ 𝐾𝐸 ∝ 𝑇
Hence, temperature can be interpreted as a molecular quantity.

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Kinetic theory: Consistent with ideal gas equation and gas laws
1. Consistent with ideal gas equation:
𝐸 3 3
From kinetic interpretation 𝑁 = 2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 => 𝐸 = 2 𝑁𝑘𝐵 𝑇
The internal energy of an ideal gas is directly proportional to T
This shows that internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on temperature, not on pressure
or volume.
2. Consistent with Dalton’s law of partial pressures:
1
𝑃 = 3 𝑛𝑚𝑣 2 , from kinetic theory
∴ if a vessel contains a mixture of gases,
1
𝑃 = 3 [𝑛1 𝑚1 ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅2 + ⋯ ]
𝑣12 + 𝑛2 𝑚2 𝑣 2
in equillibrium average Kinetic energy of molecules of different gasses will be equal
1 ̅̅̅2 1 ̅̅̅2 3
𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 = ⋯ = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 2 2
1 3 3
Total pressure, 𝑃 = 3 [2 𝑛1 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 2 𝑛2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + ⋯ ]

𝑃 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇[𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ ]
𝑅
𝑃= [𝑛 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ ]
𝑁𝐴 1
𝑃 = [𝜇1 + 𝜇2 + ⋯ ]𝑅𝑇
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + ⋯
This is Datlon’s law of partial pressure.

Law of Equipartition of energy:Degrees of Freedom

o Degrees of Freedom can be defined as independent displacements or rotations that specify the
orientation of a body or system.
o A molecule free to move in space needs three coordinates to specify its location.
o If it is constrained to move in a plane it needs to.
o If constrained to move along a line, it needs just one coordinate to locate it.
o For example:-Consider a room and if we tie a thick rope from one wall to another.
o Take a ball which is moving straight on the rope.
o The ball has only 1 degree of freedom. It can move only in one particular dimension.
o Consider if the ball is on the floor which is two-dimensional, then the ball can move along 2 directions.
o The ball has 2 degree of freedoms.
o Consider if we throw the ball in space which is 3 dimensional. Then the ball can move in 3 dimensions.
o Therefore degree of freedom tells us in how many ways a body can move or rotate or vibrate.

Categories of Degrees of Freedom

1. Translational degree of freedom.
2. Rotational degree of freedom.
3. Vibrational degree of freedom.

Translational degree of freedom:-

o Translation means motion of the body as a whole from one point to another.
o For example:
o Consider the oxygen molecule; it has 2 oxygen atoms which are bonded together.

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o The 2 oxygen atoms along with the bond are considered as whole body.
o When the body as a whole is moving from one point to another is known as translational.
o Consider a molecule which is free to move in space and so it will need 3 coordinates(x, y, z) to specify its
location.
o Therefore it has 3 degrees of freedom.
o Similarly a molecule which is free to move in a plane which is 2 dimensional and so it needs 2 coordinates
to specify its location.
o Therefore it has 2 degrees of freedom.
o Similarly a molecule which is free to move in line it needs 1 coordinate to specify its location.
o Therefore it has 1 degree of freedom.
o Molecules of monoatomic gas have only translational degrees of freedom.This means gases which have
only one atom.
o For example:-Helium atom it consists of only one He atom.It will have translationaldegrees of freedom.
o Each translational degree of freedom contributes a term that contains square of some variable of motion.
o The variable of motion means the velocity (vx,vy,vz).
o The term (1/2) mvx2 will contribute to energy.This is Kinetic energy which is involved with the motion of
the molecule from one point to another.
In thermal equilibrium, the average of each such term is (1/2) kBT.

Rotational Degree of freedom

o Independent rotations that specify the orientation of a body or system.
o There is rotation of one part of the body with respect to the other part.
o Rotational degree of freedom happens only in diatomic gas.
o Diatomic molecules have rotational degrees of freedom in addition to translational degrees of freedom.
o It is possible in diatomic molecules as 2 atoms are connected together by a bond.So the rotation of one
atomw.r.t to other atom.
o In diatomic there is translational in addition to that they have rotational degree of freedom also.
o For example: - Two oxygen atoms joined together by a bond. There are two perpendicular axes.
o There are 2 rotations possible along the two axes.
o They have 3 translational degrees of freedom and also 2 rotational degree of rotation.
o Therefore Rotational degree of freedom contributes a term to the energy that contains square of a
rotational variable of motion.
o Rotational variable of motion comes from angular momentum ω.
o Linear velocity is vx,vy,vz. Whereas angular velocity is wx,wy,wz.

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o ER(rotational) = (1/2)(I1ω1)+(1/2)I2 ω2. These are 3 rotationaldegrees of freedom along the 2
perpendicular axes.
o The total energy contribution due to the degrees of freedom for oxygen molecule.
o There will be 3 translational degree of freedom (1/2)mxvx2,(1/2)myvy2,(1/2)mzvz2)
o 2 rotational degree of freedom (1/2)I12ω12,(1/2)I22ω22

Vibrational degree of freedom

o Some molecules have a mode of vibration,i.e. its atoms oscillate along the inter-atomic axis like a one-
dimensional oscillator.
o This vibration is observed in some molecules.
o For example:- CO atoms oscillate along the interatomic axis like a
one-dimensional oscillator.

o Consider two 2 atoms they vibrate along the inter-atomic axis.

o The vibrational energy terms contain square of vibrational variables of motion.
o Total vibrational energy term Ev = (1/2) m (dy/dt)2+ (1/2) ky2 where
(1/2) m(dy/dt)2=Kinetic energy and (1/2)ky2 =Potential energy and k=force constant one-dimensional
oscillator.
o The vibrational degree of freedom contributes 2 terms.

(1)

(2)

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(1) Rotational motion along two axis perpendicular to line joining two particles (here y and z directions)

(2) Vibrational motion along line joining the two atoms

Comparison between 3 energy modes

Translational Rotational Vibrational

Et=(1/2)mvx2 Er=(1/2)I ω2 Ev = (1/2)m (dy/dt)2+(1/2)ky2

1 squared term is being 1 squared term is being 2 squared term is being

contributed contributed contributed

Law of Equipartition of energy

According to this law, in equilibrium, the total energy is equally distributed in all possible energy modes, with
each mode having an average energy equal to (1/2)kBT.
1. Each translational degree of freedom contributes (1/2) kB
2. Each rotational degree of freedom contributes (1/2) kB
3. Each vibrational degree of freedom contributes 2x (1/2)kB

Specific Heat Capacity for monoatomic gases

o Monoatomic gases will only have translational degree of freedom.
o Maximum they can have is three translational degrees of freedom.
o Each degree of freedom will contribute (1/2) kB
o Therefore 3 degrees of freedom will contribute (3/2) kB
o By using law of equipartition of energy, the total internal energy of 1 mole of gas U=(3/2) k BTxNA=(3/2) RT
o Specific heat capacity at constant volume CV= dU/dT=(3/2) R(i)
o For an ideal gas CP-CV=R, By using equation(i)CP=(5/2)R
o Ratio of specific heats γ=CP/CV=(5/3)

Specific Heat of Diatomic gases (rigid)

o A rigid diatomic gas means they will have translational as well as rotational degree of freedom but not
vibrational.
o They are rigid oscillator.
o A rigid diatomic molecule will have 3 translational degrees of freedom and 2 rotational degrees of
freedom. Total 5 degrees of freedom.
o By law of equipartition of energy, each degree of freedom will contribute (1/2) k B
o Therefore 5 degree of freedom will contribute (5/2) kB
o Therefore the total internal energy of 1 mole of gas, U=(5/2) kBTxNA=(5/2)RT
o Specific heat capacity at constant volume(CV) =dU/dT=(5/2)R
o Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of a rigid diatomic is given as CP=(7/2)R
o Ratio of specific heats γ=CP/CV=(7/5)

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Specific Heat of Diatomic gases (non-rigid)
o A no-rigid diatomic gas has translational, rotational as well as vibrational degrees of freedom.
o There will be 3 translational degrees of freedom and 2 rotational degrees of freedom and 1 vibrational
degree of freedom.
o Total contribution by translational= (1/2) kBT, rotational=2x (1/2)kBT and vibrational =kB
o Total Internal energy for 1 mole =(5/2)kBT+kBT = (7/2)kBT= (7/2)RT.
o CV=dU/dT = (7/2) R.
o CP=CV+R= (9/2) R.
o γ= CP/CV =(9/7)

There are two independent axes of rotation(1) and(2) normal to the axis joining the two oxygen molecule.It
has 3 translational and 2 rotational degrees of freedom

Specific Heat Capacity for polyatomic gases

o Polyatomic gases will have 3 translational degree of freedom, 3 rotational degrees of freedom and ‘f’
number of vibrational modes.
o Total internal energy of 1 mole of gas =(3x(1/2)kBT + 3x(1/2)kBT+ fkBT)x NA
((3/2) + (3/2) +f)RT = (3+f) RT.
o CV=dU/dT = (3+f)R
o CP=CV+R=(4+f)R
o γ= CP/CV = (4+f)/(3+f)

Specific Heat Capacity for solids

o Consider there are N atoms in a solid. Each atom can oscillate about its mean position.
o Therefore vibrational degree of freedom = kBT
o In one-dimensional average energy=kBT, in three-dimensional average energy =3KBT
o Therefore total internal energy (U) of 1 mole of solid = 3KBTxNA= 3RT
o At constant pressure, ΔQ = ΔU + PΔV change in volume is very less in solids .Therefore ΔV = 0.
o =>ΔQ = ΔU
o CV=(dU/dT)v
o CP=(dQ/dT)Vas ΔQ = ΔU, Therefore CV=dU/dT=3R
o Therefore CP=CV=3R

Specific Heat Capacity of water

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o Consider water as solid,so it will have ‘N’ number of atoms.
o Therefore for each atom average energy =3kBT
o No of molecules in H2O= 3 atoms.
o Total internal energy U=3kBTx3xNA =9RT.
o CV=CP=9R.
Conclusion on Specific heat
o According to classical mechanics, the specific heat which is calculated based on degree of freedom should
be independent of temperature.
o However T 0,degree of freedom becomes inefficient.
o This shows classical mechanics is not enough; as a result quantum mechanics came into play.
o According to quantum mechanics minimum non-zero energy is required for degree of freedom to come
into play.
o Specific heats of all substances approach zero as T->0.

Mean free path

o Mean free path is the average distance between the two successive collisions.
o Inside the gas there are several molecules which are randomly moving and colliding with each other.
o The distance which a particular gas molecule travels without colliding is known as mean free path.
Expression for mean free path
o Consider each molecule of gas is a sphere of diameter (d).The average speed of each molecule is<v>.
o Suppose the molecule suffers collision with any other molecule within the distance (d). Any molecule
which comes within the distance range of its diameter this molecule will have collision with that molecule.
o The volume within which a molecule suffer collision =<v>Δtπd 2.
o Let number of molecules per unit volume =n
o Therefore the total number of collisions in time Δt =<v>Δtπd 2xn
o Rate of collision =<v>Δtπd2xn/Δt=<v>πd2n
o Suppose time between collision τ =1/<v>πd2n
o Average distance between collision = τ<v> = 1/πd2
o 1/πd2n this value was modified and a factor was introduced.
o Mean free path(l) = 1/√2 π d2n
Conclusion: - Mean free path depends inversely on:
a) Number density (number of molecules per unit volume)
b) Size of the molecule.

The volume swept by a molecule in time Δt in which any molecule will collide with it.

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 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

OSCILLATION & WAVES

1. INTRODUCTION 2 m m
Time period (T) =  2 as  
(1) A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a  k k
regular interval of time is called a periodic motion.
3. Frequency
(2) Oscillatory or vibratory motion is that motion in which a
The frequency of a particle executing S.H.M. is equal to
body moves to and fro or back and forth repeatedly about
the number of oscillations completed in one second.
a fixed point in a definite interval of time.
(3) Simple harmonic motion is a specific type of oscillatory  1 k
v 
motion, in which 2 2 m
(a) partical moves in one dimension, 4. Phase
(b) particle moves to and fro about a fixed mean position The phase of particle executing S.H.M. at any instant is its
(where Fnet = 0), state as regard to its position and direction of motion at
(c) net force on the particle is always directed towards that instant. it is measured as argument (angle) of sine in
means position, and the equation of S.H.M.
(d) magnitude of net force is always proportional to the Phase = (t + )
displacement of particle from the mean position at that At t = 0, phase = ; the constant  is called initial phase of
instant. the particle or phase constant.
So, Fnet = –kx 1.2 Important Relations
where, k is known as force constant
1. Position
 ma = – kx
k
 a x or a  2 x +a
m
where,  is known as angular frequency. T/2 T
O
d2 x
  2 x –a
dt 2
This equation is called as the differential equation of If mean position is at origin the position (X coordinate)
S.H.M. depends on time in general as :
The general expression for x(t) satisfying the above x (t) = sin (t + )
equation is :
 At mean position, x = 0
x (t) = A sin (t + )
 At extremes, x = + A, –A
1.1 Some Important terms
2. Velocity
1. Amplitude
The amplitude of particle executing S.H.M. is its maximum Vmax
displacement on either side of the mean position.
T/2 T
A is the amplitude of the particle. O
2. Time Period
Time period of a particle executing S.H.M. is the time taken
to complete one cycle and is denoted by T.  At any time instant t, v (t) = A  cos (t + )
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

At any position x, v (x) = ±  A 2  x 2 1 2 1

 Ux  kx  mA 2 2 sin 2  t   
2 2
 Velocity is minimum at extremes because the particles
is at rest.
i.e., v = 0 at extreme position. U max

 Velocity has maximum magnitude at mean position.

T/2 T
|v|max = A at mean position.

3. Acceleration
1 2
 U is maximum at extremes Umax = kA
2
Amax
 U is minimum at mean position
T/2 T
O Total Energy

T.E.
 At any instant t, a (t) = – 2 A sin (t + )
 At any position x, a (x) = – 2x
 Acceleration is always directed towards mean position.
 The magnitude of acceleration is minimum at mean
position and maximum at extremes. 1 2 1
T.E.  kA  mA 2 2
|a|min = 0 at mean position. 2 2

|a|max = 2 A at extremes. and is constant at all time instant and at all positions.
4. Energy Energy position graph

Kinetic energy
Energy
1 1
 K  mv 2  K  m2 A 2  x 2
2 2
  Total energy (E)

Potential energy (U)

1
 m2 A 2 cos 2  t   
2
Kinetic energy (K)
x=–a x=0 x=+a
K max

2. TIME PERIOD OF S.H.M.

T/2 T
To find whether a motion is S.H.M. or not and to find its
time period, follow these steps :
 K is maximum at mean position and minimum at extremes. (a) Locate the mean (equilibrium) position mathematically by
balancing all the forces on it.
1 1
 K max  m 2 A 2  kA 2 at mean position (b) Displace the particle by a displacement ‘x’ from the mean
2 2
position in the probable direction of oscillation.
 Kmin = 0 at extemes. (c) Find the net force on it and check if it is towards mean
Potential Energy position.
If potential energy is taken as zero at mean position, (d) Try to express net force as a proportional function of its
then at any position x, displacement ‘x’.
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

 If step (c) and step (d) are proved then it is a simple

m
harmonic motion.  Time period : T  2
k
(e) Find k from expression of net force (F = – kx) and find time
(c) Combination of springs :
m
period using T  2 . 1. Springs in series
k
2.1 Oscillations of a Block Connected to a Spring When two springs of force constant K 1 and K2 are
connected in series as shown, they are equivalent to a
(a) Horizontal spring :
single spring of force constant K which is given by
Let a block of mass m be placed on a smooth horizontal
surface and rigidly connected to spring of force constant 1 1 1
 
K whose other end is permanently fixed. K K1 K 2

K1 K 2
K
K1  K 2

block in equilibrium

mean position
K1 K
x

block displaced K2
K1K2
K = ––––––
K1 + K2
 Mean position : when spring is at its natural length.

m
 Time period : T  2 2. Springs in parallel
k
For a parallel combination as shown, the effective
(b) Vertical Spring : spring constant is K = K1 + K2
If the spring is suspended vertically from a fixed point
and carries the block at its other end as shown, the
block will oscillate along the vertical line.

elongation block elongation

=d displaced =d+x
downwards
by x K1 K2

block in equilibrium
K1 + K2

mg
 Mean position : spring in elongated by d 
k
OSCILLATION AND WAVES

2.2 Oscillation of a Cylinder Floating in a liquid R

 Time period : T  2 = 84.6 minutes
Let a cylinder of mass m and density d be floating on g
the surface of a liquid of density . The total length of where, R is radius of earth.
cylinder is L.
2.5 Angular Oscillations

Instead of straight line motion, if a particle or centre of

mass of a body is oscillating on a small arc of circular
L path then it is called angular S.H.M.
l l +x For angular S.H.M., = – k
 I = –k

cylinder in equilibrium cylinder displaced downwards I

 Time period, T  2
by a distance x k
Ld 2.5.1 Simple Pendulum
 Mean position : cylinder is immersed upto  

Ld  
 Time period : T  2  2  Time period : T  2
g g g

 Time period of a pendulum in a lift :

2.3 Liquid Oscillating in a U–Tube

Consider a liquid column of mass m and density  in a U- 

T  2 (if acceleration of lift is upwards)
tube of area of cross section A. ga


T  2 (if acceleration of lift is downwards)
x ga
x
 Second’s pendulum
Time period of second’s pendulum is 2s.
Length of second’s pendulum on earth surface  1m.

In equilibrium liquid displaced by x 2.5.2 Physical Pendulum

 Mean position : when height of liquid is same in both I

Time period : T  2
limbs. mg

m L
 Time period : T  2  2
2Ag 2g
O
where, L is length of liquid column.

2.4 Body Oscillation in tunnel along any chord of earth l

mg
 Mean position : At the centre of the chord
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

where, I is moment of inertia of object about point of  is the density of the solid.
suspension, and Speed of longitudinal wave in fluid is given by
l is distance of centre of mass of object from point of
suspension. B
v

3. DAMPED AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS
where, B is the bulk modulus,
1. Damped Oscillation :
 is the density of the fluid.
(i) The oscillation of a body whose amplitude goes on
(b) Newton’s formula
decreasing with time is defined as damped oscillation.
Newton assumed that propagation of sound wave in
(ii) In this oscillation the amplitude of oscillation gas is an isothermal process. Therefore, according to
decreases exponentially due to damping forces like
frictional force, viscous force etc. P
Newton, speed of sound in gas is given by v 

+a where P is the pressure of the gas and  is the density
of the gas.
According to the Newton’s formula, the speed of sound
O t
x in air at S.T.P. is 280 m/s. But the experimental value of
t h e s p e e d o f
–1
s. Newton could not
o u n d i n a i r i s 3 3 2 m s

–a explain this large difference. Newton’s formula was

corrected by Laplace.
(iii) Due to decrease in amplitude the energy of the (c) Laplace’s correction
oscillator also goes on decreasing exponentially. Laplace assumed that propagation of sound wave in
2. Forced Oscillation : gas in an adiabatic process. Therefore, according to
(i) The oscillation in which a body oscillates under the Laplace, speed of sound in a gas is given by
influence of an external periodic force are known as
P
forced oscillation. v

(ii) Resonance : When the frequency of external force is
equal to the natural frequency of the oscillator, then According to Laplace’s correction the speed of sound
this state is known as the state of resonance. And this in air at S.T.P. is 331.3 m/s. This value agrees farily well
frequency is known as resonant frequency. with the experimental values of the velocity of sound
in air at S.T.P.
4. WAVES
5. WAVES TRAVELLING IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS
(a) Speed of longitudinal wave
Speed of longitudinal wave in a medium is given by When two waves of same amplitude and frequency
travelling in opposite directions
E y1 = A sin (kx – t)
v
 y2 = A sin (kx + t)
where, E is the modulus of elasticity, interfere, then a standing wave is produced which is
given by,
 is the density of the medium.
y = y1 + y2
Speed of longitudinal wave in a solid in the form of rod
is given by  y = 2A sin kx cos t
Hence the particle at location x is oscillating in S.H.M.
Y with angular frequency  and amplitude 2A sin kx. As
v
 the amplitude depends on location (x), particles are
oscillating with different amplitude.
where, Y is the Young’s modulus of the solid,
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

Nodes : Amplitude = 0
L L
2A sin kx = 0
x = 0, /k, 2/k.......
A A A
x = 0, /2, , 3/2, 2........ N N
N N N
Antinodes : Amplitude is maximum.
sin kx = ± 1
x = /2k, 3/2k Fundamental frequency (x = 1)
x = /4, 3/4, 5/4
v
0 
Nodes are completely at rest. Antinodes are oscillating 2L
with maximum amplitude (2A). The points between a
It is also called first harmonic.
node and antinode have amplitude between 0 and 2 A.
Second harmonic or first overtone
Separation between two consecutive (or antinodes)
= /2. 2v

Separation between a node and the next antinode=/4. 2L

Nodes and antinodes are alternately placed. The nth multiple of fundamental frequency is known
as nth harmonic or (n – 1)th overtone.

t=0 t = T/2 2. Fixed at one end

Transverse standing waves with node at fixed end and
t = T/8 t = 3T/8 antinode at open end are formed.


t = T/4 So, length of string    2n  1 if there are n nodes
N1 N2 t = T/4 N N 4
and n antinodes.
t = 3T/8 t = T/8 Frequency of oscillations

t = T/2 t=0 v  2n  1 v
  
 4
It is clear from the figure that since nodes are, at rest Fundamental frequency, (n = 1)
they don’t transfer energy. In a stationary wave, energy
v
is not transferred from one point to the other. 0 
4L
5.1 Vibrations in a stretched string It is also called first harmonic.
1. Fixed at both ends. First overtone or third harmonic.
Transverse standing waves with nodes at both ends 3v
  3 0
of the string are formed. 4

n Only odd harmonics are possible in this case.

So, length of string,   if there are (n + 1) nodes
2 5.2 Vibrations in an organ pipe
and n antinodes.
1. Open Organ pipe (both ends open)
Frequency of oscillations is
The open ends of the tube becomes antinodes because
v nv the particles at the open end can oscillate freely.
  
 2 If there are (n + 1) antinodes in all,
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

n Let us consider net effect of two waves of frequencies

length of tube,    1 and  2 and amplitude A at x = 0.
2
nv y1  A sin 21 t
So, Frequency of oscillations is  
2 y 2  A sin 2 2 t

 y = y1 + y2

 y = A  sin 21 t  sin 2 2 t 

y   2A cos   1   2  t  sin   1   2  t

Thus the resultant wave can be represented as a

   2 
travelling wave whose frequency is  1  and
 2 
amplitude is 2A cos  ( 1–  2) t.
As the amplitude term contains t, the amplitude varies
periodically with time.
2. Closed organ pipe (One end closed) For Loud Sounds : Net amplitude = ± 2A
The open end becomes antinode and closed end  cos  ( 1 –  2) t = ± 1
become a node.   ( 1 –  2) t = 0, , 2, 3 .......
If there are n nodes and n antinodes,
1 2 ........
L = (2n – 1) /4  t  0, ,
1   2 1   2
So frequency of oscillations is
Hence the interval between two loud sounds is given as :
v  2n  1 v
  1
 4L 
1   2

 the number of loud sounds per second =  1 –  2

 beat per second =  1 –  2
Note that 1 – 2 must be small (0 – 16 Hz) so that sound
variations can be distinguished.

Filling a tuning form increases its frequency of vibration.

Loading a tuning for k decreases its frequency of vibration.

6. DOPPLER EFFECT
There are only odd harmonics in a tube closed at one end.
According to Doppler’s effect, whenever there is a relative
5.3 Waves having different frequencies motion between a source of sound and listener, the apparent
frequency of sound heard by the listener is different from
Beats are formed by the superposition of two waves of
the actual frequency of sound emitted by the source.
slightly different frequencies moving in the same
direction. The resultant effect heard in this case at any Apparent frequency,
fixed position will consist of alternate loud and weak v  vL
  
sounds. v  vs
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

Sing Convention. All velocities along the direction S

to L are taken as positve and all velocities along the v   vL  v  vL
    i.e. v’ > 
direction L to S are taken as negative. v v
When the motion is along some other direction the
(e) If the source and listener are approaching each other,
component of velocity of source and listener along the
then v s is positive and v L is negative (figure e).
line joining the source and listener is considered.
Therefore,
Special Cases :
(a) If the source is moving towards the listener but the v   vL   v  vL 
listener is at rest, then v s is positive and vL = 0 (figure      i.e. ’ > 
v  vs  v  vs 
a). Therefore,
(f) If the source and listener are moving away from each
v
    i.e. ’ >  other, then vs is negative and vL is positive, (figure f).
v  vs
Therefore,
(b) If the source is moving away from the listener, but the
v  vL v  vL
listener is at rest, then v s is negative and vL = 0 (figure     i.e. ’ < 
b). Therefore, v    vs  v  vs

v v (g) If the source and listener are both in motion in the

    i.e. ’ <  same direction and with same velocity, then v s = vL = v’
v    vs  v  vs
(say) (figure g). Therefore,
(c) If the source is at rest and listener is moving away from
the source, the vs = 0 and v L is positive (figure c).  v  v 
   i.e. ’ = 
Therefore,  v  v 

It means, there is no change in the frequency of sound

heard by the listerner.
Apparent wavelength heard by the observer is
  s
 


If case the medium is also moving, the speed of sound

 
with respect to ground is considered. i.e.    m

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
Loudness of sound is also called level of intensity of
sound.
In decibel the loudness of a sound of intensity I is

 I 
 v  vL  given by L = 10 log10   . (I0 = 10 –12 w/m2)
   i.e. ’ <   I0 
v
Pitch : It is pitch depends on frequency, higher the
(d) If the source is at rest and listener is moving towards frequency higher will be the pitch and shriller will be
the source, then vs = 0 and vL is negative (figure d). the sound.
Therefore,
 Chapter 15
Communication System
Introduction
We live in the world of information. Information needs to be communicated from one entity to another entity.
This act of sending and receiving message from one place to another place, successfully, is called
communication.
The word successful in the above definition, implies many things like
o Common understanding by the sender and the receiver in interpreting the information
o Quality in communication, which implies no addition, deletion or modification of the actual information
The growing needs of human beings in the field of communication imposed demands on
o Complexity of information
o Speed of transmission

Evolution in communication
The table below shows us how physical messengers who travelled from one place to another changed to the
current day situation where information comes to your doorstep anytime with easy access.
Time period Event Remarks
· Announcement to common people · Messengers travelled from one place to
When Kings · Peace and war message from one another
ruled country to another · Drum beaters announced Kings decisions
Invention of Telegraph by F.B.Morse Messengers physically going from one place
1835 and Sir Charles Wheatstone to another reduced
Invention of Telephone by Alexander
1876 Graham Bell and Antonio Meucci Even now this communication is very useful
Wireless Telegraphy by Jagadis Leap in communication history from using
1895 Chandra Bose and G Marconi wires to wireless
1936 Television broadcast by John Logi Baird Being used even today
1955 Radio FAX by Alexander Bain Being used even today
First internet where file transfer from one
computer to another computer was
1968 ARPANET by JCR LIcklider possible
1975 Fiber Optics by Bell Laborataries More economical means of communication
Information access made so easy in modern
1989-91 World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee world

Communication System
The general form of communication system is depicted below:

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As we see here, the basic elements of communication includes transmitter, Channel and the receiver. The
transmitter and the receiver may be located geographically at different places. The Channel connects the
transmitter and the receiver.
Information Source – The source produces signal of the information which needs to be communicated.
Signal – Information in electrical form suitable for transmission is called signal.
Transmitter – Converts the source signal into suitable form for transmission through the channel.
Channel – The channel connecting the transmitter and the receiver is a physical medium. The channel can be
in the form of wires, cables or wireless.
Noise – When the transmitted signal propagates along the channel, it may get distorted due to channel
imperfection.
Thus, noise refers to unwanted signals that tend to disturb the process of communication from the transmitter
to the receiver.
Receiver – Due to noise and other factors, the corrupted version of signal arrives at the receiver. The receiver
has to reconstruct the signal into recognizable form of the original message for delivering it to the user. The
signal at the receiver forms the output.

Modes of communication
Point to point communication – There is a single link between the transmitter and the receiver.
Communication takes place between single transmitter and receiver
Example – Telephone

Broadcast mode – There are large number of receivers though information is sent by a single transmitter.
Example – Television and Radio

Communication – Terminology
1. Transducer – Any device which converts energy in one form to another form is called transducer.
Electrical transducer: A device that converts some physical variable like pressure, displacement, force,
temperature, into corresponding variations in electrical signal. Hence, the output of this would be an
electrical signal.
2. Signal Types – Information in electrical form suitable for transmission called signal, is of two types
Analog signal –
o Continuous variations of voltage and current. Hence, single valued functions of time.
o Sine wave is a fundamental analog signal
o Example – Sound and picture signals in television

Digital signal –
o Digital step value based
o Binary system where 0 represents low level and 1 represents high level is used
o Universal digital coding methods like BCD – Binary Coded Decimal and ASCII – American Standard
Code of Information Interchange is used in common

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 3. Amplitude –
The maximum extent of vibration or oscillation from the position of equilibrium

4. Frequency –
The frequency is the number of waves which pass a fixed place in a given amount of time.

5. Phase –
The two waves depicted below have a phase difference indicated by the phase shift which is the fraction of
the wave cycle which has elapsed relative to the origin.

Signal propagation – Terminology

1. Attenuation – The loss of strength of the signal while propagating through a medium is known as
attenuation.
2. Amplification – The process of increasing the amplitude of the signal by using an electronic circuit is
called amplification. This also increases the strength of the signal. Hence, it compensates the
attenuation of the signal.
3. Range – It is the largest distance between the source and the destination upto which the signal is
received with sufficient strength.
4. Bandwidth – It refers to the frequency range for which the equipment operates.
5. Modulation – If the information signal is of low frequency, it cannot be transmitted to long distances.
Hence, at transmission point, it is super imposed on high frequency wave. This high frequency wave
acts as a carrier of information. This is modulation
Sinusoidal wave modulation-
There are 3 types of modulation, namely 1. Amplitude modulation 2.Frequency modulation and 3.
Phase modulation
Amplitude modulation –
The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the information signal

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 Frequency modulation –
The frequency of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the information signal

Phase modulation –
The phase of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the information signal

Pulse wave modulation-

There are 3 types of pulse wave modulation – namely (a) Pulse amplitude modulation (b) Pulse width
modulation (c) Pulse position modulation

6. Demodulation – The process of retrieval of information from the carrier wave at the receiver is termed
as demodulation. This is a reverse of modulation.
7. Repeater – A repeater is a combination of receiver and a transmitter.
A repeater picks up the signal from the transmitter, amplifies and retransmits it to the receiver. Thus
repeaters are used to extend the range of communication system
Example – Communication satellite is a repeater station in space.

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Propagation of electromagnetic waves
While communication using radio waves, the transmitter antenna radiates electromagnetic waves. These
waves travel through the space and reach the receiving antenna at the other end. We have considered below
some of the wave propagation methods in brief.
Ground or Surface wave propagation:

o In this mode of wave propagation, ground has a strong influence on propagation of signal waves from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. The signal wave glides over the surface of the earth
o While propagating on the surface of the earth, the ground wave induces current in the ground. It also
bends around the corner of the objects on the earth
o Due to this, the energy of the ground wave is gradually absorbed by the earth and the power of the
ground wave decreases
o The power of the ground wave decreases with the increase in the distance from the transmitting station.
This phenomenon of loss of power of the ground wave is called attenuation
o The attenuation of ground waves increases very rapidly with the increase in its frequency
o Thus, ground wave communication is not suited for high frequency signal wave and for very long range
communication
o To radiate signals with high efficiency, the antennas should have a size comparable to the wavelength of
the signal
Sky waves:

o The ionosphere plays a major role in sky wave propagation. We know that the earth’s atmosphere is
divided into various regions like – Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere and Ionosphere.
o The ionosphere is also called as thermosphere as temperature increases rapidly here and it is the
outermost part of the earth’s atmosphere.
o Above troposphere, we have various layers like D (part of stratosphere), E (part of stratosphere), F1 (part
of mesosphere), F2 (part of ionosphere)
o The ionosphere is called so because of the presence of large number of ions or charged particles.
Ionisation occurs due to the absorption of the ultraviolet and other high energy radiation coming from the
sun, by the air molecues
o The phenomenon of bending of electromagnetic waves in this layer so that they are diverted towards the
earth is helpful in skywavepropogation. This is similar to total internal reflection in optics
o The radiowaves of frequency range from 1710 kHz to 40 MHz are propagated in sky wave propagation

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Space waves:

o The space waves travel in straight line from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna.
o Hence, space waves are used for line of sight communication such as television broadcast, microwave link
and satellite communication
o The line of sight communication is limited by (a) the line of sight distance (b) the curvature of the earth
o At some point by the curvature of the earth, the line of sight propagation gets blocked.
o The line of sight distance is the distance between transmitting antenna and receiving antenna at which
they can see each other. It is also called range of communication d M
o The range of space wave communication can be increased by increasing the heights of the transmitting
antenna and receiving antenna.
o The maximum line of sight distance (range of communication) dM between two transmitting antenna of
height hT and the receiving antenna of height hR above the earth is given by
𝑑𝑀 = √(2𝑅ℎ𝑇 ) + √2𝑅ℎ𝑅

Modulation and its necessity

Any message signal, in general, is not a single frequency sinusoidal. But it spreads over a range of frequencies
called the signal bandwidth.
Suppose we wish to transmit an electronic signal, in the audio frequency range, say 20 Hz to 20kHz range, over
a long distance we need to consider factors like
a. Size of antenna:
o Antenna is needed for both transmission and reception
o Antenna should have a size comparable to the wavelength of the signal, atleastλ/4 where λ is the
wavelength of the signal
o In the above audio frequency range, if we consider frequency 15,000= ‫ ט‬Hz. Then λ = c / / 108* 3= ‫ט‬
15,000 = 20,000 m
o Hence, antenna length = λ/4 = 20,000 / 4 = 5000 m.
o It is practically impossible to design an antenna of height 5000m
o So the transmission frequency should be raised in such a way that the length of the antenna is within
100m which is feasible for practical purpose
o This shows that there is a need for converting low frequency signal to high frequency before
transmission

b. Effective power radiated by the antenna:

o Effective power rated by the antenna = P = E/t
o Also, E = h‫ = ט‬hc/λ
o Hence, P = E/t = hc/λ * c/λ
o Studies reveal that if l is the linear length of the antenna, then P is proporational to (l/λ) 2
o Hence, for good transmission, high power and hence small wavelength and high frequency waves are
required
o High frequency waves becomes inevitable in this case also
c. Avoiding mixing of signals from different transmitters:
o When many transmitters are transmitting baseband information signals simultaneously, they all gets
mixed up

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 o There is no way to distinguish between them
o Possible solution is communication at high frequencies and allotting a band of frequencies for each
transmitter so that there is no mixing
o This is what is being dene for different radio and TV broadcast stations
Hence, we understand the necessity of modulation.
Band width
Bandwidth is also defined as the amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time
Signals – Bandwidth:
o The message signal can be voice, music, picture or computer data
o Each of the above have different frequency ranges
o The speech signals frequency range from 300Hz to 3100Hz. Hence, bandwidth = 3100 -300 = 2800 Hz
o Any music requires bandwidth of 20kHz because of high frequencies produced by musical instruments
o Video signals for transmission of picture requires 4.2 MHz of bandwidth
o The Television signal which contains both voice and picture is usually allocated a bandwidth of 6MHz
bandwidth for transmission
Transmission Medium – Bandwidth:
o Different types of transmission media offers different bandwidth
o Coaxial cables, widely used wire medium offers bandwidth of approximately 750 MHz
o Communication through free space using radio waves offers wide range from hundreds of kHz to few GHz
o Optical fibres are used in the frequency range of 1THz to 1000 THz (THz – Tera Hertz; 1THz = 1012Hz)
o As mentioned earlier, to avoid mixing of signals, allotting a band of frequencies to a specific transmitter is
in practise
o The International Telecommunication Union administers this frequency allocation
o Services like FM Broadcast, Television, Cellular Mobile Radio and Satellite communication operate under
fixed frequency bands
Let us now consider amplitude modulation in detail.
Amplitude modulation
As we know, in amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
amplitude of the information signal or modulating signal.
For sinusoidal modulating wave,
m(t) = Amsinωmt --------------------------------(1)
where, Am – Amplitude of modulating signal
ωm- 2πωm – Angular frequency of modulating signal
For carrier wave,
Cm(t) = Acsinωct --------------------------------(2)
Where, Ac – Amplitude of carrier wave
ωm- 2πωc– Angular frequency of carrier wave
For carrier wave, the amplitude is changed by adding the amplitude of the modulating signal which is
Ac + Amsinωmt
Cm(t) = (Ac+ Amsinωmt) sin ωct --------------------------------(3)
Multiply and Divide equation (3) RHS by Ac
Cm(t) = Ac (Ac/Ac+Am/Ac sin ωmt) sin ωct ---------------------------(4)
Replace Am / Ac = µ
µ is called Amplitude modulation index and is always less than or equal to 1 to avoid distortion.
Cm(t) = Acsin ωct + µAc sin ωct sin ωmt ---------------------------(5)
We know that sin A sin B = ½ [ cos (A-B) – cos (A + B)]

Hence, sin ωctsin ωmt = [cos (ωc-ωm)t – cos(ωc+ωm)t]

Cm(t) = Acsin ωct + µAc/2[cos (ωc-ωm)t – cos(ωc+ωm)t]

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 Cm(t) = Acsin ωct + µAc/2cos (ωc-ωm)t – µAc/2cos(ωc+ωm)t--------(6)

Equation (6) shows that the amplitude modulated signal consists of

1. Carrier wave of frequency ωc
2. Sinusoidal wave of frequency (ωc-ωm)
3. Sinusoidal wave of frequency (ωc+ωm)
The two additional waves are called side bands. The frequency of these bands are called side band frequencies
Frequency of lower side band = (ωc-ωm)
Frequency of upper side band = (ωc+ωm)

The band width of the AM wave is Frequency of lower side band minus Frequency of upper side band
(ωc+ωm) - (ωc-ωm) = 2ωm (Twice the frequency of modulating signal)
Graphical representation

Production of amplitude modulated wave

We know that modulating signal is represented by

m(t) = Amsinωmt --------------------------------(1)
where, Am – Amplitude of modulating signal
ωm- 2π‫ט‬m – Angular frequency of modulating signal
Similarly, carrier wave is represented by
Cm(t) = Acsinωct --------------------------------(2)
Where, Ac – Amplitude of carrier wave
ωm- 2πωc– Angular frequency of carrier wave

Modulating signal is added to the carrier wave, Hence, the representation is

x(t) =Amsinωmt + Acsinωct
The above signal is passed to a square law device (non-linear device)
y(t) =B x(t) + C [x(t)]2
B,C – Arbitrary constants
Substitute for x(t) in y(t) and use formula (A + B)2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB
y(t) =B[Amsinωmt + Acsinωct] + C[Amsinωmt + Acsinωct]2
=B[Amsinωmt + Acsinωct] + C[Am2sin2ωmt + Ac 2sin 2ωct + 2 Am Acsin ωmtsin ωct]
We know sin A sin B = ½ [cos (A-B) – cos (A+B)]
Hence, sinωctsin ωmt = ½ [ cos (ωc – ωm)t – cos (ωc+ ωm)t ]
Also, sin2A = ( 1- cos 2A) /2

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Hence,
sin 2ωct = (1 – cos 2ωct) / 2
sin 2ωmt = (1 – cos 2ωmt) / 2

Therefore y(t) can be re-written as

y(t) =B[Amsinωmt + Acsinωct] + cAm2/ 2(1– cos2ωmt) + cAc2/ 2( 1 – cos2ωct) + 2 Am Ac (c/2)[ cos (ωc – ωm)t –cos
(ωc+ ωm)t ] ]
y(t) =BAmsinωmt + BAcsinωct + c/ 2[Am 2 + Ac2] – cAm 2/ 2 cos2ωmt – c Ac2/ 2 cos2ωct + cAm Accos (ωc – ωm)t – c
Am Accos (ωc+ ωm)t
In the above equation, there is a d.c. term ½ c [Am 2 + Ac2] and sinusoidal waves of frequency ωc, ωm, 2ωm,(ωc –
ωm) and (ωc+ ωm)
The signal is passed through band pass filter centered at ωc
This rejects the low and high frequencies. In the above case, the filter rejects d.c, ωc,ωm, 2ωm,(ωc – ωm). The
frequencies ωc, (ωc – ωm) and (ωc+ ωm) are passed. This is amplitude modulated wave.
This wave cannot be passed as such. It needs to be amplified and then fed to an antenna of appropriate size
for radiation.

Detection of amplitude modulated wave

o Detection is the process of recovering the modulating signal from the modulated carrier wave.
o The transmitted message gets attenuated in propagating through the channel

o The receiving antenna receives the signal which is then amplified.

o The carrier frequency is changed to a lower frequency by Intermediate frequency (IF) stage

Detection Process:
o It is then passed through the detector.
Hence, INPUT – Modulated carrier wave of frequencies ωc, (ωc+ωm) and (ωc-ωm)
OUTPUT – Original signal m(t) of frequency ωm

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We know that Rectifier consists of a simple circuit, which gives the input and output as indicated below:

The envelope detector gives the envelope of the given signal

Block Diagram for Detection of Amplitude modulated wave

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 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS
2. THERMODYNAMICS
It is the study of interelations between heat and other forms
of energy
Thermodynamic System : A collection of large number of
molecules of matter (solid, liquid or gas) which are so
arranged that these posses certain values of pressure,
volume and temperature forms a thermodynamic system.
• The parameters pressure, volume, temperature, internal
energy etc which determine the state or condition of system
are called thermodynamic state variables.
In thermodynamics we deal with the thermodynamic systems
as a whole and study the interaction of heat & energy during
the change of one thermodynamic state to another.
2.1 Thermal Equilibrium
The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics implies the state
when all the macroscopic variables characterising the
system (P, V, T, mass etc) do not change with time.
• Two systems when in contact with each other come to
thermal equilibrium when their temperatures become same.
• Based on this is zeroth law of thermodynamics. According
to zeroth law, when the thermodynamics systems A and B
are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
thermodynamic system C, then the systems A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other also.
2.2 Heat, Work and Internal Energy
Internal Energy is the energy possessed by any system
due to its molecular K.E. and molecular P.E. Here K.E & P.E
are with respect to centre of mass frame. This internal
energy depends entirely on state and hence it is a state
variable. For 1 real gases internal energy is only by virtue
of its molecular motion.
nf RT
Units for ideal gases where
3
n = number of moles
f = Degree of fredom
R = Universal Gas Constant
T = Temperature in Kelvin
Internal Energy can be change either by giving heat energy
or by performing some work.
Heat Energy is the energy transformed to or from the system
because of the difference in temperatures by conduction,
convection or radiation.
The energy that is transferred from one system to another
by force moving its point of application in its own direction
is called work.
dx
System
Fs = PsA
Work done by the system   F dx
  Ps Adx
  Ps dV
Where Ps Pressure of system on the piston. This work done
by system is positive if the system expands & it is negative
if the system contracts.
• Work and Heat are path functions whereas internal energy
is a state function.
• Heat & work are two different terms through they might
look same.
2.3 Important Thermodynamics Terms
State Variables : P, V, T, moles
They can be extensive or intestive.
Equation of State : The equation which connects the
pressure (P), the volume (V) and absolute temperature (T)
of a gas is called the equation of state.
PV = constant (Boyle’s Law)
V
= constant (Charle’s Law)
T
 PV = NRT
Thermodynamic Process : A thermodynamic process is
said to take place when some changes occur in the state of
a thermodynamic system, i.e., the thermodynamic
parameters of the system change with some important time.
Types of these thermodynamic process are Isothermal,
Adiabatic, Isobaric and Isocboric
Quasi Static Process : A thermodynamic process which is
infinitely slow is called as quasi-static process.
• In quasi static process, system undergoes change so slowly,
that at every instant, system is in equilibrium, both thermal
and mechanical, with the surroundings.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Quasi-static process is an idealised processed. We generally 2.5.1 Isothermal Process

assume all the processes to be quasistatic unless stated.
Description : A thermodynamic process in which
Indicator P-V, Diagram : A graph between pressure and
temperature remains constant
volume of a gas under thermodynamic operation is called
P-V. diagram. Condition : The walls of the container must be perfectly
conducting to allow free exchange of heat between gas
P and its surroundings.
The process of compression or expansion should be slow
a
so as the provide time for exchange of heat.
b
These both conditions are perfectly ideal.
d c
v Equation of State : T = Constant or Pv = Constant
Indicator Diagram :
a Isobaric
b Isothermal P P
c Adiabatic
d Isochoric
• Area under P – V diagram gives us work done by a gas.
st v
2.4 1 Law of Thermodynamics T

Let Q = Heat supplied to the system by the surroundings

W = Work done by the system on the surroundings P
Slope of P  V at any point.
U = Change in internal energy of the system. V

First law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither U = 0 (Temperature remains constant)
be created nor be destroyed. It can be only transformed v2
from the form to another.
W=  P dV
g
Mathematically : Q = U + Q v2

Sign Conventions : v2
nRT dV
• When heat is supplied to the system, then Q is positive =  V V [Using PV = nRT)
and when heat is withdrawn from the system, Q is v2

negative.
v2
• When a gas expands, work done by the gas is positive & = nRT l n v
when a gas contracts then w is negative 1

• U is positive, when temperature rises and U is negative, First Law of Thermodynamics

when temperature falls.
Q = U + W
Remember here we always take work done by the system.
In chemistry, work done on the system is considered. Hence v2
st
there is some different look of 1 law of Thermodynamics in  Q = nRT l n v
1
chemistry.
Q + W = U Remarks : All the heat supplied is used entirely to do work
against external sorroundings. It heat is supplied then the
where Q, U have same meanings but W stands for work
gas expands & if heat is withdrawn then the gas contracts.
done on the system
Practical Examples :
2.5 Application of the First of Law of Thermodynamics
Melting of ice at 0°C
st
Here we see how 1 Law of Thermodynamics is applied to
Boiling of H2O at 100°C
various thermodynamic processes.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

2.5.2 Adiabatic Process

cons tan t  1 1 
Description : When there is not heat exchange with =  r 1  r 1 
1 r  V2 V 
surroundings
1

Conditions : The walls of the container must be perfectly Also we know

non-conducting in order to prevent any exchange of heat
between the gas and its surroundings. P1 V1r  P2 V2r  cons tan t

The process of compression or expansion should be rapid

so there is no time for the exchange of heat. 1  P2 V2 r P1 V1r 
   
1  r  V2r 1 V1r 1 
These conditions are again ideal condition and are hard to
obtain
P2 V2  P1 V1 nR  T1  T2 
Equation of State : W = 
r
1 r r 1
Pv = constant
r –1 First Law of Thermodynamics
or TV = constat
Q = UT + W
r
or PT 1 r
 cons tan t Substituting the values

Indicator Diagram We get Q = 0

Q = 0 is as expected
P Remarks : It gas expands adiabatically then its temp
decreases & vice vers a
isotherm Practical Example
• Propagation of sound waves in the form of compression &
v rarefaction
• Sudden bursting of a cycle tube.

 rp 2.5.3 Isochoric Process

Slope of adiabatic curve 
V
Description : Volume remains constant
• As shown in graph adiabatic curve is steeper than Condition : A gas being heated  or cooled inside a rigid
isothermal curve. container.

nfRDT nR  T2  T1  P2 V2  P1 V1 P
U    Equation of State : V = constant or = constant
2 r 1 r 1 T
Work Done by Gas : If a gas adiabatically expands from V1
to V2 P P P

V2
dV
W = V
V1
r

V2
v T T
dV
= cons tan t  Vr
V1
n f R T
U =
2
 PV r  cons tan t 
 
  p  cons tan t  n R  T2  T1 
 V r
 =
r 1
V2
 V  r 1  P2 V2  P1 V1 nR T
= cons tan t    U = 
 1 r V 1 r 1 r 1
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Work First Law of Thermodynamics

W = O as gas does not expands Q = U + W
First Law of thermodynamics
nfRT
Q = U + W  Q =  nRT
2
n f R T
 Q= ...(7)  fR 
2  Q =   R  T ...(10)
 2 
Remarks : Since we have studied earlier, that when heat is
supplied to any process. its temp increases according to Remarks : Similar to CV, we can define molar heat capacity
relation at constant pressure

Q = nCT Q 
 CP = nT  ...(11)
P
Q
 C=
nT From equation 10 & 11
Now this C depends upon external conditions for gases.
fR
We get CP = R ...(12)
Q  2
Here it is refered as nT  ...(8)
v From equation 9 & 12

i.e. Molar heat capacity at constant volume fR

Replacing by CV we get
Comparing equation 7 and 8 2
CP = CV = R ...(13)
fR
We getCv = ...(9) which is also called as Mayer’s Relation.
2
• Similar to molar specific heat at constant pressure and molar
2.5.4 Isobaric Process specific heat at constant volume, we can define molar
Description : When pressure remains constant specific heat for any process.
Condition : When in one container, the piston is free to For example :
move and is not connected by any agent. C adiabatic = 0
Equation of State : P = constant C isothermal = 

V Basically gas does not possess a unique specific heat.

= constant Mainly we have CP & CV
T
Indicator Diagram : Specific Heat at Constant Volume : It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of a
P P gas through 1C°, when its volume is kept constant. It is
denoted as CV.
Specific Heat at Constant Pressure : It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of a
v T gas through 1C° keeping its pressure constant. It is denoted
as CP.
nf RT • Please Note CP, CV means Molar heat Capacity & CP, CV
U = same as always means specific heat capacity
2
• CV = MCV & CP = MCP where M stands for molar mass of any
W =  PdV  PV sample.
(as pressure is constant) R
• CP  CV 
= PV2 – PV = nRT M
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

2.5.5 Melting Process 2.7 Heat Engines

In any case first law is always applicable It is a device that converts heat energy into mechanical
energy.
Q = mLf as learned earlier.
Key Elements :
W=0
• A source of heat at higher temperature
(In the change of state from solid to liquid we ignore any
expansion or contraction as it is very small) • A working substance

According to first law of thermodynamics • A sink of heat at lower temperature.

U = Q – W Working :

U = mLf • The working substance goes through a cycle consisting of

several processes.
Remark : The heat given during melting is used in
increasing the internal energy of any substance • In some processes it absorbs a total amount of heat Q1 from
the source at temperature T 1.
2.5.6 Boiling Process
• In some processes it rejects a total amount of heat Q2 to the
Here sink at some lower temperature T2.
Q = mLV • The work done by the system is a cycle is transferred to the
environment via some arrangement.
W = P[V2 – V1]
Schematic Diagram
(Pressure is constant during boiling and it is equal to
atmospheric pressure) W
 U = Q – W
U = mLf – P(V2 – V1)
Source or Q1 Working Q2 Sink or
2.5.7 Cyclic Process Hot Reservoir Substamnce Cold Reservoir

A cyclic process is one is which the system returns to its

T1 T2
initial stage after undergoing a serves of change
Example Indicatgor Diagram First Law of Thermodynamics
P  Energy is always conserved
A  Q1 = W + Q 2 ...(14)
Thermal Efficiency of a heat engine is defined of the ratio
B
of net work done per cycle by the engine to the total amount
V of heat absorbed per cycle by the working substance from
the source. It is denoted by .
U = mLV O
W = Area under the loop. W
= Q ...(15)
Q = W as per First Law of thermodynamics 1

Here W is positive if the cycle is clockwise & it is negative Using equation 14 and 15 we get
if the cyclic is anti clockwise.
Q2
2.6 Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics  = 1 Q ...(16)
1

• The first law does not indicate the direction in which the
change can occur.
• The first law gives no idea about the extent of change
• The first law of thermodynamics gives no information about
the source gives no information about the source of heat.
i.e. whether it is a hot or a cold body.
Ideally engines shuld have efficiency = 1
Remarks : The mechanism of conversion of heat into work
varies for different heat engines.
• The system heated by an external furnace, as in a steam
engine. Such engines are called as external combustion
engine.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• The system is which heat is produced by burning the fuel Though all the statements are the same in their contents,
inside the main body of the engine. Such an engine is called the following two are significant.
as Internal Combustion Engine. Kelvin Pnek Statement : No process is possible whose
2.8 Refrigerator and Heat Pumps sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the
complete conversion of the heat into work.
A refrigertor or heat pump is a device used for cooling
Calcius Statement : No process is possible whose sole
things.
result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter
Key Elements : object.
• A cold reservoir at temperature T 2. Significance : 100% officiency in heat engines or infinite
• A working substance. CoP in refrigerators is not possible.
• A hot reservoir at temperature T1 2.10 Reversible and Irreversible Process
Working
Reversible Process : A thermodynamic process taking a
• The working substance goes through a cycle consisting of system from initial state i to final state f is reversible, if the
several process. process can be turned back such that both, the system and
• A sudden expansion of the gas from high to low pressure the surroundings return to their original states, with no
which cool it and converts it into a vapour-liquid mixture. other change anywhere else in the universe.
• Absorption by the cold fluid of heat from the region to be Conditions for reversibility :
cooled converting it into vapour. 1. Process should proceed at an extremely slow rate, i.e.,
• Heating up of the vapour due to external work done on the process is quasistatic so that system is in equilibrium with
working substance. surroundings at every stage.
• Release of heat by the vapour to the sorroundings bringing 2. The system should be free from dissipative forces like
it to the initial state and completing the cycle. friction, inelasticity; viscosity etc.
Sychematic Diagram. Examples : No process exactly reversible, though a slow
expansion of an ideal gas is approximately reversible.
W
Irreversible Process : A process which does not satisfy
any of the conditions for reversible is called an irreversible
Hot Reservoir Q1 Q2 Cold Reservoir process.
T1 T2
Causes :
• Spontaneous process
First Law of Thermodynamics
• Presence of friction, viscosity and such dissi-ptive forces
Q2 + W = Q 1 ...(17)
Significance of Reversibility :
Coefficient of Performance of refrigerator () is defined as
• Main concern of thermodynamics is the efficiency with
the ratio of quantity of heat removed per cycle from contents
which the heat is converted into Mechanical Energy.
of the refrigerator (Q2) to the energy spent per cycle (W) to
remove this heat • Second Law of Thermodynamics rules out the possibility
of a perfect heat engine with 100% efficiency.
Q2 • It turns out that heat engine based on idealised reversible
 ...(18)
W processes achieves the highest possible efficiency.
Using equation 17 and 18 we get
2.11 Carnot Engine
Q2 Sadi Carnot devised on ideal cycle of operation for a heat

Q1  Q 2 engine called as carnot cycle.

Ideally heat pumps should have  =  Engine used for realising this ideal cycle is called as carnot
heat engine.
2.9 Second Law of Thermodynamics
Constructions : The essential parts of an ideal heat engine
There are number of ways in which this law can be stated. or Carnot heat engine are shown in figure.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Consider one gram mole of an ideal gas enclosed in the

cylinder. Let V1, P1, T1 be the initial volume, pressure and
temperature of the gas. The initial state of the gas is
represented by the point Aon P–V. diagram, We shall assume
Cylinder
Ideal that all the four processes are quasi-static and non
Gas dissipative, the two conditions for their reversibility.
Steps
Source at Insulating Sink at
Temp. T1 Pad Temp. T2 1. Isothermal Expansion :
The cylinder is placed on the source and gas is allowed to
(i) Source of heat : The source is maintained at a fixed higher expand by slow outward motion of piston. Since base is
temperature T1, from which the working substance draws perfectly conducting therefore the process is isothermal.
heat. The source is supposed to possess infinite thermal
Now
capacity and as such any another of heat can be drawn
from it without changing its temperature. U1 = O
(ii) Sink of heat : The sink is maintained at a fixed lower
V2
temperature T2, to which any amount of heat can be rejected q1 = W1 = RT1l n . V = Area ABmKA
by the working substance. It has also infinite thermal 1

capacity and as such its temperature remains constant at q1  Heat absorbed by gas
T2, even when any amount of heat is rejected to it.
w1  work done by gas
(iii) Working substance : A perfect gas acts as the working
substance. It is contained in a cylinder with non-conducting 2. Adiabatic Expansion :
sides but having a perfectly conducting-base. This cylinder The cylinder is now removed from source and is placed on
is fitted with perfectly non-conducting and frictionless the perfectly insulating pad. The gas is allowed to expand
piston. further from B(P2, V2) to C (P3, V3). Since the gas is thermally
Apart from these essential parts, there is a perfectly insulated from all sides, therefore the processes is adiabatic
insulating stand or pad on which the cylinder can be placed. q2 = 0
It would isolate the working substance completely from the
surroundings. Hence, the gas can undergo adiabatic R  T2  T1 
U 2 
changes. r 1
The Carnot cycle consists of the following four stages :
R  T3  T1 
1. Isothermal exdpansion W2  = Area BCNMB
r 1
2. Adiabatic expansion
3. Isothermal Compression :
3. Isothermal compression
The cylinder is now removed from the insulating pad and is
4. Adiabatic compression.
placed on the sink at a temperature T 2. The piston is moved
The cycle is carried out with the help of the Carnot engine slowly so that the gas is compressed until is pressure is P4
as detailed below : and volume is V4.
U3 = 0
P

V4
Pressure (P)

A(V1, P1) W2  RT2 l n

V3 = – Area CDLNC
B(V 2, P 2)
Q1 T1
D(V4, P4) V4
C(V 3, P 3) q 3  RT2 l n
T2
V3
Q2

O K L M N
X q3 = Heat absorbed in this process
Volume (V) w3 = Work done by Gas
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

4. Adiabatic Compression : Q1 T1

The cylinder is again placed on the insulating pad, such Q 2 T2
that the process remains adiabatic. Here the gas is further
compressed to its initial P1 and V1. T2
 Carnot  1 
T1
R  T1  T2 
U 4  Division
r 1
• Carnot engine - depends only upon source temperature nd sink
R  T2  T1  temperature.
W4  = – area DAKLD
r 1 • Carnot engine =1 only when T 2 = 0 K or T 1 =  which is
impossible to attain.
q4 = 0
w4 = work done by the gas • If T2 = T1   =  Heat cannot be converted to mechanical
energy unless there is same difference between the
Analysis : temperature of source and sink.
Total work done by the engine per cycle.
2.12 Carnot Theorem
= W1 + W2 + W3 + W4
Statement :
= W1 + W3
(a) Working between two given temperatures, T 1 of hot
V2 V reservoir (the source) and T2 of cold reservoir (the sink, no
W = RT1l n  RT2 l n 4 engine can have efficiency more than that of the Carnot
V1 V3
engine.
Q1 = Total heat absorbed = q1 (b) The efficiency of the Carnot engine is independent of the
nature of the working substance.
V2
= RT1l n ...(19) Engine used for realising this ideal cycle is called as carnot
V1
heat engine.
Q2 = Total heat released = –q3 Proof :
[q3 = Heat absorbed & not heat released] Step - 1 : Imagine a reversible engine R and an irreversible
engine-I working between the same source (hot reservoir T1)
V3
= RT2 l n ...(20) and sink (cold reservoir T2).
V4
Step - 2 : Couple two engines such that I acts like heat
We can see that for heat engine engine and R acts like refrigerator.
W = Q 1 – Q2 Step - 3 : Let engine I absorb Q1 heat from the source deliver
1 1
= Area under ABCDA work W and release the balance Q1 – W to the sink in one
cycle.
Efficiency of Carnot Engine
W1
W Q
  1 2
Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1–W1
1
Now steps 2 is adiabatic 2 step 4 is also adiabatic T1
Q1 Q 1–W
T2
R
 T1 V2r 1  T2 V3r 1

and T1 V1r 1  T2 V4r 1 Step - 4 : Arrange R, such that it returns same heat Q, to
the source, taking Q 2 from the sink and requiring work
V2 V3 W = Q1 – Q2 to be done on it.
  ...(21)
V1 V4 Step - 5 : Supppose R < I (i.e.) If R were to act as an
engine it would give less work output than that of I (i.e.)
From equation 19, 20 and 21 we get 1
W < W for a given Q1 and Q1 – W > Q1 – W
1
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Step - 6 : In totality, the I-R system extracts heat (r1 – W) – • There is no force of attraction or repulsion amongst the
1 1
(Q1 – W ) = W – W & delivers same amount of work in one molecules of an ideal gas.
cycle, without any change in source or anywhere else. This
3.2.2 Real Gas
is against second Law of Thermodynamics. (Kelvin - Planck
statement of second law of thermodynamics) All gases are referred to as real Gases.

Hence the assertion q1 > qR is wrong. All real gas near the ideal gas behaviour at low pressures
and temperatures high enough, where they cannot be
• Similar argument can be put up for the second statement of
liquified.
carnot theorem, (ie) Carnot efficiency is independent of
working substance. 3.2.3 Ideal Gas Laws
 We use ideal gas to else are calculating but the relation. Avogadro Hypothesis : Equal volumes of all gas under
identical conditions of pressure and temperature would
Q1 T1 contain equal number of molecule.

Q 2 T2 will always hold true for any working substance
Perfect Gas Equation :
used in a carnot engine. PV = nRT

3. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES SRT

and P
M
In this topic, we discuss the behaviour of gases and how
are the various state variable like P, V, T, moles, U are inter- where n = Number of moles.
related with each other r = Universal Gas constant = NxkB
where ND = Avagadro No.
3.1 Molecular Nature of Matter
kB = Boltzman constant
Same as Atomic Theory given by Delton. According to
R = 8031 J/mol K.
him, atoms are the smallest constituents of elements. All
atoms of one element are identical, but atoms of different R = 1.98 Cal/mol K.
element are different. Boyle’s Law : When temperature of a given mass of gas is
In solids : Atoms tightly packed, interatomic spacing about kept constant, its pressure varies inversely as the volume
of gas.
Å . Interatomic force of attraction are strong.
(i.e.) PV = constant
In liquids : Atoms are not as rigidly fixed as in solids.
Interatomic spacing is about the same 2Å. Interatomic for a Charles Law : When pressure of a given mass of kept
attraction are relative weaker. constant, volume of the gas varies directly as the
temperature of the gas.
In Gases : Atoms very free. Inter atomic spacing is about
tens of Angstroms. Interatomic forces are much weaker in (i.e.) V T
gases than both in solids and liquids. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures : The total pressure of a
mixture of ideal gases is the sum of partial pressures exerted
In this chapter, we mainly focus on gases.
by the individual gases in the mixture.
3.2 Molecular Nature of Matter P–V = (n1 + n2 + n3 + ...)RT

3.2.1 Ideal Gas RT

 P = (n1 + n2 + n3 + ...)
V
That gas which strictly obeys the gas laws, (such as Boyle’s
Law, Charles, Gay Lussac’s Law etc.) P = P1 + P2 + ......
Characteristics
n1 RT
• The size of the molecule of an ideal gas is zero. where P1 = Pressure of gas
V
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Neviation of Real Gas from Ideal Gas : volume occupied by the molecules is negligible in
comparison to the volume of the gas.
Ideal Gas 4. The molecules do not exert any fore of attraction or
1
repulsion on each other, except during collision.
T1
5. The collisions of the molecules with themselves and with
T2 T1 > T2 > T3 > the walls of the vessel are perfectly elastic. As such, that
momentum and the kinetic energy of the molecules are
T3 conserved during collisions, though their individual
velocities change.
0 200 400 600 800 6. There is not concentration of the molecules at any point
P (atm)
inside the container i.e. molecular density is uniform
throughout the gas.
1.6
7. A molecule moves along a straight line between two
1.4
successive collisions and the average straight distance
P 1.2
covered between two successive collisions is called the
1.0 T1 mean free path of the molecules.
T1 > T2 > T3
0.8 8. The collisions are almost instantaneous, i.e., the time of
T1 collision of two molecules is negligible as compared to time
0.6
interval between two successive collisions.
0.4 T2 T2
T3
3.4 Pressure of an Ideal Gas and its Expression
0.2
T3 Pressure exerted by the gas is due to continuous
0
20 60 100 140 160 220 bombardment of gas molecules against the walls of the
V container.
Expression :
1.2 Consider a gas enclosed in a cube of side 1. Take the axes
P1 > P2 > P3
1.0 to be parallel to the sides of the cube, as shown in figure. A
T 0.8
molecule with velocity (x, y, z) hits the planar wall parallel
P1 2
to yz-plane of area A (= l ). Since the collision is elastic, the
0.6 molecule rebounds with the same velocity; its y and z
P2 components of velocity do not change in the collision but
0.4
P3 the x-component reverses sig. That is, the velocity after
0.2 collision is (–x,vz, vy). The change in momentum of the
0 molecule is : –mx – (mx) – 2mx. By the principle of
0 100 200 300 400 500 conservation of momentum, the momentum imparted to the
V
wall in the collision = 2mx.

3.3 Kinetic Theory Postulates
1. A gas consists of a very large number of molecules (of the
23
other of Avogadro’s number. 10 ), which are perfect elastic
spheres. For a given gas they are identical in all respects,
but for different gases, they are different.
2. The molecules of a gas are in a state of incessant random
motion. They move in all directions with different speeds.,
( of the order of 500 m/s) and obey Newton’s laws of motion.
3. The size of the gas molecules is very small as compred to
the distance between them. If typical size of molecule is 2
Å, average distance between the molecules is  20 Å. Hence
To calculate the force (and pressure) on the wall, we need
to calculate momentum imparted to the wall per unit time, if
it is within the distance x t from the wall. that is, all
molecules within the volume, Ax t only can hit the wall in
time T is 1/2A x t n where n is the number of molecules
per unit volume. The total momentum transferred to the
wall by these molecules in time t is :
Q = (2mx) (1/2 n Avxt)
The force on the wall is the rate of momentum transfer Q/t
and pressure is force per unit area :
2
P = Q/(A t) = nm x
HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Actually, all molecules in a gas do not have the same 1

velocity; there is a distribution in velocities. The above  PV  M  2 ...(23)
3
equation therefore, stands for pressure due to the group of
with equation 23 and Ideal gas equation
molecules with speed x in the x-direction and n stands for
the number density of that group of molecules. The total 1
nRT  M  2
pressure is obtained by summing over the contribution due 3
to all groups:
1
 nRT  Nm  2
P  nm 2
x
3

where  2x is the average of  2x . Now the gas is isotropic, n 3RT 1

  m 2
N 2 2
i.e. there is no preferred direction of velocity of the molecules
in the vessel. Therefore by symmetry, Also N = nNA

3 R 1
 2x   2y   z2   m 2
2 NA 2

1 1 3
    2x   2y   2z      2 Average KE of translation per molecule of the gas k BT
3
     3 2

where  is the speed and  2 denotes the mean of the squared 3.5 Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature

speed. Thus From above equations, we can easily see that KE of one
molecule is only dependent upon its Temperature.
1  KE of molecule will cease if, the temperature of the gas
P    nm 2
3 molecules become absolute zero.
 Absolute zero of a temperature may be defined as that
1 2 1M 1 2
P mn    S ...(22) temperature at which the root mean square velocity of the
2 2V 2
gas molecule reduces to zero.
M = Total mass of gas moleculus All the ideal gas laws can be derived from Kinetic Theory
V = Total volume fo gas molecules of gases.

3.4.1 Relation between Pressure and KE of Gas Molecules 3.6 Derivation of Gas Laws from Kinetic Theory

From equation 22 3.6.1 Boyle’s Law

1 2
P  S 2 We know that PV  NK
3 3

2 where K is the average kinetic energy of translation per

 P E
3 gas molecule. At constant temperature. K is constant and
 Pressure exerted by an ideal gas is numerically equal to two for a given mass of the gas. N is constant.
third of mean kinetic Thus, PV = constant for given mass of gas at constant
temperature, which is the Boyle’s Law.
3.4.2 Average KE per molecule of the Gas
3.6.2 Charle’s Law
From equation 22
We know 2
We know that PV  NK
3
1M 2
P 
3  For a given mass of gas, N is constant.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

3 r rms
Since K  k B T, K  T and as such PV  T.
2
3P 3P 1
If P is constant, V  T, which is the Charles’ Law. But as  rms  ,r or r 
  
3.6.3 Constant Volume Law
Therefore, if r1 and r2 are the rates of diffusion of two gases
2 of densities 1 and 2 respectively,
We know that PV  NK
3
r1 2
For a given mass of gas, N is constant. Since 
r2 1
3
K k B T, K  T The rates of diffusion of two gases are thus inversely
2
proprotional to the square roots of their densities which is
Thus, PV  T Graham’s Law of diffusion.
If V is constant, P  T, which the constant volume law.
3.6.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
3.6.4 Ideal Gas Equation
The kinetic theory of gases attributes the gas pressure to
2 3 the bombardment of the walls of the containing vessel by
As PV  NK and K  k B T
3 2 molecules. In a mixture of ideal gases, we might therefore
expect the total pressure (P) to be the sum of the partial
2 3 
PV  N  k B T  or PV = Nk T pressures (p1, p2, ...) due to each gas, i.e.,
3 2  B

which is the ideal gas equation. 2 N1 2 N2

P  p1  p 2  ...  K1  K 2  ...
3 V1 3 V2
3.6.5 Avogadro’s Law

Consider two gases 1 and 2. We can write 2  N1 N 

or P  K1  2 K 2  ... 
3  V1 V2 
2 2
P1 V1  N1 K1 , P2 V2  N 2 K 2
3 3 In equilibrium, the average kinetic energy of the molecules
If their pressures, volumes and temperatures are the same, of different gases will be equal, i.e.,
then
3
K1  K 2  ...K  k BT
P1 = P2, V1 = V2, K1  K 2 . 2
Clearly, N1 = N2 Thus : Thus,
Equal volumes of all ideal gases existing under the same
2 3
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal P  n1  n 2  ...  k B T    n1  n 2  ... k B T ...(24)
3 2 
number of molecules which is Avogadro’s Law or
hypothesis.
N1 N2
This law is named after the Italian physicist and chemist, where n1  V , n 2  V ...
1 2
Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856).
Equation (24) represents Dalton’s Law of partial pressures
PV
Alliter : As PV  Nk B T, N  which states that :
k BT
The resultant pressure exerted by a mixture of gases or
If P, V and T are constants, N is also constant. vapours which do not interact in any way is equal to the
3.6.6 Graham’s Law of Diffusion sum of their individual (i.e., partial) pressures.
Figures shows a model explaning kinetic theory of gases. It
The rate (r) of diffusion of a gas through a porous pot or
has been constructed in accordance with theory on one
into another gas is determined by the rms speed of its
molecules, i.e., hand and real experimental observations on the other hand.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

N = Number of degrees of freedom of the system

1
mv2  K N = 3A– R
I PV = nRT 2 III
3
 kBT 3.8.1 Monoatomic Gases
2
Based on Based on combining The molecules of a monoatomic gas (like neon, argon,
experimental two mathematical
observations Based on models of a gas in helium etc) consists only of one atom.
of gases Newtonian boxes I and II
1  Nm  2  A=1
II P  v mechanocal
3 V  treatment of
R=0
gas as
collection of
particles  N=3
Here 3 degrees of freedom are for translational motion
2
PV  NK 3.8.2 Diatomic Gases
3
= NkBT A=2
Based on substituting Assuming the distance between the two molecules is fixed
and rearranging the expression
for K back into equation in box II then R = 1

The above piece of logic is tempting but false. This is due  N=3×2–1=5
to the reason that though the equation in box IV is useful, Here 5 degrees of freedom implies combination of 3
it does not tell us anything new, since it results from translational energies and 2 rotational energies.
combining equations in boxes II and III.
3.7 Internal Energy
As studied in thermodynamics, Internal Energy of any
substance is the combination of Potential Energies &
Kinetic Energies of all molecules inside a given gas.
• In real gas
Internal Energy = P.E of molecules + K.E of Molecules
Y Y
• In real gas
Internal Energy = K.E of Molecules A1
X X A1 A2
Here PE of molecules is zero as assumed in Kinetic theory A2
postulates; There is no interaction between the molecules
Z Z (i) (ii)
hence its interactional energy is zero.
(a) (b)
Y
3.8 Degree of Freedom
A1
The number of degrees of freedom of a dynamical system is
defined as the total number of coo-ordinates or independent A2 A3
X
quantities required to describe completely the position &
configuration of the system. Z
(c)
Example : If vibrational motion is also considered then [only at very
• A particle moving in straight line, say along X-axis need high temperatures
only x coordinate to define itself. It has only degree of N=7
freedom.
where 3 for translational
• A particle in a plane, needs 2 co-ordinates, hence has 2
degree of freedom. 2 for rotational

In general if 2 for vibrational

A = number of particles in the system 3.8.3 Triatomic Gas

R = number of independent relations among the particles
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Linear
dy
A=3 where  vibrational velocity
dt
R=2
 N=3×3–2=7 ky 2
and = Energy due to configuration
2
Non-Linear
According to Law of Equipartition

1
Energy per degree of freedom  k BT
2

1 1
  k B T  K B T  K B T is energy for
2 2

A=3 complete one vibrational mode.

R=2 3.10 Specific Heat Capacity

 N=3×3–3=6 With the knowledge of law of equipartition, we can predict
• Here again vibrational energy is ignored. the heat capacity of various gases.

3.8.4 Polyatomic Gas 3.10.1 Monoatomic Gas

A polyatomic gas has 3 translational, 3 rotational degrees Degree of freedom = 3.

of freedom. Apart from them if there v vibrational modes  Average Energy of a molecule at temperature T
then there will be additional 2v vibrational degrees of
freedom. 1 
 E  3  k BT 
 Total degree of freedom 2 
n = 3 + 3 + 2V = 6 + 2V Energy for one mole  E × NA
3.9 Law of Equipartition of Energy 3
 U  k B NA  T
Statement : According to this law, for any dynamical system 2
in thrmal equilibrium, the total energy is distributed equally
amongst all the degrees of freedom, and the energy 3
 U RT
associated with each molecule per degree of freedom is 2

1 In thermodynamics, we studied
k B T , where kB is Boltzman constant and T is temperature
2
Q  U
of the system. CV    [ W = O for constant v]
T  V T
k BT
Application : U  f where = Total degree of freedom. 3R
2  CV 
This law is very helpful in determining the total internal 2
energy of any system be it monoatomic, diatomic or any
5R CP 5
polyatomic. Once the internal energy is know we can very  CP  & r 
easy predict Cv & CP for such systems. 2 CV 3 .

Remark : In case vibrational motion is also there in any 3.10.2 Diatomic Gases
system, say for diatomic molcule, then there should be When no vibration
energy due to vibrational as well given by
Degree of freedom = 5
2
1  dy  1 2
EV  m    ky 5
2  dt  2 Average energy for one mole = RT
2
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

U 5 Therefore the atoms do not possess any translational or

 CV   R rotational degree of freedom.
T 2
On the other hand, the molecules do possess vibrational
7R
CP  motion along 3 mutually perpendicular directions.
2
Hence for 1 mole of a solid, threre are NA number of atoms.
C 7
r P  The energy associated with every molecule
CV 5
 1 
When vibration is present.  3  2  k B T   3K B T
 2 
There is only one mode of vibration between 2 molecules.
 U = 3 Rt for one mole
 Degree of freedom = 7
Q U
7  C   3R
 U  RT T T
2
• The above equation is called as Dulong & Petit’s Law.
7 • At low temperatures the vibrational made may not be that
 CV  R
2 active hence, heat capacity is low at low temperatures for
9 solids.
and CP  R
2 C
3R
9
and r
7
3.10.3 Polyatomic Gases
T
Degree of freedom 300 K
= 3 for translational 3.10.5 Specific heat capacity of Water
+ 3 for rotational
Water is treated like solid.
+ 2v for vibrational
Water has three atoms, 2 of hydrogen and one of oxygen
= 6 + 2v
 Total degree of freedom for every atom
if v = Number of vibrational modes
=3×2=6
RT  Total degree of freedom for every molecule of water
 U   6  2v  K
2 = 3 × 2 = 18
 CV = (3 + V)R
 1 
18  RT 
CP = (4 + V) R
 Q U  2 
C  
T T T
4V
and r
3 V C = 9R

3.10.4 Specific heat capacity of solids 3.11 Maxwell Law of Distribution of Molecular
• In solids, there is very less difference between heat capacity Assumptions of Maxwell Distribution
at constant pressure or at constant volume. Therefore we
• Molecules of all velocities between 0 to  are present.
do not differentiate between CP & CV for solids.
• Velocity of one molecule, continuously changes, though
Q U fraction of molecules in one range of velocities is constant.
 C 
T T Result
{As solids hardly expand or expansion is negligible} 3/ 2 mv 2
 M  
Now in solid the atoms are arranged in an array structure N V  4N   V2e 2k BT

and they are not free to move independently like in gases.  2k B T 
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Expression :
dN V
Where NV  Mean Free Path
dV

Where d N

V
= Total number of molecules
with speeds between V & V + dV
V  t

N = Total number of molecules.

NV
d

V
Vmp Vav Vrms

Based on this we define three types of speed f molecules of

gas Suppose the molecules of a gas are spheres of diameter d.
Focus on a single molecule with the average speed <v>. It
1/ 2

  1  will suffer collision with any molecule that comes within a

1/ 2
Vrms  V 2    V 2 dN  V  
N  distance d between the centres. In time t, it sweeps a
volume d2 <v> t wherein any other molecule will collide
3RT with it (as shown in figure). If n is the number of molecules
Vrms 
M per unit volume, the molecule suffers nd2 <v> t collisions
in time t. thus the rate of collisions is nd2 <v> or the time
Where M = Molecular Mass of Gas
between two successive collisions is on the average.
1  = 1/(n <v> d2)
N
Similarly Vav  V  VdN V
The average distance between two successive collisions,
called the mean free path 1, is :
8RT
 l = <v> = 1/(nd2)
M
In this derivation, we imagined the other molecules to be at
dN V rest. But actually all molecules are moving and the collision
But VMP is velocity at which 0 rate is determined by the average relative velocity of the
dv
molecules. Thus we need to replace <v> by <vr> in equation.
A more exact treatment.
3RT
 VMP 
M 1
l=
Physically VMP is velocity possessed by Maximum number  2nd 2 
of molecules. Result
Remarks : 1
l=
Vrms > Vav > VMP >  2nd 2 
3.12 Mean Free Path Remark : Mean free path depends inversely on the number
density and size of the molecule.
The path tranversed by a molecule between two successive
collisions with other molecule is called the free path 3.13 Brownian Motion

The irregular movement of suspended particles like tiny

Total distance travelled by a molecule
l dust particles or pollen grains in a liquid is called Brownian
No. of collisions it makes with other molecules.
Motion.
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

GENERAL KEY CONCEPT

1. Force on a moving charge:– A moving charge is a source of magnetic field.

Z


+q v cos B Y

sin
v 
X v
 
Let a positive charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic field B with velocity v .’
F  q  F  v sin  F  B
 F  qBv sin F = kq Bv sin  [k = constant]
k = 1 in S.I. system.
  
 F = qBv sin and F  q( v  B )

2. Magnetic field strength ( B ) :
In the equation F = qBv sin  , if q = 1, v = 1,
sin = 1 i.e.  = 90° then F = B.
 Magnetic field strength is defined as the force experienced by a unit charge
moving with unit velocity perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.
Special Cases:
(1) It  = 0° or 180°, sin = 0
 F=0
A charged particle moving parallel to the magnetic field, will not experience
any force.
(2) If v = 0, F = 0
A charged particle at rest in a magnetic field will not experience any force.
(3) If  = 90°, sin = 1 then the force is maximum
Fmax. = qvB
A charged particle moving perpendicular to magnetic field will experience
maximum force.
3. S.I. unit of magnetic field intensity. It is called tesla (T).
F
B
qv sin 
If q = 1C, v = 1m/s,  = 90° i.e. sin = 1 and F = 1N
Then B = 1T.
 MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

The strength of magnetic field at a point is said to be 1T if a charge of 1C while

moving at right angle to a magnetic field, with a velocity of 1 m/s experiences a
force of 1N at that point.
4. Biot-Savart’s law:– The strength of magnetic field
Y
or magnetic flux density at a point P (dB) due to
current element dl depends on,
(i) dB  I dl  
r
(ii) dB  dl
P
(iii) dB  sin 
X I
1
(iv) dB  ,
r2
Idl sin  Idl sin 
Combining, dB  2
 dB  k [k = Proportionality constant]
r r2
0
In S.I. units, k  where µ0 is called permeability of free space.
4
 0 = 4 × 10–7 TA–1m
 
0 Idl sin   0 (dl  r )
 dB  and dB  I
4 r 2 4 r3
  
d B is perpendicular to the plane containing d and r and is directed inwards.
5. Applications of Biot-Savart’s law:–
(a) Magnetic field (B) at the Centre of a Circular Coil Carrying Current.
 nI
B 0
2r
where n is the number of turns of the coil. I is
the current in the coil and r is the radius of the
coil. I
2
(b) Magnetic field due to a straight conductor carrying current. a P
1
0 I
B (sin 2  sin 1 )
4a
where a is the perpendicular distance of the
conductor from the point where field is to the
measured.
1 and 2 are the angles made by the two ends of the conductor with the point.
(c) For an infinitely long conductor, 1  2   / 2
0 2I
 B= .
4 a
(d) Magnetic field at a point on the axis of a Circular Coil Carrying Current.
when point P lies far away from the centre of the coil.
0 2M
B . 3
4 x
where M = nIA = magnetic dipole moment of the coil.
x is the distance of the point where the field is to the measured, n is the number
of turns, I is the current and A is the area of the coil.
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

6. Ampere’s circuital law:–


The line integral of magnetic field B around any closed path in vacuum is  0
 
times the total current through the closed path. i.e.  B.d l   0 I
7. Application of Ampere’s circuital law:–
(a) Magnetic field due to a current carrying solenoid, B = µ0nI
n is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid.
µ0 nI
At the edge of a short solenoid, B =
2
(b) Magnetic field due to a toroid or endless solenoid
B = µ0nI
8. Motion of a charged particle in uniform electric field:–
The path of a charged particle in an electric field is a parabola.

2mv2
Equation of the parabola is x 2  y
qE
where x is the width of the electric field.
y is the displacement of the particle from its straight path.
v is the speed of the charged particle.
q is the charge of the particle
E is the electric field intensity.
m is the mass of the particle.
9. Motion of the charged particle in a magnetic field. The path of a charged particle
 
moving in a uniform magnetic field ( B ) with a velocity v making an angle  with

B is a helix.
n
v si 
v

B
O cos 
The component of velocity v cos  will not provide a force to the charged particle,
so under this velocity the particle with move forward with a constant velocity

along the direction of B . The other component v sin  will produce the force F = q
Bv sin  , which will supply the necessary centripetal force to the charged particle
in moving along a circular path of radius r.
m(vsin )2
 Centripetal force = = B qv sin 
r
Bqr
 v sin  =
m
v sin  Bq
Angular velocity of rotation = w = 
r m
 Bq
Frequency of rotation =   
2 2m
1 2m
Time period of revolution = T = 
 Bq
 MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

10. Cyclotron: It is a device used to accelerate and hence energies the positively
charged particle. This is done by placing the particle in an oscillating electric
field and a perpendicular magnetic field. The particle moves in a circular path.
 Centripetal force = magnetic Lorentz force
mv2 mv
 = Bqv  = r  radius of the circular path
r Bq
r m
Time to travel a semicircular path =  = constant.
v Bq
If v0 be the maximum velocity of the particle and r0 be the maximum radius of its
path then
mv0 2 Bqr0
 Bqv0  v0 
r0 m
1 1  Bqr0 
2 B2 q 2 r0 2
Max. K.E. of the particle = mv 0 2  m   (K.E.)max. =
2 2  m  2m

2 m
Time period of the oscillating electric field  T = .
Bq

Time period is independent of the speed and radius.

1 Bq
Cyclotron frequency =   
T 2m

Bq
Cyclotron angular frequency = 0  2 
m

11. Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field:

  
F  I   B or F = I  B sin 

where I is the current through the conductor

B is the magnetic field intensity.
l is the length of the conductor.
 is the angle between the direction of current and magnetic field.
(i) When  = 0° or 180°, sin  = 0  F = 0
 When a conductor is placed along the magnetic field, no force will act on
the conductor.
(ii) When  = 90°, sin  = 1, F is maximum.
Fmax = I  B
when the conductor is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field, it will
experience maximum force.
12. Force between two parallel conductors carrying current:–
(a) When the current is in same direction the two conductors will attract each
other with a force
0 2I1I2
F . per unit length of the conductor
4 r
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

(b) When the current is in opposite direction the two conductors will repel each
other with the same force.
(c) S.I. unit of current is 1 ampere. (A).
1A is the current which on flowing through each of the two parallel uniform
linear conductor placed in free space at a distance of 1 m from each other produces
a force of 2 × 10–7 N/m along their lengths.
13. Torque on a current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field:–
  
  M  B   = MB sin = nIBA sin where M is the magnetic dipole moment of
the coil.
M = nIA
where n is the number of turns of the coil.
I is the current through the coil.
B is the magnetic field intensity.
A is the area of the coil.

 is the angle between the magnetic field  B and the perpendicular to the plane
of the coil.
Special Cases:
(i) If the coil is placed parallel to magnetic field  = 0°, cos  = 1 then torque is
maximum.
max.  nIBA

(ii) If the coil is placed perpendicular to magnetic field,  = 90°, cos  = 0

  =0
14. Moving coil galvanometer:– This is based on the principle that when a current
carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field it experiences a torque. There is a
restoring torque due to the phosphor bronze strip which brings back the coil to its
normal position.
In equilibrium, Deflecting torque = Restoring torque
nIBA = k  [k = restoring torque/unit twist of the phosphor bronze strip]
k k
I   G where G  = Galvanometer constant
nBA nBA
 I
Current sensitivity of the galvanometer is the deflection produced when unit
current is passed through the galvanometer.
 nBA
Is  
I k
Voltage sensitivity is defined as the deflection produced when unit potential
difference is applied across the galvanometer.
  nBA
Vs    [R = Resistance of the galvanometer]
V IR kR
 MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
15. Condition for the maximum sensitivity of the galvanometer:-
The galvanometer is said to be sensitive if a small current produces a large
deflection.
nBA
  I
k
  will be large if (i) n is large, (ii) B is large (iii) A is large and (iv) k is small.
16. Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter and ammeter
(a) A galvanometer is converted to voltmeter by putting a high resistance in series
with it.
Tot al r esist an ce of volt m et er = Rg + R where Rg is the galvonometer resistance.
R is the resistance added in series.
V
Current through the galvanometer = Ig = Rg  R

where V is the potential difference across the voltmeter.

Ig Rg HR
G
Voltmeter

I R I
M N
V
 R= G
Ig

Range of the voltmeter: 0 – V volt.

(b) A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance
in parallel with it (shunt)

 I g 
Shunt = S    R g where Rg is the galvanometere resistance.
 I  Ig 
Ig Rg
G
R
I I
S
M (I - Ig) N
I is the total current through the ammeter.
Ig is the current through the ammeter. Effective resistance of the ammeter
Rg
R = R S
g

The range of the ammeter is 0 – I A. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.

 MODERN PHYSICS 109

MODERN PHYSICS
1. NUCLEUS 1.4925 u 10 10
Since, 1 MeV = 1.602 × 10–13 J, we have eV
1.1 Isotopes 1.602 u 10 13

The atoms of an element, which have the same atomic number Or 1 a.m.u = 931.5 MeV
but different mass numbers, are called isotopes. 1.6 Nuclear size
(i) 8O16, 8O17, 8O18 (ii) 17O35, 17Cl37
The volume of the nucleus is directly proportional to the number
206 207 208
(iii) 82Pb , 82Pb , 82Pb . of nucleons (mass number) constituting the nucleus. If R is the
radius of the nucleus having mass number A, then
1.2 Isotones
4
The atoms whose nuclei have same number of neutrons are called SR3 v A
3
isotones.
Or R v A1/3 Or R = R0 A1/3
1.3 Isobars
1.7 Nuclear density
The atoms, which have same mass number but different atomic Mass of the nucleus of the atom of mass number A = A a.m.u
numbers, are called isobars.
= A × 1.660565 × 1027 kg. If R is radius of the nucleus, then
(i) 1H3 and 1He3 (ii) 2Li7 and 4Be7
4 4 4
(iii) 28Ar40 and 29Ca40 (iv) Ge76 and 34Se76 Volume of nucleus = SR3 = S (R0A1/3)3 = S R 30 A
3 3 3

1.4 Atomic mass unit Taking R0 = 1.1 × 10–15m, we have

mass of nucleus
The atomic mass unit (a.m.u) is a very small unit of mass and it is Density of the nucleus, U =
found to be very convenient in nuclear physics. volume of nucleus

Atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12th of the mass of one 6C12 A u 1.66065 u 10 27
atom. 3
4 / 3S 1.1 u10 15 u A
According to Avogadro’s hypothesis, number of atoms in 12 g
of 6C12 is equal to Avogadro number i.e. 6.023 × 1023. = 2.97 × 1017 kg m–3 (independent of A)

12 Discussion :
Therefore, the mass of one carbon atom (6C12) is i.e.
6.023 u 10 23 “ The density of the nuclei of all the atoms is same as it is
–26
1.992678 × 10 kg. independent of mass number.
“ The high density of the nucleus (| 1017 kg m–3) suggests
1
Therefore, 1 a.m.u. u 1.992678 u 10  26 kg the compactness of the nucleus. Such examples of high
12 densities are met in the form of neutron stars.
or 1 a.m.u. = 1.660565 × 10–27 kg
1.8 Mass defect
1.5 Energy equivalent of atomic mass unit
The difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleons
According to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation, the constituting a nucleus and the rest mass of the nucleus is known as
energy equivalent of mass m is given by E = mc2 mass defect. It is denoted by 'm.
Where c is speed of light. Let us calculate the mass defect in case of the nucleus of an atom
Suppose that m = 1 a.m.u = 1.660565 × 10–27 kg z
XA. The nucleus of the atom contains Z protons and (AZ)
neutrons. Therefore, if mN (zXA) is mass of the nucleus of the
Since, c = 2.998 × 108 ms1, the energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u is
given by 1 a.m.u = (1.660565 × 10–27 kg) × (2.998 × 108 ms1)2 atom ZXA, then the mass defect is given by
= 1.4925 × 10–10 J 'm = [Zmp + (AZ)mnmN(ZXA)]
 MODERN PHYSICS

The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy 5. The number of atoms disintegrating per second of a
equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus. It may be measured radioactive sample at any time is directly proportional to
as the work required to be done to separate the nucleon an infinite the number of atoms present at that time. The rate of
distance apart, so that very no longer intract with each other. disintegration of the sample cannot be altered by changing
the external factors, such as pressure, temperature etc. It is
If 'm is mass defect of a nucleus, then according to Einstein’s
known as radioactive decay law.
mass-energy relation, binding energy of the nucleus = 'm c2
(in joule). According to radioactive decay law, the rate of disintegration at
any time t is directly proportional to the number of atoms present
Here, mass defect 'm has to be measured in kilogram. In case,
mass defect is measured in a.m.u., then dN dN
at time t i.e. v N or  ON.
Binding energy of the nucleus = 'm × 931.5 (in MeV) dt dt
Binding energy = [Zmp + (AZ)mn mN (ZXA)] × 931.5 Where the constant of proportionally O is called decay constant
of the radioactive sample. It is also known as disintegration constant
1.9 Binding Energy Per Nucleon
or transformation constant. Its value depends upon the nature of
The binding energy per nucleon is the average energy required the radioactive sample. Further, the negative sign indicates that
to extract one nucleon from the nucleus. the number of the atoms of the sample decreases with the passage
of time.
binding energy
Thus, binding energy per nucleon
A dN
From equation, we have {  Odt.
N
1.10 Packing Fraction
N
Packing fraction = (mass defect)/A. Or log N =Ot Or N0 = e
Ot
e
N0
1.11 Natural Radioactivity
Or N = N0eOt
The spontaneous transformation of an element into another with
the emission of some particle (or particles) or electromagnetic 1.11.2 Radioactive Decay Constant
radiation is called natural radioactivity.
According to radioactive decay law, Integrating, we have
1.11.1 Laws of Radioactivity Decay
dN
ON
Rutherford and Soddy studied the phenomenon of radioactivity dt
in details and formulated the following laws, known as the laws
of radioactive decay: dN / dt
Or O
1. Radioactivity is a spontaneous phenomenon and one N
cannot predict, when a particular atom in a given Hence, radioactive decay constant of a substance (radioactive) may
radioactive sample will undergo distintegration. be defined as the ratio of its instantaneous rate of disintegration to
2. When a radioactive atom disintegrates, either an D-particle the number of atoms present at that time.
(nucleus of helium) or a E-particle (electron) is emitted. Again, N = N0 eO t
3. The emission of an D-particle by a radioactive atom results If t = 1/O
in a daughter atom, whose atomic number is 2 units less then, N = N0 eO 1/O = 1/e N0 = N0/(2.718) = 0.368 N0
and mass number is 4 units less than that of the parent
Hence, radioactive decay constant of a substance may also be
atom. defined as the reciprocal of the time, after which the number of
D decay atoms of a radioactive substance decreases to 0.368 (or 36.8%) of
ZX
A
 o Z 2 Y A  4
their number present initially.
4. The emission of a E-particle by a radioactive atom results in
1.11.3 Half Life
a daughter atom, whose atomic number is 1 unit more but
mass number is same as that of the parent atom. Consider that a radioactive sample contains N0 atoms at time
t = 0. Then, the number of atoms left behind after time t is given
A E decay
ZX  o Z1Y A by N = N0 eO t
 MODERN PHYSICS

From the definition of half life, it follows that when t = t1/2, N = N0/2. 1 curie (ci) = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations s1
Setting the above condition in equation, we have There is also another unit of radioactivity, called Rutherford (rd).
 Ot 1/ 2 The activity of a radioactive sample is called one Rutherford, if it
N0 / 2 N 0e 2
undergoes 106 disintegration per second.
Or e  Ot 1/ 2
1/ 2 Or e Ot 1/ 2
2 1 Rutherford (rd) = 106 disintegration s1
Or OT = loge 2 = 2.303 log10 2 = 2.303 × 0.3010 = 0.693
1.12 Nuclear fission
0.693 The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of
Or t1/ 2
O nearly comparable masses with liberation of energy is called
nuclear fission.
Thus, half life of a radioactive substance is inversely proportional
to its decay constant and is characteristic property of its nucleus. U235 + 0n1 o [92U236] o 56Ba141+ 30Kr92 + 3 0n1 + Q
92

It cannot be altered by any known method. Neutron reproduction factor is defined as the ratio of the rate of
production of neutrons to the rate of loss of neutrons. Thus,
1.11.4 Mean life or average life
rate of production of neutrons
The average life of a radioactive substance is defined as the k
average time for which the nuclei of the atoms of the radioactive rate of loss of neutrons
substance exist. It is defined by tavg. A fission reaction will be steady, in case k = 1. In case k > 1, the
fission reaction will accelerate and it will retard, in case k < 1.
1
t avg
O 1.12.1 Nuclear Reactor

1.11.5 Activity of radioactive substance Main parts and their functions :-

1. Fuel: It is a fissionable material mostly U235.
The activity of a radioactive substance may be defined as the
rate at which the nuclei of its atoms in the sample disintegrate. 2. Moderator: It is used to slow down the neutrons released
during the fission. The most common moderators are water,
If a radioactive sample contains N atoms at any time t, then its
heavy water and graphite.
dN 3. Control Rods: these rods are cadmium or boron, which control
activity at time t is defined as A =  
dt the chain reaction by absorbing neutrons.

The negative sign shows that with the passage of time, the activity 4. Coolant and Heat Exchange: The coolant takes away heat
of the radioactive substance decreases. from the reactor core and in turn heats the water in the heat
exchanger to produce steam. The commonly used coolants
dN are liquid sodium and heavy water.
Since according to the radioactive decay, law ON the
dt 5. Radiation Shielding: These are thick concrete walls, which
equation may be expressed as A = ON. Since, N =N0 e , we have Ot stop the radiations from going out.

1.12.2 Radiation Hazards

A ON 0 eO t
Or 1. The exposure to radioation induces delecterious genetic
A A 0 e O t effects.

Here, O N0 = A0 is activity of the radioactive sample at time t = 0. 2. The strong D-ray exposure can cause lung cancer.
3. The exposure to fast and slow neutrons can cause
1.11.6 Units of activity blindness.
The activity of a radioactive sample may be expressed as 4. The exposure to neutrons, protons and D-particles can
disintegration per second. The practical unit of activity of a cause damage to red blood cells.
radioactive sample is curie (ci). 5. The exposure to D-particles can cause disastrous effects.
The activity of a radioactive sample is called one curie, if it 6. The strong exposures to protons and neutrons can cause
undergoes 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second. Thus, serious damage to productive organs.

1.12.3 Safety Measures from Radiation Hazards
Following precautions are observed by the workers engaged in
this field:
1. The radioisotopes are transferred in thick walled lead
containers and are kept in rooms with thick walls of leads.
2. The radioisotopes are handled with the help of remote
control devices.
3. The workers are asked to wear lead aprons.
4. The radioactive contamination of the work area is avoided
at all costs.
2. CATHODE RAYS
When a potential difference of 10 to 15 kV is applied across
the two electrodes of a discharge tube and pressure is reduced
to 0.01mm of mercury, the rays known as cathode rays are emitted
from the cathode. These rays are independent of the nature of
the gas in the discharge tube and their direction of propagation
is not affected by the position of the anode.
Properties of Cathode Rays
Cathode rays have the following properties
1. Cathode rays travel along straight lines and cast sharp
shadows of the objects placed in their path.
2. Cathode rays are shot out normally from the surface of
the cathode.
3. The direction of the cathode rays is not affected by the
position of the anode.
4. The cathode rays exert mechanical pressure.
5. The cathode rays produce heat, when they fall upon
matter.
6. The cathode rays are deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.
7. When cathode rays strike a solid target of high atomic
weight such as tungsten, they produce a highly
penetrating radiation called the X-rays.
8. Cathode rays ionise the gas through which they pass.
9. Cathode rays can excite fluorescence.
10. Cathode rays can produce chemical changes.
11. Cathode rays can penetrate through thin sheets of matter
without puncturing them.
12. Cathode rays are found to have velocity upto one tenth
of the velocity of light.
MODERN PHYSICS
3. FREE ELECTRONS IN METALS
Electron is a fundamental constituent of the atom. A metal contains
free electrons, which move about freely through the atomic spaces
in a random fashion. But as soon as an electron leaves the metal,
immediately an equal positive charge is produced on the surface
of the metal. As a result, the electron is pulled back into the metal
and hence remains confined to it. The pull on the electrons at the
surface is found to depend on the nature of metal surface and is
described by a characteristic of the metal, called work function.
Work Function
The minimum energy, which must be supplied to the electron so
that it can just come out of the metal surface is called the work
function of the metal.
This process is called electron emission and may be achieved in
the following ways
(i) Thermoionic emission. In this process of electron
emission, the additional energy is supplied in the form of
heat. The emitted electrons are known as thermo-electrons.
(ii) Photoelectric emission. In this process, as already
discussed, the additional energy is supplied by means of
electromagnetic radiation. The emitted electrons are
known as photoelectrons.
(iii) Secondary emission, in this process, the fast moving
electrons on collision with the metal surface knock out
electrons, called the secondary electrons.
(iv) Field emission.
4. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The phenomenon of ejection from a metal surface, when light of
sufficiently high frequency falls upon it is known as the photoelectric
effect. The electrons so emitted were called photoelectrons.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect : The apparatus
consists of an evacuated glass tube fitted with two electrodes.
The electrode E is called emitting electrode and the other electrode
C is called collecting electrode.
When a suitable radiation is incident on the electrode E, electrons
are ejected from it. The electrons, which have sufficient kinetic
energy, reach the electrode C despite its negative polarity. The
potential difference between the two electrodes acts as the
retarding potential. As the collecting electrode is made more and
more negative, fewer and fewer electrons will reach the cathode
and the photo-electric current recorded by the ammeter with fall.
In case, the retarding potential equals V0, called the stopping
potential, no electron will reach the cathode and the current will
become zero. In such a case, the work done by stopping potential
is equal to the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons i.e.
eV0 = 1/2 m v2max
 MODERN PHYSICS
4.1 Laws of Photoelectric Emission
1. The emission of photoelectrons takes place only, when
the frequency of the incident radiation is above a certain
critical value, characteristic of that metal. The critical
value of frequency is known as the threshold frequency
for the metal of the emitting electrode.
2. The emission of photoelectrons starts as soon as light
falls on metal surface.
3. The maximum kinetic energy with which an electron is
emitted from a metal surface is independent of the intensity
of the light and depends only upon its frequency.
4. The number of photoelectrons emitted i.e. photoelectric
current is independent of the frequency of the incident
light and depends only upon its intensity.
4.2 Photoelectric Cell
A photoelectric cell is an arrangement, which converts light
energy into electrical energy. Photoelectric cells are of following
three types:
1. Photoemissive cells
2. Photovoltaic cells
3. Photoconductive cells
A photo emissive cell may be of vacuum type or gas filled type.
Working - Photoemissive Cells : It consists of two electrodes, a
cathode C and anode a enclosed in a highly evacuated glass
bulb. The cathode C is a semi-cylindrical plate coated with a
photosensitive material, such as a layer. This is called de-Broglie
relation of cesium deposited on silver oxide. The anode A is in
the form of a wire, so that it does not obstruct the path of the
light falling on the cathode.
When light of frequency above the threshold frequency for the
cathode surface is incident on the cathode, photoelectrons are
emitted. If a potential difference of about 10V is applied between
the anode and cathode, the photoelectrons are attracted towards
the anode and the microammeter connected in the circuit will
record the current.
4.3 Applications of Photoelectric Cells
1. It is used in a television studio to convert the light and
shade of the object into electric currents for transmission
of picture.
2. It is used in a photographic camera for the automatic
adjustment of aperture.
3. It is used for automatic counting of the number of persons
entering a hall, a stadium etc.
4. It is used for automatic switching of street lights and
traffic signals.
5. It is used for raising a fire alarm in the event of accidental
fire in buildings, factories etc.
6. It is used in burglar’s alarms for houses, bank and
treasuries.
5. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION
The various phenomena concerning radiation can be divided
into three parts:
(i) The phenomena such as interference, diffraction,
polarisation etc. in which interaction of radiation takes
places with radiation itself. Such phenomena can be
explained on the basis of electromagnetic (wave) nature
of radiation only.
(ii) The phenomena such as photoelectric effect, compton
effect, etc. in which interaction of radiation takes place
with matter. Such phenomena can be explained on the
basis of quantum (particle) nature of radiation.
(iii) The phenomena such as rectilinear propagation,
reflection, refraction, etc. in which neither the interaction
of radiation takes place with radiation, nor of radiation
with matter. Such phenomena can be explained on the
basis of either of the two natures of the radiation.
 MODERN PHYSICS

6. DE­BROGLIE WAVES 4. The matter waves are not electromagnetic in nature. If the
velocity of the particle is comparable to the velocity of
Loius-Broglie put forward a bold hypothesis that matter should
light, then mass of the particle is given by
also possess dual nature.
The following observations led him to the duality hypothesis for m0
m=
matter. 1  v2 / c 2
1. The whole energy in this universe is in the form of matter
and electromagnetic radiation. 6.2 De-Broglie Wavelength of Electron
2. The nature loves symmetry. As the radiation has got Consider that an electron of mass m and charge e is accelerated
dual nature, matter should also possess dual nature. through a potential difference V. If E is the energy acquired by
Thus, according to de-Broglie, a wave is associated with every the particle, then
moving particle. These waves are called de-Broglie, waves or E = eV …(i)
matter waves. According to quantum theory of radiation, energy If X is the velocity of electron, then
of a photon is given by
E=hX …(i) § 2E ·
E = 1/2 mX2 or X = ¨ ¸ …(ii)
Further, the energy of a relativistic particle is given by ©m¹
Now, de-Broglie wavelength of electron is given by
E m 20 c 2  p 2  c
h h
Since photon is a particle of zero rest mass, setting m0 = 0 in the O = mX m 2E /m
above equation, we have
E = pc …(ii) h
Or O= …(iii)
From equation (i) and (ii) we have 2mE
pc = h X substituting the value of E, we get

hX hX h
or p (? c = XO) O= …(iv)
c XO 2meV
Setting m = 9.1 × 1031 kg; e = 1.6 × 1019 C and h = 6.62 × 1034 Js,
h we get
p
O
12.27
Therefore, the wavelength of the photon is given by O= ×1010 m
V
h
O …(iii) 12.27
p Or O= A …(v)
V
Hence, de-Broglie wavelength is given by
For example, the de-Broglie wavelength of electrons, when
h accelerated through a potential difference of 100 volt, will be
O …(iv)
mX
12.27
O= | 1.227 A
This is called de-Broglie relation. 100

6.1 Conclusion Thus, the wavelength of de-Broglie wave associated with 100 eV
electrons is of the order of the wavelength of X-rays.
1. Lighter the particle, greater is its de-Broglie wavelength.
2. The faster the particle moves, smaller is its de-Broglie 7. THOMSON’S ATOM MODEL
wavelength.
The positive charge is uniformly distributed over the entire sphere
3. The de-Broglie wavelength of D–particle is independent and the electrons are embedded in the sphere of positive charges
of the charge or nature of the particle. just like seeds in a watermelon or plums in the pudding. For this
MODERN PHYSICS
reason, Thomson’s atom model is also known as
plum-pudding model. The total positive charge inside the atom
is equal to the total negative charge carried by electrons, so that
every atom is electrically neutral. If the atom gets slightly
perturbed, the electrons in the atoms oscillate about their
equilibrium position and result in the emission of radiation of
definite frequencies in the form of infra-red, visible or ultra-violet
light.
Failure of Thomson’s Atom Model
It had to be discarded, because of the following reasons:
1. It could not explain the origin of the spectral lines in the
form of series as in case of hydrogen atom.
2. It could not account for the scattering of D-particles through
large angles as in case of Rutherford’s D-scattering
experiment.
8. RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA SCATTERING
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATIONS
1. Most of D-particles were found to pass through the fold
foil without any appreciable deflection.
2. The different D-particles in passing through the gold foil
undergo different amounts of deflections. A large number
of D-particles suffer fairly large deflections.
3. A very small number of D-particles (about 1 in 8000)
practically retracted their paths or suffered deflection of
nearly 180º.
4. The graph between the total number of D–particles N(T)
scattered through angle T and the scattering angle T was
found to be as shown in fig.
The experimental observations led Rutherford to the
following conclusions:-
1. Since most of the D-particles passed undeviated, the atom
has a lot of empty space in it.
2. Since fast and the heavy D-particles could be deflected
even through 180º, the whole of the positive charge and
practically the entire mass of the atom was confined to an
extremely small central core. It was called nucleus. Since 1
in about 8000 D-particles is deflected through 180º, the size
of the nucleus is about 1/10000th of the size of the atom.
8.1 Rutherford’s Atom Model
On the basis of the results of D-scattering experiment, Rutherford
suggested the following picture of the atom:
1. Atom may be regarded as a sphere of diameter 10–10 m but
whole of the positive charge and almost the entire mass
of the atom is concentrated in a small central core called
nucleus having diameter of about 10–14 m.
2. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons. In other words,
the electrons are spread over the remaining part of the
atom leaving plenty of empty space in the atom.
8.2 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Atom Model
1. When the electrons revolve round the nucleus, they are
continuously accelerated towards the centre of the
nucleus. According to Lorentz, an accelerated charged
particle should radiate energy continuously. Therefore,
in the atom, a revolving electron should continuously
emit energy and hence the radius of its path should go on
decreasing and ultimately it should fall into the nucleus.
However, electrons revolve round the nucleus without
falling into it. Therefore, Rutherford’s atom model cannot
explain the stability of the atom.
2. If the Rutherford’s atom model is true, the electron can
revolve in orbits of all possible radii and hence it should
emit continuous energy spectrum. However, the atoms
like hydrogen possess line spectrum.
8.3 Distance of Closest Approach
Consider the an D-particle of mass m possesses initial velocity u,
when it is at a large distance from the nucleus of an atom having
atomic number Z. At the distance of closest approach, the kinetic
energy of D-particle is completely converted into potential
energy. Mathematically.
2e Ze 2 Ze 2
2
1/2 mu =  . ?r0 .
4SH 0 r0 4 SH 0 1/ 2 mu 2
8.4 Impact Parameter
The scattering of an alpha particle from the nucleus of an atom
depends upon the impact parameter.
 MODERN PHYSICS

Impact Parameter of the alpha particle is defined as the

h h
perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the alpha particle . i.e. mvr = n ; n = 1 , 2 , 3 , .......(n z 0).
2S 2S
from the centre of the nucleus, when it is far away from the atom.
It is denoted by b. (iii) The electron can absorb or radiate energy only if the
electron jumps from a lower to a higher orbit or falls from
1 Ze 2 cot T / 2 a higher to a lower orbit.
b= .
4SH 0 1 / 2 mu 2 (iv) The energy emitted or absorbed is a light photon of
frequency Q and of energy E = hQ Q

10.1 For hydrogen atom : (Z = atomic number = 1)

h
(i) Ln = angular momentum in the nth orbit = n .
2S
(ii) rn = radius of nth circular orbit = (0.529 Aº) n2 ;
(1Aº = 10-10 m) ; rn v n2.

8.5 Discussion 13.6 eV

(iii) En Energy of the electron in the nth orbit = i.e.
n2
The following interference can be drawn from the above equation:
1. If the impact parameter b is large, then cot T/2 is also large 1 
En v
i.e. the angle of scattering T is small and vice-versa. n2
Thus, if an D-particle has large impact parameter, it gets
scattered through a very small angle and may practically
go undeviated and if the D-particle has small impact
parameter, it will be scattered through a large angle.
Total energy of the electron in an atom is negative,
2. If the impact parameter b is zero, then cot T/2 = 0 or indicating that it is bound.
T/2 = 90º or T = 180º.

9. PHOTON 13.6 V
Binding Energy (BE)n = – En = .
n2
A photon is a packet of energy. It possesses energy given by,
E = hX (iv) En2  En1 = Energy emitted when an electron jumps
Where h = 6.62 × 10 Js is Plank’s constant and X is frequency of
34
from n2th orbit to n1th orbit (n2 > n1) .
the photon. If O is wavelength of the photon, then, c = XO
ª1 1 º
Hence, c = 3 × 108 ms1 Js velocity of light. Therefore, E = hX = hc/O 'E = (13.6 ev) « 2  2 » .
n
¬ 1 n 2 ¼
Energy of a photon is usually expressed in electron volt (eV).
'E = hQ ; Q= frequency of spectral line emitted .
1eV = 6 × 1019 J
1
The bigger units are keV and MeV. = Q= wave no. [ no. of waves in unit length (1m)]
O
1keV = 1.6 × 1016 and 1 MeV = 1.6 × 1013 J
ª1 1º
10. BOHR ATOMIC MODEL =R« 2  2 » .
¬ n1 n 2 ¼
Bohr adopted Rutherford model of the atom & added some
Where R = Rydberg's constant for hydrogen = 1.097 × 107 m-1 .
arbitrary conditions. These conditions are known as his (v) For hydrogen like atom/species of atomic number Z :
postulates :
Bohr radius 2 n2
(i) The electron in a stable orbit does not radiate energy . i.e. rnz = n 0.529 Aq ;
Z Z
m v2 k z e2
r r2 Z2
Enz = (– 13.6) ev
(ii) A stable orbit is that in which the angular momentum of n2
the electron about nucleus is an integral (n) multiple of Rz = RZ2 – Rydberg's constant for element of atomic no. Z .
 MODERN PHYSICS

If motion of the nucleus is also considered, then m is

replaced by P.

Where P= reduced mass of electron – nucleus system = mM/

(m+M) .

Z2 P
In this case En = (–13.6 ev) .
n 2 me

10.2 Spectral Series That there is a minimum wavelength below which no X–ray is
emitted. This is called the cutoff wavelength or the threshold
(i) Lyman Series : (Landing orbit n = 1) . wavelength.
Certain sharply defined wavelengths, the intensity of X–rays is
ª1 1 º very large as marked K D, KE . These X–rays are known as
Ultraviolet region Q R « 2  2 » ; n2 > 1
¬1 n2 ¼ characteristics X-rays. Other wavelengths the intensity varies
(ii) Balmer Series : (Landing orbit n = 2) gradually and these X-rays are called continuous x-rays.

ª1 hc hc
Visible region Q 1 º O Ÿ O min
R « 2  2 » ; n2 > 2 E eV
¬ 2 n 2 ¼

(iii) Paschan Series : (Landing orbit n = 3)

ª1 1 º
In the near infrared region Q R « 2  2 » ; n2 > 3
¬ 3 n 2 ¼

(iv) Bracket Series : (Landing orbit n = 4)

ª1 1 º
In the mid infrared region Q R « 2  2 » ; n2 > 4
¬ 4 n 2¼

(v) Pfund Series : (Landing orbit n = 5)

ª1 1 º
In far infrared region Q R « 2  2 » ; n2 > 5
¬ 5 n 2 ¼
hc
In all these series n2 = n1 + 1 is the D line O for K D
EK  EL
= n1 + 2 is the Eline
= n1 + 3 is the Jline .... etc.
hc hc
where n1 = Landing orbit Ÿ O for K E , Ÿ O for K D ,
EK  EM EL  EM
11. X–RAYS
 RAY OPTICS

RAY OPTICS

1. RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
It is a well established fact that light is a wave. Although, a light
wave spreads as it moves away from its source, we can approximate
its path as a straight line. Under this approximation, we show light
as a ray and the study of light as a ray is called ray optics or
geometrical optics.
As shown in the figure, the angle between reflected ray and
incident ray is180 – 2i where i is the angle of incidence. Maximum
deviation is 180°, when angle of incident i is zero.
2.3 Law of Reflection in Vector Form
Say unit vector along incident ray = û .

1.1 Ray Unit vector along normal = n̂

The straight line path along which light travels in a homogeneous Unit vector along reflected ray = r̂
medium is called a ray. Then r̂ û  2 û . n̂ n̂

2. REFLECTION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon in which a light ray is sent back into the same
medium from which it is coming, on interaction with a boundary,
is called reflection. The boundary can be a rigid surface or just an
interface between two media.
2.1 Law of Reflection Laws of reflection remain the same whether the reflected surface is
plane or curved.
We have few angles to define before considering law of reflection
(i) Angle of incidence : The angle which the incident ray
makes with normal at the point of incidence.
(ii) Angle of reflection : The angle which the reflected ray
makes with normal at the point of incidence.
A reflected ray lies in the plane of incidence and has an angle of
reflection equal to the angle of incidence. ‘i = ‘r.
2.2 Deviation
2.4 Reflection by a plane surface
When a ray of light suffers reflection, its path is changed. The
angle between its direction after reflection and the direction before Suppose a reflecting surface is rotated by an angle T (say
reflection is called the deviation. anticlockwise), keeping the incident ray fixed then the reflect ray
rotates by 2T along the same sense, i.e., anticlockwise.

2.5 Reflection from plane mirror
When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror, its image can
be seen behind the mirror. The distance of the object from the
mirror is equal to the distance of the image from the mirror.
RAY OPTICS
Magnification of a plane mirror is unity.
The image is formed behind the mirror. It is erect. Virtual and
laterally inverted.
Image formation by two inclined mirrors, inclined at angle
= T [0, 180°]
The object and all its images will always lie on a circle, having
center at the point of intersection of the two inclined mirrors, in a
two dimensional view.
3. OTHER IMPORTANT INFORMATIONS
(i) When the object moves with speed u towards (or away) from
the plane mirror then image also moves toward (or away) with
speed u. But relative speed of image w.r.t. object is 2u.
(ii) When mirror moves towards the stationary object with speed
u, the image will move with speed 2u.
 RAY OPTICS

4. SPHERICAL MIRRORS
A spherical mirror is a part of sphere. If one of the surfaces is
silvered, the other surface acts as the reflecting surface. When
convex face is silvered, and the reflecting surface is concave, the
mirror is called a concave mirror. When its concave face is silvered
and convex face is the reflecting face, the mirror is called a convex
mirror.
Paraxial rays : Rays which are close to principal axis and make
small angles with it, i.e., they are nearly parallel to the axis, are
called paraxial rays. Our treatment of spherical mirrors will be
restricted to such rays which means we shall consider only mirrors
of small aperture. In diagrams, however, they will be made larger
for clarity.
Images formed by spherical mirrors
Let us consider various cases depending on the nature of the
object and the image
(i) Real object and real image

(a)

Before the discussion of reflection by curved mirrors, you shall

carefully comprehend the meaning of following terms
(i) Centre of curvature : Centre of curvature is the centre of
sphere of which, the mirror is a part.
(ii) Radius of curvature : Radius of curvature is the radius of
sphere of which, the mirror is a part.
(b)
(iii) Pole of mirror : Pole is the geometric centre of the mirror.
(iv) Principal axis : Principal axis is the line passing through the
pole and centre of curvature.
(v) Normal : Any line joining the mirror to its centre of curvature
is a normal. (ii) Real object and virtual image

(a)

(b)
 RAY OPTICS

object two of the following four rays are drawn passing through
the object. To construct the image of an extended object the image
of two end points is only drawn. The image of a point object lying
on principles axis is formed on the principal axis itself. The four
(c) rays are as under :

(d)

(iii) Virtual object and real image

Ray 1 : A ray through the centre of curvature which strikes the

(a)
mirror normally and is reflected back along the same path.
Ray 2 : A ray parallel to principal axis after reflection either actually
passes through the principal focus F or appears to diverge from it.
Ray 3 : A ray passing through the principal focus F or a ray which
appears to converge at F is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
Ray 4 : A ray striking at pole P is reflected symmetrically back in
the opposite side.
4.1 Sign conventions
(b)
(i) All distances are measured from the pole.
(ii) Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are
taken as positive while in the direction opposite of incident
rays are taken negative.
(iv) Virtual object and virtual image (iii) Distances above the principle axis are taken positive and
below the principle axis are taken negative.

Ray diagrams
We shall consider the small objects and mirrors of small aperture Same sign convention are also valid for lenses.
so that all rays are paraxial. To construct the image of a point

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RAY OPTICS

Position, size and nature of image formed by the spherical mirror

Use following sign while solving the problem

4.2 Relation between f and R

In figure, P is pole, C is centre of curvature and F is principal focus of a concave mirror of small aperture. Let a ray of light AB be
incident on the mirror in a direction parallel to the principal axis of the mirror. It gets reflected along. BF. Join CB. It is normal to
the mirror at B.
 RAY OPTICS

i.e., F is the centre of PC

1
? PF = PC, Using sign conventions,

? ‘ABC = i, angle of incidence
‘CBF = r, angle of reflection
Now ‘BCF = ‘ABC = i (alternate angles)
In 'CBF, as i = r (law of reflection)
? CF = FB
But FB = FP (' aperture is small)
? CF = FP
PF = – f and PC = –R.
Therefore, –f = –R/2 or f = R/2
i.e., focal length of a concave mirror is equal to half the
radius of curvature of the mirror.
4.3 Deriving the Mirror Formula
Mirror formula can be derived for any of the cases of image
formation shown before. When we derive a formula, we keep in
mind the sign conventions and substitute each value with sign.
This makes a formula suitable to be applied in any case. Here, we
shall derive the formula for two cases.

Real object and real image Real object and virtual image
(concave mirror) (convex mirror)

PO = – u (distance of object) PO = – u (distance of object)

PC = – R (radius of curvature)
PI = – v (distance of image)
In 'OAC, J= D + T ...(i)
In 'OAI, E= D + 2T ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
2 (J – D) = E – D
ŸE+ D = 2J
PI = + v (distance of image)
PC = + R (radius of curvature)
In 'OAC, T = D + J ...(i)
In 'OAI, 2T = D + E ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
2 (D + J) = D + E
ŸE– D= 2J

AP AP AP AP AP AP
E ,D ,J E ,D ,J
PI PO PC PI PO PC

AP AP 2AP AP AP 2AP
 
PI PO PC PI PO PC

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
 Ÿ   Ÿ 
v u R v u f v u R v u f
 RAY OPTICS

While deriving the above result, if we do not use sign convention, 1 1 1 –2 –2

results obtained will be different for different cases. From ,  we have –v dv –u du = 0
v u f
4.4 Magnification 2
dv §v·
or ¨ ¸
The linear magnification produced by a mirror is defined as du ©u¹
height of image 2
dv §v·
height of object or mL  ¨ ¸ m2
du ©u¹
I BBc If we differentiate the mirror formula
m
O AA c 1 1 1

v u f
with respect to time, we get
dv du
 v 2 .  u 2 0 (as f = constant)
dt dt

dv § v2 · du
or ¨¨ 2 ¸
¸ dt ...(iii)
dt ©u ¹
As every part of mirror forms a complete image, if a part of the
mirror is obstructed, full image will be formed but intensity will be
PB = – v (distance of image) reduced.
PA = – u (distance of object) 5. REFRACTION OF LIGHT
BcB BP
Now, 'A’AP ~ 'B’BP Ÿ
AcA AP

 PB  v v
Ÿ m
PA u u

By mirror formula, 1  1 1
v u f
When a ray of light is incident on the boundary between two
v v v f v transparent media, a part of it passes into the second medium
Ÿ 1  Ÿ m 1
u f f f with a change in direction.
1 1 1 u u f This phenomenon is called refraction.
Also,  Ÿ 1 Ÿm
v u f v f f u
5.1 Refractive Index
v f v f
?m Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined by the ratio of
u f f u
c
The magnification is negative when image is inverted and speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in the medium P ,
v
positive when image is erect.
where c is speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of light in
If an object is placed with its length along the principal axis, the medium.
then so called longitudinal magnification becomes,
5.2 Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law)
I § v  v1 · dv
mL ¨¨ 2 ¸¸  (for small objects) A refracted ray lies in the plane of incidence and has an angle of
O © u 2  u1 ¹ du
refraction related to angle of incidence by P1sin i = P2 sin r. Where,
 RAY OPTICS

(i) i = angle of incidence in medium 1

(ii) P1 = refractive index of medium 1 (it is a dimensionless constant)
(iii) r = angle of refraction in medium 2
(iv) P2 = refractive index of medium 2
(v) If P1 = P2, then r = i. The light beam does not bend
(vi) If P1 > P2, then r > i. Refraction bends the light away from normal
(vii) If P1 < P2, then r < i. Refraction bends the light towards the normal
A medium having greater refractive index is called denser medium
while the other medium is called rarer medium.
We shall derive the expression for small angles (or you can say
that the object is being seen from top). By Snell’s law,
P2 × sin i = P1 × sin r or, P2 × i = P1 × r

AB AB AB AB P2 P1
i ,r Ÿ P2 u P1 u Ÿ
R A R A R A

The following possibilities may arise.

(i) When observer is in air and the object is in a medium of
refractive index P,

P 1 R
You have, ŸA
R A P

The three conditions required to find the unit vector along the
refracted ray = r (provided we are given the unit vector along the
incident ray = u, and the normal unit vector shown in the figure,
(ii) When observer is in a medium of refractive index P and
from medium–1 towards medium–2) are
the object is in air, you have
1. |r| = 1
I P
2. Snell’s law ŸA PR
R A
3. u, n and r are coplanar Ÿ STP = 0 = r . (u × n)

cos i = (u . n) ; cos r = (r . n)

5.3 Single Refraction from a Plane Surface

Real and Apparent Depth

When an object placed in a medium is seen from another medium,

its apparent position is different from the actual position. Consider
the following figure.

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 RAY OPTICS

5.4 Shift due to a Glass Slab (Double Refraction AC t

from Plane Surfaces) Proof : AB
cos r cos r
(i) Normal Shift : Here, again two cases are possible. (as AC = t)

t
Now, d = AB sin (i – r) = cos r [sin i cos r – cos i sin r]

or d = t [sin i – cos i tan r] ...(i)

sin i sin i
Further P or sin r
sin r P

sin i
? tan r
P  sin 2 i
2

An object is placed at O. Plane surface CD forms its image (virtual)

Substituting in eq. (i), we get,
at I1. This image acts as object for EF which finally forms the
image (virtual) at I. Distance OI is called the normal shift and its ª º
cos i
value is, d «1  » t sin i
« P 2  sin 2 i »¼
¬
§ 1·
OI ¨¨1  ¸¸ t
© P¹ Hence Proved.
This can be proved as under : Exercise : Show that for small angles of incidence,
Let OA = x then AI1 = Px (Refraction from CD)
§ P 1·
BI1 = Px + t d = ti ¨¨ ¸¸ .
© P ¹
BI1 t
BI x (Refraction from EF) Apparent distance from observer
P P
§ t· § h1 h 2 hn ·
? OI = (AB + OA) – BI t  x  ¨¨ x  ¸¸ = P obser ¨¨ P  P  ...... P ¸¸
© P¹ © 1 2 n ¹

§ 1· 5.5 Total Internal Reflection

¨¨1  ¸¸ t Hence Proved.
© P¹
Consider an object placed in a denser medium 2 (having refractive
(ii) Lateral Shift : We have already discussed that ray MA is
index P2) being seen from a rarer medium 1 (having refractive
parallel to ray BN. But the emergent ray is displaced
index P1)
laterally by a distance d, which depends on P, t and i and
its value is given by the relation,
§ cos i ·
d t ¨1  ¸ sin i
¨ ¸
© P  sin 2 i
2
¹

Different rays from the object are shown. As we move from A

towards C, angle of incidence goes on increasing. Therefore, the
angle of refraction goes on increasing. At B, angle of refraction
approaches 90°. This is called critical condition. After B, angle of
 RAY OPTICS

incidence increases, but angle of refraction cannot be greater

­° J  r, in fig.
than 90°. Therefore after point B, refraction of light does not take i D  E, E ®
place, only reflection of light takes place. This is called total internal °̄r  J , in fig. II
reflection.
P1 D  E P 2 E B J in fig. I and fig. II
5.6 Refraction through Curved Surfaces
Ÿ P 1D r P 2 J P 2  P1 E,
Spherical Refracting Surfaces
A spherical refracting surface is a part of a sphere. For example,
the plane face of cylindrical glass rod is curved to form a spherical
shape (as shown in the figure).

As aperture is small D | tan D, E | tan E , J | tan J

P1 tan D r P2 tan J P 2  P1 tan E

P1 P 2 P 2  P1
r ...(i)
P cO P c P cC
Applying sign convention i.e., u = – P’O
v = P’I and – P’I, in fig. I and fig. II respectively R = P’C
Substituting the above values in equation (i), we get
P o Pole of refracting surface P 2 P1 P 2  P1
 (For both fig. I and fig. II)
C o Centre of curvature v u R
PC o Radius of curvature 5.8 Linear Magnification for Spherical Refracting Surface
Principal axis : The line joining pole and centre of curvature.
A c Bc
m 
5.7 Relation between Object Distance and Image AB

Distance Refraction at Spherical Surfaces sin i P2

Now,
sin r P1
Consider the point object O placed in the medium with refractive
index equal to P1. As P1sin i = P2sin r and for small aperture i, r o 0

As i, r o 0, i | sin i | tan i, r | sin r | tan r

tan i P2 AB / PA P2
i.e. paraxial rays ŸP1 i = P2 r or
tan r P1 A cBc / PA c P1
 RAY OPTICS

towards the point, after refraction becomes parallel to

A cBc  PA c / P 2
Ÿ principal axis.
AB PA / P1

v / P2
Hence, m
u / P1

6. THIN LENS
A thin lens is defined as a portion of transparent refracting medium
bounded by two surfaces. One of the two surfaces must be curved.
Following figures show a number of lenses formed by different
refracting surfaces.
A lens is one of the most familiar optical devices for a human
being. A lens is an optical system with two refracting surfaces.
The simplest lens has two spherical surfaces close enough together (b) Second principal focus F2 : It is a point on principal axis,
that we can neglect the distance between them (the thickness of such that a ray moving parallel to principal axis, after
the lens). We call this a thin lens. refraction converges or diverges towards the point.

(vi) Focal Length : The distance between optical centre and

second principal focus is focal length. Assumptions and
sign conventions are same as these of mirrors with optical
centre C in place of pole P of the mirror.

6.2 Ray diagram

6.1 Terms Related with Lenses To construct the image of a small object perpendicular to the axis
of a lens, two of the following three rays are drawn from the top of
(i) Centre of curvature (C1 and C2) : The two bounding surfaces the object.
of a lens are each part of a complete sphere. The centre of the 1. A ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes
sphere is the centre of curvature. through the principal focus or appears to diverge from it.
(ii) Radius of curvature (R1 and R2) : The radii of the curved
surfaces forming the lens are called radii of curvature.
(iii) Principal axis : The line joining the two centres of
curvature is called principal axis.
(iv) Optical centre : A point on the principal axis of the lens
from which a ray of light passes undeviated.
(v) Principal foci : There are two principal foci of a lens.
(a) First principal focus F1 : It is a point on the principal axis,
such that a ray, diverging from the point or converging
 RAY OPTICS

2. A ray through the optical centre P passes undeviated 3. A ray passing through the first focus F1 become parallel
because the middle of the lens acts like a thin parallel- to the principal axis after refraction.
sided slab.

6.3 Image formation by Lens

Minimum distance between an object and it’s real image formed by a convex lens is 4f.
Maximum image distance for concave lens is it’s focal length.
RAY OPTICS

6.4 Lens maker’s formula and lens formula determine the values of R1 and R2 that are needed for a given
refractive index and a desired focal length f.
Consider an object O placed at a distance u from a convex lens as
Combining eqs. (iii) and (v), we get
shown in figure. Let its image I after two refractions from spherical
surfaces of radii R1 (positive) and R2 (negative) be formed at a 1 1 1
 ...(vi)
distance v from the lens. Let v1 be the distance of image formed v u f
by refraction from the refracting surface of radius R1. This image Which is known as the lens formula. Following conclusions can
acts as an object for the second surface. Using, be drawn from eqs. (iv), (v) and (vi).
1. For a converging lens, R1 is positive and R2 is negative.

§ 1 1 ·
Therefore, ¨¨  ¸¸ in eq. (v) comes out a positive
R
© 1 R 2 ¹

quantity and if the lens is placed in air, (P – 1) is also a

positive quantity. Hence, the focal length f of a converging
lens comes out to be positive. For a diverging lens however,
R1 is negative and R2 is positive and the focal length f
becomes negative.
P 2 P1 P 2  P1
 twice, we have
v u R

P 2 P1 P 2  P1
or  ...(i)
v1 u R1

P1 P 2 P1  P 2
and  ...(ii)
v v1 R2

Adding eqs. (i) and (ii) and then simplifying, we get

1 1 § P2 ·§ 1 1 ·
 ¨¨  1¸¸ ¨¨  ¸¸ ...(iii)
v u © P1 ¹ © R1 R 2 ¹

This expression relates the image distance v of the image formed

by a thin lens to the object distance u and to the thin lens properties
(index of refraction and radii of curvature). It is valid only for
paraxial rays and only when the lens thickness is much less then
R1 and R2. The focal length f of a thin lens is the image distance
2. Focal length of a mirror (fM = R/2) depends only upon the
that corresponds to an object at infinity. So, putting u = f and
radius of curvature R while that of a lens [eq. (iv)] depends
v = f in the above equation, we have
on P1, P2, R1 and R2. Thus, if a lens and a mirror are immersed
in some liquid, the focal length of lens would change while
1 § P2 ·§ 1 1 ·
¨ ¸¨ ¸
¨ P  1¸ ¨ R  R ¸ ...(iv) that of the mirror will remain unchanged.
f © 1 ¹© 1 2 ¹
3. Suppose P2 < P1 in eq. (iv), i.e., refractive index of the
If the refractive index of the material of the lens is P and it is placed medium (in which lens is placed) is more than the refractive
in air, P2 = P and P1 = 1 so that eq. (iv) becomes §P ·
index of the material of the lens, then ¨¨ 2  1¸¸ becomes a
P
©  ¹
1 § 1 1 ·
P  1 ¨¨  ¸¸ ...(v)
f negative quantity, i.e., the lens changes its behaviour. A
© R1 R 2 ¹
converging lens behaves as a diverging lens and vice-
This is called the lens maker’s formula because it can be used to versa. An air bubble in water seems as a convex lens but
 RAY OPTICS

behaves as a concave (diverging) lens.
The shorter the focal length of a lens (or a mirror) the more it
converges or diverges light. As shown in the figure,
f1 < f2
and hence the power P1 > P2, as bending of light in case 1 is more
than that of case 2. For a lens,

1
P (in dioptre) = and for a mirror,,
f metre
6.5 Magnification
The lateral, transverse of linear magnification m produced by a lens 1
is defined by, P (in dioptre) =
f metre
height of image I
m Following table gives the sign of P and f for different type of lens
height of object O
and mirror.
A real image II’ of an object OO’ formed by a convex lens is shown
in figure. 8. COMBINATION OF LENS
height of image IIc v (i) For a system of lenses, the net power, net focal length and
height of object OOc u magnification given as follows :
P = P1 + P2 + P3 ............,

1 1 1 1
   ...........,
F f1 f 2 f 3

m = m1 × m2 × m3 × ............
(ii) When two lenses are placed co-axially at a distance d from
each other then equivalent focal length (F).

Substituting v and u with proper sign,

IIc I v I v
or m
OOc O u O u

v
Thus, m
u

7. POWER OF AN OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

By optical power of an instrument (whether it is a lens, mirror or a
refractive surface) we mean the ability of the instrument to deviate
the path of rays passing through it. If the instrument converges
the rays parallel to the principal axis its power is said positive and 9. CUTTING OF LENS
if it diverges the rays it is said a negative power.
(i)
(ii)
1 1 1 d
 
F f1 f 2 f1f 2 and P = P1 + P2 – dP1P2
A symmetric lens is cut along optical axis in two equal
parts. Intensity of image formed by each part will be same
as that of complete lens.
A symmetric lens is cut along principle axis in two equal
parts. Intensity of image formed by each part will be less
compared as that of complete lens. (aperture of each part
is 1 / 2 times that of complete lens)
 RAY OPTICS

? A + ‘MPN = 180° ...(i)

In triangle MNP, r1 + r2 + ‘MPN = 180° ...(ii)
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have
r 1 + r2 = A ...(iii)

11.1 Deviation

Deviation G means angle between incident ray and emergent ray.

In reflection, G= 180 – 2i = 180 – 2r
in refraction, G= |i – r|

10. SILVERING OF LENS

On silvering the surface of the lens it behaves as a mirror. The
1 2 1
focal length of the silvered lens is  where
F f1 f m In prism a ray of light gets refracted twice one at M and
f1 = focal length of lens from which refraction takes place (twice) other at N. At M its deviation is i1 – r1 and at N it is i2 – r2.
These two deviations are added. So the net deviation is,
fm = focal length of mirror from which reflection takes place.
G= (i1 – r1) + (i2 – r2) = (i1 + i2) – (r1 + r2) = (i1 + i2) – A
11. PRISM
Thus, G= (i1 + i2) – A ...(iv)
A prism has two plane surfaces AB and AC inclined to each other
sin i1
as shown in figure. ‘A is called the angle of prism or refracting (i) If A and i1 are small : P , therefore, r1 will also be
angle. sin r1
small. Hence, since sine of a small angle is nearly equal to
the angle is radians, we have, i1 = Pr1
Also, A = r1 + r2 and so if A and r1 are small r2 and i2 will
sin i 2
also be small. From P , we can say, i2 = Pr2
sin r2

Substituting these values in eq. (iv), we have

(ii)
The importance of the prism really depends on the fact that the
angle of deviation suffered by light at the first refracting surface,
say AB (in 2-dimensional figure) is not cancelled out by the
deviation at the second surface AC (as it is in a parallel glass
slab), but is added to it. This is why it can be used in a spectrometer,
an instrument for analysing light into its component colours.
General Formulae
In quadrilateral AMPN, ‘ AMP + ‘ANP = 180°
G = (Pr1 + Pr2) – A = P (r1 + r2) – A = PA – A
or G= (P – 1) A ...(v)
Minimum deviation : It is found that the angle of deviation
G varies with the angle of incidence i1 of the ray incident
on the first refracting face of the prism. The variation is
shown in figure and for one angle of incidence it has a
minimum value G min. At this value the ray passes
symmetrically through the prism (a fact that can be proved
theoretically as well as be shown experimentally), i.e., the
angle of emergence of the ray from the second face equals
the angle of incidence of the ray on the first face.
 RAY OPTICS

Now, if minimum value of r2 is greater than Tc then obviously all

values of r2 will be greater than Tc and TIR will take place under all
conditions. Thus, the condition of no emergence is, (r2)min > Tc or
A – Tc > T

T
or A! ...(xii)
2

11.3 Dispersion and deviation of light by a prism

White light is a superposition of waves with wavelengths

i2 = i1 = i
It therefore, follows that
r1 = r2 = r
From eqs. (iii) and (vii)
extneding throughout the visible spectrum. The speed of light in
vacuum is the same for all wavelengths, but the speed in a material
...(vi) substance is different for different wavelengths. Therefore, the
index of refraction of a material depends on wavelength. In most
...(vii) materials the value of refractive index P decreases with increasing
wavelength.

A
r
2
Further at, G = Gm = (i + i) – A

A  Gm
or i ...(viii)
2
sin i
? P
sin r
If a beam of white light, which contains all colours, is sent through
§ A  Gm ·
sin ¨ ¸ the prism, it is separated into a spectrum of colours. The spreading
or P © 2 ¹ ...(ix) of light into its colour components is called dispersion.
A
sin
2 11.4 Dispersive Power

11.2 Condition of no emergence When a beam of white light is passed through a prism of
transparent material light of different wavelengths are deviated
In this section we want to find the condition such that a ray of
by different amounts. If Gr, Gy and Gv are the deviations for red,
light entering the face AB does not come out of the face AC for
yellow and violet components then average deviation is measured
any value of angle i1, i.e., TIR takes place on AC
by Gy as yellow light falls in between red and violet. Gv – Gr is
r 1 + r2 = A ? r2 = A – r1 called angular dispersion. The dispersive power of a material is
or (r2)min = A – (r1)max ...(x) defined as the ratio of angular dispersion to the average deviation
when a white beam of light is passed through it. It is denoted by
Now, r1 will be maximum when i1 is maximum and maximum
Z. As we know
value of i1 can be 90°.
G= (P – 1) A
sin i1 sin 90q
Hence, P
max

sin r1 max sin r1 max

1
? sin r1 sin T ? (r1)max = T
max
P

? From eq. (x), (r2)min = A – Tc ...(xi)

RAY OPTICS
This equation is valid when A and i are small. Suppose, a beam of
white light is passed through such a prism, the deviation of red,
yellow and violet light are
Gr = (Pr – 1) A, Gy = (Py – 1) A and Gv = (Pv – 1) A
The angular dispersion is Gv – Gr = (Pv – Pr) A and the average deviation
is Gy = (Py – 1) A. Thus, the dispersive power of the medium is,
P v  Pr
Z ...(i)
Py 
12. MONOCHROMATIC ABERRATIONS
IN MIRRORS AND LENSES
(INDEPENDENT OF WAVELENGTH)
Spherical aberration : because of the fact that all rays are not
paraxial. The image of a point object formed by a spherical mirror
is a surface, whose 2-D view is called a ‘caustic curve’. When a
real image is seen on a screen and the screen is moved forward/
backward slightly, a disc image is formed which becomes smallest
at one position. The periphery of this smallest disc is called ‘the
circle of least confusion’. Lenses too exhibit spherical aberration.
We can reduce it by blocking non-paraxial rays but this reduces
the brightness of the image. A ring shaped black paper is affixed
on the lens so that only those rays pass through the ‘hole’ in the
ring, which are paraxial. Parabolic mirrors do not exhibit any
spherical aberration, hence all expensive reflecting telescopes use
parabolic mirrors.
In lenses, spherical aberration can be reduced by using a
combination of convex and concave lenses, which cancel out
each other’s aberrations.
Coma : Consider a point object placed ‘off’ the optical axis. Most
of the rays focus at a single point, but others form images at
different points so that the overall image is like that of a ‘comet’
( ) having a sharp ‘point’ image followed by a trail like that of a
comet.
Coma can be reduced by carefully working out the curvature
function, or by blocking off the rays that create the ‘tail’ of the
comet shaped image.
“ Astigmatism : The shape of the image is different at different
distances. Suppose a point object is placed off the optical
axis of a converging lens. Then, as a lateral screen is moved
along the axis, at one point, the image is almost a line. At
other positions of the screen, the image changes into an
different shapes at different locations of the screen.
Astigmatism can be reduced by using non-spherical
surfaces of revolution-such corrected lenses are called
‘anastigmatic’.
“ Curvature : Consider a point object placed off the optical
axis of a lens. We have seen that image is spread out laterally
as well as longitudionally, with individual defects in each
direction. However, the best image is obtained on a curved
surface and not on a plane screen. This phenomenon is
called ‘curvature’.
“ Distortion : A square lateral object has images, which are
either ‘barrel shaped’ or ‘curving in’ as shown. This is
because the lateral magnification itself depends on the actual
distance of a portion of the object from the optical axis.
These different magnifications of different portions produce
this effect.
13. CHROMATIC ABERRATIONS IN LENSES
(DEPENDENT ON WAVELENGTH)
These aberrations are absent in mirrors. In lenses, the focal length
depends on the refractive index, which is different for different
colors. Hence, colored images are formed at different points if
white light is emitted by the object. A proper combination of convex
and concave lenses exactly cancel out each others chromatic
 RAY OPTICS

aberration (for light having two wavelengths only) so that the Magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the
final image is not split into colored images. Such a combination is ratio of the angles subtended by the image and the object
called an ‘achromatic doublet’. The distance along the optical on the eye, when both are at the least distance of distinct
axis between images of violet and red is called ‘axial or longitudional vision from the eye.
chromatic aberration’ = LCA (say):
E
For an incident parallel beam of white light, image distance = focal By definition, Magnifying power m ...(1)
D
length. From lens-makers formulae:
-df/f = dn/(n - 1) = Z = dispersive power of lens | (nV – nR)/(n – 1) For small angles expessed in radians, tan T | T
Ÿ LCA = 'f | Zf. For two thin lenses in contact, (1/F) = (1/f1) + D | tan D and E | tan E
?
(1/f2). Therefore, dF = 0 ŸZ1/f1 = –Z2/f2 o achromatic lens. An
achromatic ‘doublet’ or lens combination can be made by placing tan E
two thin lenses in contact, with one converging and the other ? m ...(2)
tan D
diverging, made of different materials.
For lateral objects, images of different colors have different sizes AB
as magnification itself depends on the focal length, which is In 'ABC, tan E
CB
different for different colors. The difference in the size of lateral
images of violet and red colors is called ‘lateral chromatic A1 B' AB
aberration’. In 'A1B’C, tan D
CB' CB'
Putting in (2), we get

AB CB' CB' v v
m u ...(3)
CB AB CB u u
where, CB’ = – v, distance of image from the lens, CB = –u,
distance of object from the lens

1 1 1
From lens formula, 
v u f
Multiply both sides by v

v v
1
u f
14. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
v
14.1 Simple Microscope or Magnifying Glass using (3), 1  m
f
A simple microscope is used for observing magnified images
of tiny objects. It consists of a converging lens of small v
or m 1
focal length. A virtual, erect and magnified image of the f
object is formed at the least distance of distinct vision from
the eye held close to the lens. That is why the simple § d·
But v = – d, ? m ¨1  ¸
microscope is also called a magnifying glass. © f¹

14.2 Compound Microscope

A compound microscope is an optical instrument used for

observing highly magnified images of tiny objects.
Construction : A compound microscope consists of two
converging lenses (or lens system); an objective lens O of
very small focal length and short aperture and an eye piece
E of moderate focal length and large aperture.
RAY OPTICS

where d is C2B’’ = least distance of distinct vision, fe is focal

length of eye lens. And

A' B' distance of image A' B' from C1

m0
AB distance of object AB from C1

C1 B' v0
C1 B  u0

Putting these values in (3), we get

v0 § d · v0 § d ·
m ¨1  ¸ ¨1  ¸
 u0 ¨ f ¸ | u0 | ¨© f e ¸ ...(4)
© e ¹ ¹

Magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as As the object AB lies very close to F0, the focus of objective
the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the final lens, therefore,
image to the angle subtended at the eye by the object, when u0 = C1B | C1F0 = f0 = focal length of objective lens.
both the final image and the object are situated at the least As A’B’ is formed very close to eye lens whose focal length
distance of distinct vision from the eye. is also short, therefore,
In figure, C2B’’ = d. Imagine the object AB to be shifted to v0 = C1B’ | C1C2 = L = length of microscope tube.
B’’ so that it is at a distance d from the eye. If ‘A’’ C2 B’’
1 Putting in (4), we get
= E and ‘A1C2B’’ = D, then by definition,
L § d · L § d ·
E m ¨1  ¸ ¨1  ¸ ...(5)
Magnifying power, m ...(1)  f0 ¨ f ¸ | f 0 | ¨© f e ¸
D © e ¹ ¹

For small angles expressed in radians, tan T|T 14.3 Astronomical Telescope
? D| tan D and E| tan E An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument which is
used for observing distinct image of heavenly bodies like
tan E stars, planets etc.
From (1), m ...(2)
tan D
It consists of two lenses (or lens systems), the objective
A ' ' B' ' lens, which is of large focal length and large aperture and
In 'A’’B’’C2, tan E the eye lens, which has a small focal length and small
C 2 B' '
aperture. The two lenses are mounted co-axially at the free
Bcc AB ends of the two tubes.
In 'A1B’’C2, tan D 1
C 2 Bcc C 2 Bcc
Putting in (2), we get
ccBcc C 2 Bcc ccBcc ccBcc A' B'
m u u
C 2 Bcc AB AB A ' B' AB
m = me × m0
ccBcc
where m e , magnification produced by eye lens,
A' B'

A ' B' However, in astronomical telescope, final image being

and m 0 , magnification produced by objective lens.
AB inverted with respect to the object does not matter, as the
astronomical objects are usually spherical.
§ d ·
Now, m e ¨1  ¸ Magnifying Power of an astronomical telescope in normal
¨ f ¸
© e ¹ adjustment is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended at
 RAY OPTICS

the eye by the final image to the angle subtended at the eye, ? ‘A’C1B’ = D
by the object directly, when the final image and the object Further, let ‘A’’C2B’’ = E, where C2B’’ = d
both lie at infinite distance from the eye.
E
? By definition, Magnifying power, m ...(4)
E D
Magnifying power, m ...(1)
D As angles D and E are small, therefore, E| tan E and D| tan D
As angles D and E are small, therefore, D| tan D and E tan E
| tan E. From (4), m ...(5)
tan D
tan E A ' B'
From (1), m ...(2) In 'A’B’C2, tan E
tan D C 2 B'
A ' B'
In 'A’B’C2, tan E A ' B'
C 2 B' In 'A’B’C1, tan D
C1B'
A 'B'
In 'A’B’C1, tan D A' B' C1B'
C1B ' Putting in (5), we get m u
C 2 B' A' B'
A ' B' C1B' C1B'
Put in (2), m u C1 B' f0
C 2 B' A' B' C 2 B' m ...(6)
C 2 B'  ue
f0 where C1B’ = f0 = focal length of objective lens
or m ...(3)
 fe C2B’ = – ue, distance of A’B’, acting as the object for
eye lens.
where C1B’ = f0 = focal length of objective lens.
C2B’ = –fe = focal length of eye lens. 1 1 1
Now, for eye lens, 
v u f
Negative sign of m indicates that final image is inverted.
Taking ve = –d, u = –ue and f = + fe, we get
Memory Note
(i) In normal adjustment of telescope, distance between the 1 1 1

objective lens and eye lens = (f0 + fe).  d  ue fe
(ii) Angular magnification produced by the telescope = ED.
1 1 1 1 § fe ·
Clearly, visual angle E is much larger as compared to D.  ¨1  ¸
ue fe d fe © d¹
Figure shows the course of rays in an astronomical
telescope, when the final image is formed at the least distance f0 § f e ·
of distinct vision (d) from the eye) Putting in (6), we get m  ¨1  ¸
fe © d¹
Discussion :
(i) As magnifying power is negative, the final image in an
astronomial telescope is inverted i.e. upside down and left
turned right.
(ii) As intermediate image is between the two lenses, cross wire
(or measuring device) can be used.
(iii) In normal setting of telescope, final image is at inifiny.
Magnifying power is minimum.
Magnifying power of an astronomical telescope is defined When final image is at least distance of distinct vision,
as the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the final magnifying power is maximum. Thus
image at the least distance of distinct vision to the angle
subtended at the eye by the object at infinity, when seen ª f0 º f § f ·
directly. (M.P.)min. = – « »; (M.P.)max. = – 0 ¨1  e ¸
f
¬ e¼ fe © d¹