4.6 Phasor Representations of Alternating Quantities 4.

23

Example 4.31 Find the relative heating effects of two current waves of equal peak value, one sinu-
soidal and the other, rectangular in shape.
i
Solution Figure 4.31 shows the two current waves.
rms value of the rectangular wave = Im Im

Im
rms value of the sinusoidal current wave = 0 p 2p
q
2

Heating effect due to the rectangular current wave = (Im)2 RT Fig. 4.31

⎛I ⎞
Heating effect due to the sinusoidal current wave = ⎜ m ⎟ RT =
( I m ) RT
2 2

⎝ 2⎠ 2

Relative heating effects =

( I m )2 RT : ( I 2
RT =
1
:1 = 1: 2
m)
2 2

4.6 PHASOR REPRESENTATIONS OF ALTERNATING QUANTITIES

The alternating quantities are represented by phasors. A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in an
anticlockwise direction at a constant angular velocity w. The length of a phasor is equal to the maximum
value of the alternating quantity, and the angular velocity is equal to the angular velocity of alternating
quantity.
As shown in Fig. 4.32, consider a phasor OP = Im, where Im is the maximum value of the alternating
current. Let this phasor rotate in an anticlockwise direction at a uniform angular velocity of w radians/
second. The projection of the phasor OP on the Y-axis at any instant gives the instantaneous value of that
alternating current.
OM = OP sin w t = Im sin w t = i

i
w rad/s
P
M
q q = wt
0 0 p 2p

Fig. 4.32 Representation of alternating quantities in terms of phasors

Thus, if we plot the projections of the phasor on the Y-axis versus its angular position point by point, a
sinusoidal alternating current waveform is obtained.
Phasor Diagram Using rms Values Sinusoidal alternating currents and voltages can be represented by
phasors. Electrical measuring instruments like ammeters and voltmeters are calibrated to read the rms values
of ac quantities. Hence, instead of using maximum values, it is more convenient to draw phasor diagrams
using rms values of alternating quantities. However, such a phasor diagram will not generate a sine wave of
proper amplitude unless the length of the phasor is multiplied by 2.
 4.24 Network Analysis and Synthesis

⎛ π⎞
Example 4.32 Two currents i1 and i2 are given by the expressions i1 = 10 sin
⎝
t+ and
4⎠
⎛ π⎞
d i2 = 8 sin ω t − . Find (a) i1 + i2, and (b) i1 − i2. Express the answers in the form i = I m sin( ω t φ )).
⎝ 3⎠

Solution ⎛ π⎞
i1 10 i ωt +
⎝ 4⎠
⎛ π⎞
i2 8 i ωt −
⎝ 3⎠
y
(a) Let phasors I1 and I 2 represent the alternating I1 = 10∠45°
currents i1 and i2 respectively in terms of their
maximum values.
(i) Analytical method:
From Fig. 4.33,
Resolving 1 and I 2 into x- and y- components, 45°
x
0
∑ = 10 cos (45°) + 8 c ( −60°) = 11 07 60°
∑y = 10 sin (45°) + 8 s ( −60°) = 0.14
14

Magnitude of (I1 I 2 ) = (∑ x)2 + (∑ y)2

= (11.07)2 + (0.14)2 I2 = 8∠−60°

= 11.07
Fig. 4.33
⎛ ∑ y ⎞ ⎛ 0 14 ⎞
e φ tan −1 ⎜
Phase angle ⎟ = tan −1 = 0.72°
⎝ ∑ x⎠ ⎝ 11.07 ⎠
i = i1 + i2 = 11.07 (w t + 0.72°)
(ii) Graphical method: The phasor sum I1 + I 2 is obtained by adding phasors I1 and I 2 by the
parallelogram law as shown in Fig. 4.34.
y

I1 Scale: 1 cm = 2 A

45° I
x
0
60°

I2

Fig. 4.34
 4.6 Phasor Representations of Alternating Quantities 4.25

(b) (i) Analytical method: −I2 y

I1 = 10∠45°
From Fig. 4.35,
Resolving I1 and −I 2 into x- and y-components,
∑ = 10 cos ( 45°) − 8 c ( −60°°) = 3.07
∑ y = 10 sin ( 45°) − 8 si ( −60°°) = 14 60° 45°
x
0 60°
Magnitude of ( ) = (∑ x) + ( 2
y) 2

= ( ..07
07)) 2
(14) 2
= 14.33 A
I2 = 8∠−60°
∑ y⎞
−1 ⎛
Phase angle φ = tan ⎜
⎝ ∑ x ⎟⎠
Fig. 4.35

⎛ 14 ⎞
= tan −1 ⎜ = 77.63
⎝ 3.07 ⎟⎠
i = i1 i2 = 14.33 sin (ω t + 77.63 )

(ii) Graphical method: The phasor sum I1 I 2 is obtained by adding phasors I1 and −I 2 by the
parallelogram law as shown in Fig. 4.36.
y
I

Scale: 1 cm = 2 A

I1
−I2

77.63°
60° 45°
x
0
60°

I2

Fig. 4.36

⎛ π⎞
Example 4.33 Three voltages are represented by v1 = 10 sin ω t, in ω t − ⎟ and
t, v2 = 20 sin
⎝ 6⎠
⎛ π⎞
v3 = 30 sin ω t + ⎟ . Find the magnitude and phase angle of the resultant voltage.
⎝ 4⎠
Solution v1 10 si ω t
⎛ π⎞
v2 0 si ω t − ⎟
20
⎝ 6⎠
⎛ π⎞
v3 30 si ωt + ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
4.26 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Let phasors V1 , V2 and V3 represent the alternating voltages v1, v2 and v3 respectively in terms of their
maximum values.
(a) Analytical method: y
From Fig. 4.37,
Resolving V1 , V2 and V3 into x- and y-components, V3 = 30∠45°
∑ = 10 + 20 cos ( −30°) + 30 cos ( 45°) = 48.53
∑ y = 20 sin ( −30°) + 30 si ( 45°) .21
45°
Magnitude of (V1 V2 + V3 ) = ( ∑ x ) 2 + ( ∑ y ) 2 0 30°
x
V1 = 10∠0°
= (488.53) 2 + (11.21) 2 = 49.81 V
( 48 V2 = 20∠−30°
⎛ ∑ y⎞ ⎛ 11.21 ⎞
Phase angle φ = tan 1 ta 1 13°
⎝ ∑ x⎠ ⎝ 48.53 ⎠ Fig. 4.37
v = 49.81 sin(wt + 13°)
(b) Graphical method: The phasor sum V1 + V2 + V3 is obtained by first adding phasors V1 and V2 by
the parallelogram law and then adding V3 to the resultant of V1 and V2 by the parallelogram law as
shown in Fig. 4.38.
y V3

45°
V1
13°
x
0 30°

V2 V12

Fig. 4.38

Example 4.34 The instantaneous voltages across each of the four coils connected in series are given
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
by v1 = 100 sinw t, v2 = 250 cos w t, v3 = 150 sin ⎜ ω t + ⎟ , v4 = 200 sin ω t − ⎟ . Determine the resultant
⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
voltage by analytical method.

Solution
v1 = 100 sin w t, v2 = 250 cos w t = 250 sin(w t + 90°)
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
v3 150 i t+ v4 200 si ωt − ⎟
⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ 4⎠

Let phasors V1 , V2 , V3 and V4 represent the instantaneous voltages v1, v2, v3, and v4 respectively in terms
of their maximum values as shown in Fig. 4.39.
 4.7 Mathematical Representations of Phasors 4.27

V2
V3

30°
x
0 45° V1

V4

Fig. 4.39

Resolving V1 , V2 V3 and V4 into x- and y-components,

∑ = 100 + 50 cos (90°) + 50 cos (30°) + 200 cos ( −45°) = 371.33
∑ y = 250 sinn (90°)) sin ( ) + 200 sin ( −45°) .58

Magnitude of ( ∑ 2 2 2 2
4414.23 V
⎛ ∑ y⎞ ⎛ 183.58 ⎞
Phase angle φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ = 26.31
⎝ ∑ x⎠ ⎝ 371.33 ⎟⎠
v = v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 414.23 sin (w t + 26.31°)

4.7 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF PHASORS

A phasor can be represented in four forms.
1. Rectangular Form
V = X ± jY

Magnitude of phasor, V X 2 +Y 2
⎛Y ⎞
Phase angle φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝X⎠

2. Trigonometric Form
V =V ( φ ± j sin
in φ )

3. Exponential Form
jφ
V = Ve ±

4. Polar Form
V =V ∠± φ

Significance of Operator j The operator j is used in rectangular form. It is used to indicate anticlockwise
rotation of a phasor through 90°. Mathematically,

j = −1
4.28 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Whenever a phasor is multiplied by j, the phasor is rotated once in the anticlockwise direction through 90°.
The power of j represents the number of times the phasor should be rotated through 90° in the anticlockwise
directon.

Example 4.35 Two sinusoidal currents are given as + 60 ).

Find the expression for the sum of these currents.

Solution i t + 60°)

Writing currents i1 and i2 in the phasor form,

10 2
I1 = ∠0 1 0
2
20 2
I2 = ∠60° = 20 ∠60°
2
0° + 2 ∠ ° = ∠ 9

i t+ = t + 40.89 )

Example 4.36 The following three sinusoidal currents flow into the junction
ω t + 30° ) and i = 6 2 sin( t ). Find the expression for the resultant current which
leaves the junction.

Solution + 30°), − 120°)

Writing currents i1, i2 and i3 in the phasor form,
3 2
I1 0 3∠0°
2
5 2
I2 30 30
2
6 2
I3 6
2
The resultant current which leaves the junction is given by
I ∠ + ∠ 0° + 6 ∠− 120° = ∠− 9°
i − = 1 t− °

Example 4.37 In a circuit, four currents as indicated below, are meeting at a point. Find the resul-
tant current. i1 = 5 sin w t, i2 = 10 sin (w t − 30°)
i3 = 5 cos (w t − 30°) i4 = −10 sin (w t + 45°)
Solution i1 = 5 sin w t, i2 = 10 sin (w t − 30°),
i3 = 5 cos (w t − 30°) = 5 sin (w t + 60°)
i4 = −10 sin (w t + 45°) = 10 sin (w t + 225°)
 4.7 Mathematical Representations of Phasors 4.29

Writing currents i1, i2, i3, and i4 in the phasor form,

5
I1 0 3 54 ∠0°
2
10
I2 = 7 07
2
5
I3 = ∠60° = 3 5 60
2
10
I4 = ∠225 7 07∠225°
2
Re ultant current = ° + 7∠− 30 3 ∠ °+7 ∠225°
= 8.44 ∠−40.36°
i − = sin t . °)

Example 4.38 Find the resultant voltage and its equation for the given voltages.

e1 = 20 sin w t, = 40 cos t+
4 6
Solution

t = os t+ = + 120°)
4 6
Writing voltages e1, e2, and e3 in the phasor form,
20 30 40
= ∠ 21 E3 = ∠120° = 28 ∠120°
2 2 2
Resultant voltage 14 ° ∠− °+ ∠120° = 75 33
e t = sin t+ °

Example 4.39 Obtain the sum of the three voltages.

t v )

Solution t+ = t +188 1°
v t = + , = sin + °
Writing voltages v1, v2 and v3 in the phasor form,
147 3
V1 = ∠188.1° = 104.16 ∠188 1°
2
294 6
V = ∠45° = 208 31 ∠45°
2
8
V = ∠135° = 62 51 ∠135°
2
Re tant voltage = 104 ∠ ∠ 51 ∠ ° = 176 82 ∠90°
v t = . s + °
4.30 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 4.40 Find vectorially the resultant of the following four voltages.

,
6

sin
6

Solution t = °
6

4 = )
6
Writing voltages e1, e2, e3 and e4 in the phasor form,
25
E1 17 68∠
2
30
E2 30° = 21 21∠30°
2
30
E3 = ∠90° °
2
20
E4 = ∠− 3 0°
2
Resultant voltage 21 21 ∠ ° + ∠90° 30
27 13°
e t+ = t+ °

Example 4.41 Two currents are represented by i = 15 sin and i = 25 sin t + t+

3 4
These currents are fed into a common conductor. Find the total current in the form i = Im sin(w t + f). If the
conductor has a resistance of 10 W, what will be the energy loss in 24 hours?

Solution t+
3 4
R = 10 Ω, t = 24 hours = 86400 seconds
Writing currents i1 and i2 in the phasor form,
15
I1 = ∠60° = 10.61∠60°
2
25
I2 = ∠45° = 17.68∠45°
2
Total current ∠ °+ 68 ∠ ° ∠ 62°
i t = 68 t+ °
2
Energy loss in 24 hours, E I Rt where I is the rms value of the current
E × = . × J
 4.7 Mathematical Representations of Phasors 4.31

Example 4.42 The voltage drops across four series-connected impedances are given:

5
−
6 6

v3 , t+ 4)
4
Solution 3
Calculate the values of V4 m and f4 if the voltage applied across the series circuit is 140 sin t+ .
5
5
= sn t 75 s ( )
6 6
3
t = t = t+ = sin ( t + 108 °)
4 5
Writing voltages v1, v2, v3 and v in the phasor form,
60
V1 30° = 42.43∠30°
2
75
V2 − ° = 53 03∠− °
2
100
V = ∠135° = 70.71∠135°
2
140
V= ∠108° = 98.99∠108°
2
For series–connected impedances,
+ V4
− − °− 43∠ ° 150 70 71∠ °= ∠59.96
v t 6 t 59 96°
V m = 80.79 V
4 = . °

Example 4.43 A circuit consists of three parallel branches. The branch currents are given as
i1 = 10 sinw t, i2 = 20 sin(w t + 60°) and i3 = 7.5 sin(w t − 30°). Find the resultant current and express it in the form
i = Im sin(w t + f). If the supply frequency is 50 Hz, calculate the resultant current when (a) t = 0 (b) t = 0.001 s.

Solution i1 = 10 sin w t, i2 = 20 sin (w t + 60°), i3 = 7.5 sin (w t − 30°)

Writing currents i1, i2, i3 in the phasor form,
10
I1 = ∠0 7 07∠0°
2
20
I2 = ∠60 14.14 ∠60°
2
75
Resultant current I3 = ∠ = 5 3∠− °
2
4.32 Network Analysis and Synthesis

1 I1 + I 2 I3
= 7.07 0° + 14.14 ∠60° + 5.3∠− 30° = 21.04 ∠27.13°
i 04 2 si ( t + 27.13°°) = 2299.76 in (ω t + 27.13°)
21.0
(a) Resultant current at t = 0
i = 29.76 si (0 + 27.13°°) = 13.57 A
(b) Resultant current at t = 0.001 s
i ( ft f + 27.13°)
= 29.76 sin ( 2 × 180 × 50 × 0.001 + 7. 3°)
= 21.09
. A
(angle in degrees)

Example 4.44 Two currents, I1 10 ∠ 0°A d I 2 = 5 ∠− 100° A, flow in a single-phase ac circuit.

I1
Estimate (a) I1 I 2 (b) I1 I 2 (c) .
I2

Solution I1 10 ∠50° I 2 = 5∠− 100°A

(a) I1 I 2 = 10 ∠50° + 5∠− 100° = 6.2 ∠ 26.21° A
(b) I1 I 2 = (10
(10 50 ) (5
(5 100 ) = 50 ∠− 50° A
I1 10 ∠50°
(c) = = 2∠150° A
I 2 5∠− 100°

Example 4.45 Two voltages having rms values of 50 V and 75 V have a phase difference of 60°.
Find the resultant sum of these two voltages.

Solution V1 50 V2 = 75 V, φ = 60°
Let V1 = 50 ∠ 0° V
V2 = 75∠− 60° V
Resultant voltage V V1 + V2 = 50 ∠0° + 75∠− 60° = 108.97 ∠
∠− 36.58° V

Example 4.46 Two single-phase alternators supply 300 A and 400 A respectively at a phase
difference of 20° to a common load. Find the resultant current and its phase relation to its component.

Solution I1 300 A I 2 = 400 A, φ = 20°

Let I1 = 300 ∠0° A
I 2 = 400 ∠− 20° A
Resultant current I = I1 + I 2 = 300 ∠0° + 400 ∠− 20° = 689.59∠
∠− 11.44° A

Example 4.47 Two voltage sources have equal emfs and a phase difference α. When they are con-
nected in series, the voltage is 200 V. When one source is reversed, the voltage is 15 V. Find their emfs and
phase angle a.
 4.7 Mathematical Representations of Phasors 4.33

Solution E1 ∠0° E2 = E∠ °, E1 = E2 = E

E2 E2
180°−a
a a
E1 E1
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.40

When two sources are connected in series [Fig. 4.40 (a)],

E12 + E22 + 2 E1 E2 cos α = 200

E 2 + E 2 + 2 E 2 cos α = 200
2E 2 + E 2 cos α = 40000 …(i)

When one source is reversed [Fig. 4.40 (b)],

E12 + E22 − 2 E1 E2 cos α 15

E + E − 2 E cos α
2 2 2
15
2E 2
2 E cos α = 225
2 …(ii)

Adding Eqs (i) and (ii),

4 E 2 = 40225
E 2 = 10056.25
E = 100.28 V
From Eq. (i),
2 2
+ 2 E 2 cos α = 40000
20112.5 + 20112.5 cos α = 40000
cos α 0.988
α = 8.58°

Example 4.48 Two sinusoidal sources of emf have rms values of E1 and E2 and a phase difference
of a . When connected in series, the resultant voltage is 41.1 V. When one of the sources is reversed, the
resultant emf is 17.52 V. When phase displacement is made zero, the resultant emf is 42.5 V. Calculate E1,
E2 and a.

Solution E1 1∠0°, E2 = E2 ∠α °
E2 E2
180°−a
a a E1 E2
E1 E1
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4.41
4.34 Network Analysis and Synthesis
When two sources are connected in series [Fig. 4.41 (a)],
E12 + E22 + 2 E1 E2 cos α 41.1
41
E12 + E22 + 2 E1 E2 cos α = 1689.21 …(i)

When one of the sources is reversed [Fig. 4.41 (b)],

E12 + E22 − 2 E1 E2 cos α 17.52
17
E12 + E22 − 2 E1 E2 cos α = 306.95 …(ii)
When phase displacement is made zero [Fig. 4.41 (c)],
E12 + E22 + 2 E1 E2 s 0° = 42.5
E1 E2 = 42.5
E1 42 E2 …(iii)
Adding Eqs (i) and (ii),
2 2
2( 1 2) = 1996.16
E12 + E22 = 998.08
From Eq. (iii),
( .5 − E2 ) 2 2
.08
1806.25 − 85 E2 + E22 + E22 = 998.08
E22 − 42.5 E2 + 404.09 = 0 …(iv)
Solving Eq. (iv),
E2 28 14 E2 = 14.36 V
E1 14 36 E1 = 28.14 V
Subtracting Eq. (ii) from Eq. (i),
4 E1 E2 cos α 1382.26
4 14.36 28.14 cos α 1382.26
cos α 0.855
α = 31.24°

4.8 BEHAVIOUR OF A PURE RESISTOR IN AN ac CIRCUIT

Consider a pure resistor R connected across an alternating voltage source v as shown in Fig. 4.42. Let the
alternating voltage be v = Vm sin w t.
R

vR

v = Vm sin w t

Fig. 4.42 Purely resistive circuit