ETEC 2273

Applied Electricity

Lesson 01 - AC Waveforms

Lectures by: Ms. Nimesha Fernando

BSc. Eng (Hons)
 • Magnitude varies in both directions
AC Waveform in an even manner with respect to
the time

• “Bi-directional” Waveforms

• Constantly changing its polarity

every half cycle alternating between
a positive maximum value and a
negative maximum value
respectively with regards to time
AC Waveforms
 Characteristics of AC Waveforms

Instantaneous value - The magnitude of a waveform at any instant

in time (or position of rotation). Instantaneous values are denoted by
lower-case symbols such as e, v and i.

Peak value - The maximum instantaneous value measured from its

zero value is known as its peak value.
 Characteristics of AC Waveforms

Peak-to-peak value - The maximum variation between the

maximum positive instantaneous value and the maximum negative
instantaneous value is the peak-to-peak value. For a sinusoidal
waveform, this is twice the peak value. The peak-to-peak value is
Epp or Vpp or Ipp.

Cycle- Each repetition of a variable quantity, recurring at equal

intervals, is termed a cycle.
 Characteristics of AC Waveforms

Period (T)- The duration of one cycle is termed its period. (Cycles and
periods need not commence when a waveform is zero. Above figure
illustrates a variety of situations in which the cycle and period have
identical values.)

Frequency (f) - The number of cycles that occur in 1 second is termed

the frequency of that quantity. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz)
 AC Waveforms – Mean Value

Mean Value - The direct component of the waveform.

Mean value using Graphical Method

𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉20
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
20
 AC Waveforms – Mean Value

Mean Value - The direct component of the waveform.

Mean value using Analytical Method

If the function of a voltage waveform V= 𝑓(𝑡)

Then;
1 𝑇+𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎[𝑓 𝑡 ]
𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ‫𝑡׬‬ 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 𝑇
 AC Waveforms – Average Value

Average Value: mean value of the rectified waveform over a complete

cycle.

Average value using Graphical Method

|𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠|

Average 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

𝑉1 + ⋯ + 𝑉10 − (𝑉11 + ⋯ + 𝑉20)

Average 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
20
 AC Waveforms –Average Value

Average Value: mean value of the rectified waveform over a complete

cycle.

Average value using Analytical Method

If the function of a voltage waveform V= 𝑓(𝑡)

Then;
1 𝑇+𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎[|𝑓 𝑡 |]
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = න |𝑓 𝑡 |𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 𝑡 𝑇
AC Waveforms –Root Mean Square (RMS) Value

The square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the values,
or the square of the function that defines the continuous waveform.

RMS value using Graphical Method

𝑉12 + 𝑉22 + ⋯ 𝑉𝑛2

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑛
AC Waveforms – Root Mean Square (RMS) Value

The square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the values,
or the square of the function that defines the continuous waveform.

RMS value using Analytical Method

If the function of a voltage waveform V= 𝑓(𝑡)

1ൗ 2
𝑇+𝑡 2
1 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎[ 𝑓 𝑡 ]
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑓(𝑡) =
𝑇 𝑡 𝑇
 AC Waveforms – Crest Factor

Crest Factor -the ratio between the Peak value and the R.M.S. value
of the waveform.

If the function of a voltage waveform V= 𝑓(𝑡)

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉
𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉
 Examples 01

Find the average value, mean value, rms value and the crest factor of
following waveforms
 Examples 01

Find the average value, mean value, rms value and the crest factor of
following waveforms

Cycle span = 0s – 6s
Period of the cycle = 6s

Area of the cycle = (4x3)+ (-4x3)

= 0 Vs

Area of the rectified cycle = (4x3)-(-4x3)

= 24 Vs

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

• Mean value = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
=0 Vs/6 s =0 V

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

• Average value = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
=24 Vs/6 s =4 V
 Examples 01

Cycle span = 0s – 3s
Period of the cycle = 3s

2
Rectified waveform equation 𝑓 𝑡 = 42 = 16
2
Area of squared function waveform for one cycle (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎[ 𝑓 𝑡 = (16x3)
= 48 𝑉 2 s

• RMS Value 16
2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎[ 𝑓 𝑡 ] 48 𝑉 2𝑠
= =
𝑇 3𝑠
0 3 6

=4V
 Examples 02

Find the average value, mean value, RMS value and crest factor of the
following waveforms

2E

0 2T T 2T t(s)
-E 3
 Examples 02
v

2E Cycle span = 0 –T
Period of the cycle = T

3𝐸𝑡
F(t) = 2𝐸-
0 T 2T t(s)
-E 𝑇

t
 Examples 02
v

Cycle span = 0 –T
2E
Period of the cycle = T

3𝐸𝑡
0 T 2T F(t) = 2𝐸-
t(s) 𝑇
-E
 Examples 02
v

Cycle span = 0 –T
2E
Period of the cycle = T

3𝐸𝑡
0 T 2T F(t) = 2𝐸-
t(s) 𝑇
-E
 Examples 02
v

Cycle span = 0 –T
2E
Period of the cycle = T

3𝐸𝑡
0 2T T 2T F1(t) = 2𝐸-
t(s) 𝑇
-E 3
3𝐸𝑡
F2(t) = 𝑇
− 2𝐸
 Examples 02
v

2E Cycle span = 0 –T
Period of the cycle = T

3𝐸𝑡
F(t) = 2𝐸-
0 T 2T t(s)
-E 𝑇

t
 Examples 03

Calculate the rms value and the crest factor

sine

Vm

θ
π 2π
 Examples 03
sine

Vm

θ
π 2π

F(t) = Vm sin 
Solution
▪Cycle spans from 0 to π sine part

Vm (1 − cos 2 )
2
 
As =  Vm sin 2 d =  d
2
0 0 2
 Examples 03
sine

Vm

θ
π 2π
 Sinusoidal Waveforms

The usual waveform of alternating current system in most electrical power

circuits is a sine wave, whose positive half-period corresponds with
positive direction of the current or voltage and vice versa.

• Amplitude (A)

• Period (T)

• Frequency (f)

T = 1/f
 Sinusoidal Waveforms
Equation for a Sine Wave

V(ɷt) = A Sin(ɷt)

V(θ) = A Sin(θ)

A= the amplitude, maximum value, or peak value

ω = the radian or angular frequency
ωt = the argument of the sine function
ɷ = 2πf
 Sinusoidal Waveforms
Phase Shift

 The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement

that specifies the position of a sine wave relative to a
reference.
 To show that a sine wave is shifted to the left or right of
this reference, a term is added to the equation given
previously.
Y = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏(ɷ𝒕 ± 𝝋)
Y = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏(θ ± 𝝋)

𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏(θ − 𝝋) 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏(θ + 𝝋)
 Sinusoidal Waveforms
Example

Determine the instantaneous value at 90° on the horizontal axis for each voltage
sine wave
 Sinusoidal Waveforms
Example

Equation of a sine wave: 𝒚 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊 𝒏 θ ± 𝝋

Waveform A; 𝑦 = 10 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 θ + 0
when 𝜃 = 90°; 𝑦 = 10 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 90° + 0 = 10V

Waveform B; 𝑦 = 5 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 θ + 20°
when 𝜃 = 90°; 𝑦 = 5 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 90° + 20° = 4.7V

Waveform C; 𝑦 = 8 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 θ − 45°
when 𝜃 = 90°; 𝑦 = 8 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 90° − 45° = 5.66V