Electric Circuits

EEPx82
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 Introduction to Electric circuits

DC circuits
• Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff's laws
Course • Simple resistive circuit analysis

Outlines • Analysis techniques

• Circuit theorems
Single phase AC circuits

Three phase AC circuits

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Electric Circuits
AC Circuits

Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis

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 Outlines

9.1 Sinusoids’ features

9.2 Phasors
9.3 Phasors for circuit elements
9.4 Impedance and admittance
9.5 Kirchhoff’s laws in the frequency domain
9.5 Impedance combinations
 Transformers and Transmission of Power

Transformers work only if the current is changing; this is one reason why
electricity is transmitted as ac.
The primary reason that power is transmitted at high voltages is to
increase efficiency. As electricity is transmitted over long distances,
there are inherent energy losses along the way. ... The higher the voltage,
the lower the current. The lower the current, the lower the resistance
losses in the conductors.
Why AC systems are preferred over DC systems?
a. It is easy to maintain and change the voltage of AC electricity for
transmission and distribution.
b. Plant cost for AC transmission (circuit breakers, transformers etc)
is much lower than the equivalent DC transmission
c. From power stations, AC is produced so it is better to use AC then
DC instead of converting it.
d. When a large fault occurs in a network, it is easier to interrupt in an
AC system, as the sine wave current will naturally tend to zero at
some point making the current easier to interrupt.
Alternating current (AC) is an electric current which periodically reverses direction
and changes its magnitude continuously with time in contrast to direct current (DC)
which flows only in one direction.

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 9.1 Sinusoids
• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine
function.
• A general expression for the sinusoid, v(t ) = Vm sin(t +  )

1
f = Hz
T

 = 2f where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
T= Period of the sinusoid (time for one complete cycle)
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s

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9.1 Sinusoids
A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT), for
all t and for all integers n.

Ф = the phase 2
T=


1
f = Hz
T
• Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be
compared by their amplitude and phase difference.  = 2f
• If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase
difference is not zero, they are out of phase. 11
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Example 1
v(t ) = Vm sin(t +  )

Given a sinusoid, , calculate its

amplitude, phase, angular frequency, period, and
frequency.

 = 2f

Solution:
1
Amplitude = 6, phase = –45o, angular frequency f = Hz
T
= 4 rad/s, Period = 0.5 s, frequency = 2 Hz.

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 Sine wave voltage and current values
There are several ways to specify the voltage of a sinusoidal voltage waveform. The
amplitude of a sine wave is also called the peak value, abbreviated as VP for a
voltage waveform.

20 V

15 V

10 V VP
The peak voltage of this
waveform is 20 V. 0V t (s)
0 25 37.5 50.0

Find average value? -10 V

-15 V

Find rms value? -20 V

Average Value
➢ The average value of a whole sinusoidal
waveform over one complete cycle is zero
as the two halves cancel each other out.

➢ so the average value is taken over half a

cycle. The average value of a sine wave of
voltage or current is 0.637 times the peak
value, (Vp or Ip).

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Average Value of a sinusoid over a half cycle:
Root mean square value (rms)
RMS value is defined as the equivalent value
of DC that generates the same amount of heat
as the AC wave and is given by:

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Root mean square value (rms)

The RMS value is the effective value of AC

voltage or current. It is the equivalent to steady
DC(constant) value which gives the same effect.
For example, a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC
supply will shine with the same brightness when
connected to a steady 6V DC supply.

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Root mean square value (rms)

Another example, that is, if an AC sine wave has

a RMS value of 240 volts, it will provide the same
energy to a circuit as a DC supply of 240 volts. It
can be shown that the RMS value of a sine wave
is 0.707 of the peak value. Also, the peak value of
a sine wave is equal to 1.414 x the RMS value.

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Example

Find the average and the rms values for the

sinusoidal voltage shown in the figure ?

20 V

15 V
Average
voltage=12.74 V. 10 V
Vavg
0V t (s)
0 25 37.5 50.0
Rms voltage14.14
-10 V
-15 V

-20 V
Remember:

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Example 2
Find the phase angle between i1 = −4 sin(377t + 25 ) and
o

,i2 = 5 cos(377t − 40o ) does i1 lead or lag i2?

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9.2 Phasor

• A phasor is a complex number that represents

the amplitude or rms value and phase of a
sinusoid.

• It can be represented in one of the following

three forms:

a. Rectangular z = x + jy = r (cos  + j sin  )

b. Polar z = r 
c. Exponential z = re j r= x2 + y2
where y
 = tan −1
x
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9.2 Phasor

Example 3
• Evaluate the following complex numbers:

a.
[(5 + j2)(−1 + j4) − 5 60o ]
b. 10 + j5 + 340o
+ 10 30o
− 3 + j4

Solution:
a. –15.5 + j13.67
b. 8.293 + j2.2

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 9.2 Phasors
Let: 𝒁𝟏 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒋𝒚𝟏 𝒁𝟏 = 𝒓𝟏 ∠𝝓𝟏 𝒁𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒋𝒚𝟐 𝒁𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 ∠𝝓𝟐

Mathematic operation of complex number:

1. Addition z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + x 2 ) + j ( y1 + y 2 )

2. Subtraction z1 − z 2 = ( x1 − x2 ) + j ( y1 − y2 )

3. Multiplication z1 z 2 = r1r2  1 + 2
z1 r
4. Division = 1 1 −  2
z2 r2

5. Reciprocal 1 1
=  −
z r
6. Square root z = r  2
7. Complex conjugate z  = x − jy = r  −  = re− j

8. Euler’s identity e  j = cos  j sin 

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9.2 Phasor

• Transform a sinusoid to and from the time domain to the

phasor domain:

(time domain) (phasor domain)

• Root mean square and phase difference are two principal

concerns in the study of voltage and current sinusoids.
• Phasor will be defined from the sine function in all our
proceeding study.

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Phasor Diagram
Imaginary axis
V

Leading direction

Real axis
Lagging direction

I
9.2 Phasor

The differences between v(t) and V:

• v(t) is instantaneous or time-domain representation
V is the frequency or phasor-domain representation.
• v(t) is time dependent; V is not.
• v(t) is always real with no complex term; V is generally complex.

Note: Phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant;

when it is applied to two or more sinusoid signals only if they
have the same frequency.

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 The Passive circuit elements in the frequency domain

1.The V-I relationship in the resistor

In phasor
Then the voltage across R is

The phasor transform of this voltage 𝑹𝑰𝒎

is 𝑽= ∠𝜽𝒊
√𝟐

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The V-I relationship in the resistor

Voltage and current waveforms for

Phasor diagram for a resistor resistor

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2. The V-I Relationship in inductor

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Please note that:
The V-I Relationship in inductor

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3.The V-I Relationship in a capacitor

The current in a capacitor is:

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The V-I Relationship in a capacitor

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9.3 Phasor (8)

Relationship between differential, integral operation

in phasor listed as follow:

v(t ) V = V
dv
dt jV

V
 vdt j
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 9.4 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
Resistor: Capacitor:
Inductor:

𝟏 𝑰
𝒗= න 𝒊 𝒅𝒕 𝑽=
𝑪 𝒋𝝎𝑪

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9.4 Phasor Relationships
for Circuit Elements (2)
Summary of voltage-current relationship
Element Time domain Frequency domain

R
v = Ri V = RI

L v=L
di
V = jLI
dt
C i=C
dv V=
I
dt jC

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Converting this to the time domain:

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9.4 Impedance and Admittance

• The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor

voltage V to the phasor current I, measured in ohms Ω.
V
Z = = R + jX
I
where R = Re, Z is the resistance and X = Im, Z is the
reactance. Positive X is for L and negative X is for C.

• The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance,

measured in siemens (S).
1 I
Y= =
Z V 41
9.4 Phasor Relationships
for Circuit Elements (2)
Summary of voltage-current relationship
Element Time domain Frequency domain

R
v = Ri V = RI

L v=L
di
V = jLI
dt
C i=C
dv V=
I
dt jC

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9.4 Impedance and Admittance

Impedances and admittances of passive elements

Element Impedance Admittance
R 1
Z=R Y=
R
L 1
Z = jL Y=
jL
C 1
Z = Y = jC
jC

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 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋

𝟏 −𝒋
𝑿𝑳 = 𝒋𝝎𝑳 𝑿𝑪 =
𝒋𝝎𝑪
𝒐𝒓
𝝎𝑪

1
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝜔𝐿 − )
𝜔𝐶

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9.4 Impedance and Admittance
dc
 = 0; Z = 0
ac Z = jL
 → ; Z → 

 = 0; Z → 
dc 1
Z=
jC
ac  → ; Z = 0

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9.4 Impedance and Admittance

After we know how to convert RLC components

from time to phasor domain, we can transform
a time domain circuit into a phasor/frequency
domain circuit.
Hence, we can apply the KCL laws and other
theorems to directly set up phasor equations
involving our target variable(s) for solving.

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The voltage across the capacitor is:

Converting V and I to the time domain we get:

What is the phase difference between v and I

across the capacitor?
9.5 Kirchhoff’s Laws
in the Frequency Domain (1)
• Both KVL and KCL are hold in the phasor
domain or more commonly called frequency
domain.

• Moreover, the variables to be handled are

phasors, which are complex numbers.

• All the mathematical operations involved are

now in complex domain.

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9.5 Impedance Combinations

• The following principles used for DC circuit

analysis all apply to AC circuit.

• For example:
a. voltage division
b. current division
c. circuit reduction
d. impedance equivalence
e. Y-Δ transformation

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Example
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