Filters 1

Filters and
Attenuators 13
Chapter objectives
After carefully studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
Explain the basic function of a filter Solve problems on constant K-type
circuit. filters.
Distinguish between a passive filter Make comparison of parameters of
and an active filter. constant K-type low-pass and high-
Classify passive filters and explain pass filters.
function of each type of filter. State the limitations of constant K-type
Explain the parameters of a filter. filters.
Draw and explain basic filter networks Modify constant K-type filters to obtain
in T and p sections. m-derived filters.
Carryout analysis of filter networks in Analyse all types of m-derived filters.
both T-section and p -section. Develop composite filters using con-
Make analysis of constant K-type or stant K-type and m-derived filters.
proto-type filters.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A filter blocks unwanted signals or noise signals and passes wanted or desired signals. A filter is
basically frequency selective network that allows signals of a particular band of frequencies and
rejects or attenuates signals of other frequencies. For example, a low-pass filter (LPF) passes
low frequency signals and attenuates all frequencies above a selected cut-off frequency.
A high-pass filter (HPF) network will pass only those input signals whose frequencies are
above the selected cut-off frequency.
A band-pass filter (BPF) passes signals of a selected frequency band, while a band-stop filter
(BSF) blocks frequencies within its band. The band of frequencies passed by a filter is called
pass band and the band of frequency that separates pass band and stop band of a filter is called
cut-off frequency. Figure 13.1 shows various types of filters, their input and output wave forms
and also their frequency response.
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586 Network Analysis and Synthesis
An LPF passes low frequency signals and blocks or attenuates signals that have frequen-
cies above a given cut-off frequency ( fc). The input wave form for an LPF, as shown in Figure
13.1(a), is composed of a low frequency signal and high frequency unwanted signal. The filter
will allow the low frequency signal. This low frequency signal will appear at the output of the
filter. However, the high frequency unwanted signal (noise signal) will be stopped or drastically
reduced at the output.
Gain
Input signal Output signal Vo

Vi Pass-
Low-pass Vo band
Vi
filter
f
fc
Input signal Low-pass filter network Output signal Frequency response
∝
Attenuation
Pass-band
fc f
Figure 13.1(a) Low-Pass Filter

V 
The gain  o  versus frequency ( f ) response graph for the filter and the attenuation versus
 Vi 
frequency response have been shown in the Figure.
An HPF allows high frequency input signals and stops or attenuates the low frequency sig-
nals as shown in Figure 13.1(b).
Vi Vo
High-pass Vo
filter Vi
Input signal Output signal
fc f
Frequency response
Figure 13.1(b) High-Pass Filter
Wave forms of BPF and BSF have been shown in Figure 13.1(c) and (d), respectively.
Band-pass Vo
filter Vi
f
f1 f2
Figure 13.1(c) Band-Pass Filter

Filters and Attenuators 587
Vo
Vi
Band-stop
filter
f
f1 f2
Figure 13.1(d) Band-Stop Filter
13.1.1 Measurement in Decibels

The change in the output from a filter is measured in decibels (dB). The decibel is one-tenth of
a bel. Since bel is large, the unit of decibel is used. Let the output voltage of a filter unit changes
from v1 to v2 as the frequency changes. The change in power is expressed as the log of the ratio
of power that changes from p1 to p2. The change in power (DP) is expressed as follows:
P 
∆P = log  2  Bel
 P1 
P 
∆P = 10 log  2  dB (13.1)
 P1 
If power is assumed to be dissipated in the load resistance RL, then DP is given as in the following:
 v 2 ÷ RL 
∆P = 10 log  22  dB
 v1 ÷ RL 
2
v 
or ∆P = 10 log  2  dB
v 1
V2
or ∆P = 20 log dB (13.2)
V1
Assuming power as i2 RL, DP can be expressed as follows:
i2
∆P = 20 log
dB (13.3)
i1
The change in output power, voltage and current can be measured using the above three
expressions respectively.
13.2 TYPES OF FILTERS

Basically filters are of two types: Active filters and Passive filters.
Active filters are the filters having active elements like OP-AMP and transistor, in addition
to resistor and capacitor. An active filter not only passes or stops a particular band of frequency
but also amplifies the signal that passes through it.
Passive filters are made up of only passive components like inductor and capacitor. Such
filters cannot amplify the signal that passes through them.
In this chapter, we will describe passive filters only.

13.3 CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE FILTERS

On the basis of functions they perform, passive filters are classified as follows:
1. Low-Pass Filters (LPF)
2. High-Pass Filters (HPF)
3. Band-Pass Filters (BPF)
4. Band-Stop Filters (BSF)
13.3.1 Low-Pass Filters

These are the filters that pass all the frequen- Attenuation
cies lower than the selected cut-off frequency fc
and attenuate/stop/suppress the signals whose
frequency is greater than fc. Attenuation char- Pass band Stop band
acteristic for an ideal LPF is shown in Figure
13.2. From the attenuation characteristic of the
LPF, it is clear that attenuation is zero in pass 0
fc Frequency
band and attenuation of signal is maximum in
Cut off frequency
stop band.
It is to be noted that the characteristic shown Figure 13.2 Attenuation Characteristic
is for an ideal LPF. For the low-pass filter the of an LPF
pass-band is from 0 to fc and stop-band is from
fc to ∞.
13.3.2 High-Pass Filters Attenuation

It is a filter that passes all the signals whose fre-
quency is higher than the cut-off frequency and
Stop band Pass band
stops the signals whose frequency is less than fc.
The attenuation characteristics of HPF is shown
0
in Figure 13.3. fc Frequency
Therefore, for a high-pass filter (HPF) the pass
Figure 13.3 Attenuation
band is from fc to ∞ and the stop-band is from 0 to fc. Characteristic of an HPF
13.3.3 Band-Pass Filters

It is a filter that passes a particular band of frequencies and stops all other frequencies.
It has two cut-off frequencies: lower cut-off frequency ( f1) and higher cut-off frequency ( f2).
This filter passes all those signals whose frequency lies inside the band f1 to f2 and stops all other
frequency signals. The attenuation characteristics for BPF is shown in Figure 13.4. Therefore,
for a BPF, the following are given:
Pass band: f1 to f2
Stop band: 0 to f1 and f2 to ∞.

Attenuation
Stop band Pass band Stop band
0
f1 f2 Frequency
Figure 13.4 Attenuation Characteristic of a BPF
13.3.4 Band-Stop or Band-Elimination Filter

It is a filter that stops particular band of frequencies and passes all other frequencies. It is just
opposite to that of a band-pass filter (BPF). The attenuation characteristics for a band-stop filter
is shown in Figure 13.5.
Attenuation
Pass band Stop band Pass band
0
f1 f2 Frequency
Figure 13.5 Attenuation Characteristic of a Band-Stop Filter
Therefore, for a BPF, the following are given:

Pass band: 0 to f1 and f2 to ∞
Stop band: f1 to f2.
13.4 PARAMETERS OF A FILTER

There are four important parameters that are necessary to analyse the performance of a filter
network. They are as follows:
1. Propagation constant g
2. Attenuation constant a
3. Phase shift constant b
4. Characteristic impedance Z0

13.4.1 Propagation Constant (f ) I1 I2
For any two-port network terminated by characteristic

Two-port
impedance Z0, as shown in Figure 13.6, we can write the V1 V2 Z0
network
following:
I1 V1 Figure 13.6 A Two-port
= = eg
I2 V2 Network
Terminated by
I1 V Characteristics
g = loge = loge 1
I2 V2 Impedance Z0
where g is known as propagation constant. Propagation
constant determines the propagation performance of any two-port network.
Moreover,
g = a + j b (13.4)
where a is real part of g and is known as attenuation constant of the filter, and b is imaginary
part of g and is known as phase constant.
13.4.2 Attenuation Constant

Whenever a signal passes through a passive network/filter, it gets attenuated, because passive
components like capacitors and inductors consume some of the signal energy. The attenuation
constant determines the attenuation of the signal when it passes through the filter.
Units of Attenuation
Attenuation can be expressed in decibels or nepers.
Neper: It is defined as the natural log of the ratio of input current or voltage or power to the
output current or voltage or power.
I1 V 1 P
Neper( N ) = loge = loge 1 = loge 1
I2 V2 2 P2
Decibel: It is defined as the ten times the common log of the ratio of input current/voltage/power
and output current/voltage/power.
Decibel (D) can be written as follows:
I1 V P
D = 20 log10 = 20 log10 1 = 20 log10 1 (13.5)
I2 V2 P2
Relation Between Nepers and Decibel
Attenuation in decibels
Attenuation in Nepers = (13.6)
8.686
= 0.115 × Attenuation in decibels

13.4.3 Phase Shift Constant (a )

When the signal passes through the filter, it gets some shift in phase. Phase shift constant signi-
fies the phase shift in the signal when it passes through the filter.
Units of Phase Shift

The unit of phase shift is radians or degrees. The relation between radians and degrees can be
written as follows:
p radians = 180°
13.4.4 Characteristic Impedance (Z0)

Characteristic impedance is the image impedance of a two-port network. For symmetric net-
works, the image impedance at port 1−1′ is equal to the image impedance at port 2−2′. They are
equal to the characteristic impedance Z0.
13.5 FILTER NETWORKS

A filter is constructed from reactive elements such as inductors and capacitors. Filter produces
no attenuation to pass band or transmission band and provides complete attenuation to all
other frequencies called attenuation band or stop band. Filters are used in the communication
systems.
Filters are made of symmetrical T- or p-Sections. T- and p-Sections are the combination of
asymmetrical L networks, as shown in Figures 13.7 and 13.8, respectively.
13.5.1 Formation of Symmetrical T-Network
Z1 Z1
2 2
2Z2 + 2Z2
Asymmetrical L Asymmetrical L
network for T-section network for T-section
Z1 Z1
2 2 2Z2 × 2Z2 4Z22
2Z2 2Z2 = = = Z2
2Z2 + 2Z2 4Z2
Symmetrical T-section
Figure 13.7 Symmetrical and T-section Network is Made from
Asymmetrical L-networks

13.5.2 Formation of Symmetrical o-Network

Z1 Z1
2 2
2Z2 + 2Z2
Asymmetrical L-network Asymmetrical L-network
Z1 Z1
+ = Z1
2Z2 2 2 2Z2
Asymmetrical p-Network
Figure 13.8 Symmetrical p-Network Made from Asymmetrical L-networks
13.5.3 Ladder Network

A ladder network is a cascade or series connection of many T- and p-Sections. There are two
types of ladder networks.
1. T-section ladder network.
2. p-Section ladder network.
These are shown in Figures 13.9 and 13.10, respectively.
T-section Ladder Network
It is formed by connecting many T-sections in series, as shown in Figure 13.9.
Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
2 2 2 2 2 2
Z2 Z2 Z2
T-section T-section T-section
Z1 Z 1 Z1 Z1 Z1
+ = Z1
2 2 2 2
Z2 Z2 Z2
Figure 13.9 T-section Ladder Network

p-Section Ladder Network

It is formed by connecting several sections of p-networks in cascade, as shown in Figure 13.10.
Z1 Z1 Z1
2Z2 2Z2 2Z2 2Z2 2Z2 2Z2
Z1 Z1 Z1
2Z2 2Z2 2Z2 = Z2 Z2 2Z2
Figure 13.10 p -Section Ladder Network
13.6 ANALYSIS OF FILTER NETWORKS

In this section, we will explain how the basic parameters of T- and p-networks are determined.
13.6.1 Symmetrical T-network

We know that the basic parameters of a filter network are its 2
1
characteristic impedance, propagation constant, attenuation Z1 Z1
constant and phase shift constant. These are calculated as 2 Z2 2 Z0
follows.
Characteristic Impedance (Z0) 1′
2′
If a two-port network is symmetrical, the image impedance
Figure 13.11 A T-network
Zi1 at port 1-1′ is equal to the image impedance Zi2 at port
2-2′ and that image impedance is called the characteristic
impedance Z0.
When the network is terminated with Z0 (characteristic impedance), then input impedance
Zin = Z0(13.7)
Consider the T-network shown in Figure 13.11.
The input impedance of the T-network shown in figure is written as follows:
 Z 
Z 2  Z0 + 1 
Z   Z   Z  2
Zin = 1 +  Z 2  Z0 + 1   = 1 +
2   2  2 Z
Z 2 + Z0 + 1
2

Z1Z 2
Z1 Z 2 Z0 + 2
= +
2 Z
Z0 + Z 2 + 1
2
Z1 ZZ
Z 2 Z0 + 1 2
= 2 + 2
1 Z
Z0 + Z 2 + 1
2
Z1  Z1  ZZ
 Z0 + Z 2 +  + Z 2 Z0 + 1 2
2  2  2
=
Z1
Z0 + Z 2 +
2
2
Z1Z0 Z1Z 2 Z1 ZZ
+ + + Z 2 Z0 + 1 2
Zin = 2 2 4 2
Z1
Z0 + Z 2 +
2
Now, substitute Zin = Z0 (using equation (13.7))
Z1Z0 Z1Z 2 Z12 ZZ

+ + + Z 2 Z0 + 1 2
Characteristics impedance Z0 = 2 2 4 2
Z1
Z0 + Z 2 +
2
2
Z Z ZZ ZZ Z ZZ
Z02 + Z0 Z 2 + 0 1 = 1 0 + 1 2 + 1 + Z 2 Z0 + 1 2
2 2 2 4 2
Z1Z 2 Z12 Z1Z 2
Z02 = + +
2 4 2
2
Z
Z02 = 1 + Z1Z 2
4
Z1 2
Z0 = + Z1Z 2 (13.8)
4
The expression is for characteristic impedance of a T-network.
Z0 (characteristic impedance) can also be expressed
Z1 Z1 in terms of ZOC (open-circuit impedance) and ZSC (short-
ZOC
2 Z2 2 I = 0 circuit impedance).
Open
Let us find open-circuit impedance of T-network. From
circuit
Figure 13.12, it is observed that the open-circuit impedance
Figure 13.12 Open-circuit is written as follows:
Impedance of a Z
ZOC = 1 + Z 2 (13.9)
T-Network 2

From Figure 13.13, the short-circuit impedance of the

T-network is calculated as follows: Z1 Z1
2 Z2 2 Short
ZSC
circuit
Z1  Z1 
ZSC = + Z
2  2 2 
Figure13.13 Short-circuit
 Z1  Impedance of a
⋅Z
Z1  2  2 T-network
= +
2 Z1
+ Z2
2
Z1 Z1Z 2
= 2 + 2
1 Z1
+ Z2
2
Z12 Z1Z 2 Z1Z 2
+ +
= 4 2 2
Z1
+ Z2
2
Z12
+ Z1Z 2
or ZSC = 4 (13.10)
Z1
+ Z2
2
Multiplying equations (13.9) and (13.10), we get the following:
 Z12 
 4 + Z1Z 2 
Z   
ZOC ZSC =  1 + Z2  ⋅
 2  Z1
+ Z2
2
Z12
ZOC ZSC = + Z1Z 2
4
Z12
or ZOC ZSC = + Z1Z 2
4
= ZOT (using equation (13.8))
Therefore, the characteristic impedance for a T-network, ZOT is given as follows:
ZOT = ZOC ZSC (13.11)

Z1 Z1 Propagation Constant (g )
2 2 2 As shown in Figure 13.14, I1, I2, V1 and V2 are input
1
current, output current, input voltage and output
voltage, respectively.
V1 I Z2 II Z0 V2
Applying KVL in mesh II, as shown in Figure
I1 I2 13.14(a), we get the following:
1′ Mesh I Mesh II 2′
Z1
Figure13.14(a) A Symmetrical Z 2 ( I 2 − I1 ) + I +I Z =0
2 2 2 0
T-network
Z
Connected to a or − I1Z 2 + I 2 Z 2 + 1 I 2 + I 2 Z0 = 0
Load Impedance Z0 2
 Z 
or I1Z 2 = I 2  Z 2 + 1 + Z0 
 2 
Z1
I1 Z 2 + 2 + Z0
or = (13.12)
I2 Z2
Now, by definition, we get the following form:
I1
= eg
I2
Substituting this value in equation (13.12), the following form can be obtained:
Z1
Z2 + + Z0
eg = 2
Z2
Z1
or Z2 + + Z0 = eg Z 2
2
Z1
Z0 = eg Z 2 − Z 2 −
or 2
Z
Z0 = Z 2 (eg − 1) − 1
2
Z12
We have Z0 =
+ Z1Z 2 (for T-network)
4
Substituting this value in the equation, we get the following form:
Z12 Z
+ Z1Z 2 = Z 2 (eg − 1) − 1
4 2
Squaring both sides, the equation can be written as follows:
2
Z 12  Z 
+ Z 1Z 2 =  Z 2 (eg − 1) − 1 
4  2

Z12 Z2 Z Z2
or + Z1Z 2 = Z 22 (eg − 1) 2 + 1 − 2 Z 2 (eg − 1) ⋅ 1 + 1
4 4 2 4
or Z1Z 2 = Z 22 (eg − 1) 2 − Z1Z 2 (eg − 1)
or Z1Z 2 + Z1Z 2 (eg − 1) = Z 22 (eg − 1) 2
Z1Z 2 [1 + eg − 1] = Z 22 (eg − 1) 2
or Z1Z 2 eg = Z 22 (eg − 1) 2
Z1Z 2 e l
(eg − 1) 2 =
or Z 22
Z1 g Z1
(eg − 1) 2 = e =
Z2 Z 2 e −g
Z1
or e 2g + 1 − 2eg =
Z 2 e −g
Z
or e −g (e 2g + 1 − 2eg ) = 1
Z2
Z1
or eg + e −g − 2 =
Z2
Z1
or eg + e −g = +2
Z2
Dividing both sides by 2, we get the following:
eg + e −g Z
= 1 +1
2 2Z2
 e + e 
q q
Z1
or cosh g = 1 + ∵ = cosh q  (13.13)
2Z2  2 
g Z q
or 1 + 2 sinh 2 = 1+ 1 ∵ coshq = 1 + 2 sinh 2
2 2Z2 2
g Z
or 2 sinh 2 = 1
2 2Z 2
g Z
or sinh 2 = 1
2 4Z2
g Z1
or sinh =
2 4Z2

g Z1
or = sinh −1
2 4Z2
Z1
or g = 2 sinh −1 (13.14)
4Z 2
This is the required expression for propagation constant of symmetrical T-network.
Attenuation Constant (a ) and Phase Shift Constant (b )

From equation (13.14), propagation constant is a complex function represented as g = a + jb.
The real part a is a measure of change in the magnitude of the current or the voltage in the
network and the imaginary part b is a measure of difference in the phase between the input and
output currents or voltages.
g Z1
sinh =
2 4Z2
Substituting g = a + jb, in the equation, we get the following:
 a + jb  Z1
sinh  =
 2  4Z2
a b Z1
or sinh  + j  =
2 2 4Z2
a  b a  b Z1
or sinh cosh  j  + cosh sinh  j  =
2  2 2  2 4Z2
[∵ sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B]
a b a b Z1
sinh cos + jcosh sin = (i)
2 2 2 2 4Z 2
∵ cosh( jq ) = cosq 
 sinh( jq ) = jsinq 
 
Case I: When a = 0, equation (13.15) can be written as follows:
sin b Z1
0 + j cos 0° ⋅ =
2 4Z2
b Z1
or j sin =
2 4Z2

Considering the magnitude,
b Z1 b Z1
or sin = or, = sin −1
2 4Z2 2 4Z2
Z1
Therefore, b = 2 sin −1 (13.15a)
4Z2
Case II: To get expression for a, substitute b = p in equation (i)
a Z1
0 + j cosh ×1 =
2 4Z2
a Z1
or j cosh =
2 4Z2
a Z1
or cosh =
2 4Z2
a Z1
or = cosh −1
2 4Z2
Z1
That is, a = 2 cosh −1 (13.15b)
4Z2
Cut-off Frequency (fc )

We have
Z1
coshg = 1 + (from equation (13.12))
2Z2
For pass band, a = 0
That is, g = a + jb = 0 + jb = jb
Substituting g = jb in the equation, we get the following form:
 jb  Z
cosh  = 1+ 1
 2  2Z2
b Z
or cos = 1+ 1
2 2Z2

Now, the limits of cos q are ±1
b
That is, −1 ≤ cos ≤1
2
Therefore, in pass band, the equation can be written as follows:
Z1
−1 < 1 + <1
2Z2
Z1
or −2 < <0
2Z2
Z1
or −1 < < 0 ⇒ condition for pass band
4Z2
Cut-off frequency can be obtained by substituting the following:

Z1
=0 or Z1 = 0
a 4Z2
Z
Stop band Pass band Stop band = −1 or Z1 = −4Z2
4Z2
−1 0 or Z1 + 4Z2 = 0 (ii)
Z1
4Z2 The graphical representation of the equations is shown
Figure 13.14(b) in the following Figure 13.14(b).
Summary of Equations of T-network
Z12
1. ZOT = + Z1Z 2 : characteristic impedance
4
Z1
2. g = 2 sinh −1 : propagation constant
4Z2
Z1
3. a = 2 cosh −1 : attenuation constant
4Z2
Z1
4. b = 2 sin −1 : phase shift
4Z2
5. Z1 + 4 Z 2 = 0 : equation to obtain cut-off frequency.

13.6.2 Analysis of p-Network 1

2
Let us find the characteristic impedance for p-network Z1

shown in Figure 13.15. Zin 2Z2 2Z2 Zo
From the figure, the input impedance of the network is
given as follows: 1′
2′
Z in = 2Z 2 [Z 1 + [2Z 2 Z 0 ]]
Figure 13.15 A p -network
 2Z 2 ⋅ Z0 
= 2 Z 2  Z1 + 
 2 Z 2 + Z0 
 2 Z Z + Z1Z0 + 2 Z 2 Z0 
= 2Z2  1 2 
 2Z 2 + Z0 
 2 Z Z + Z1Z0 + 2 Z 2 Z0 
2Z2  1 2 
 2Z 2 + Z0
=
2 Z Z + Z1Z0 + 2 Z 2 Z0
2Z2 + 1 2
2Z 2 + Z0
 2 Z Z + Z1Z0 + 2 Z 2 Z0 
2Z2  1 2 
 2Z 2 + Z0
=
4 Z 2 2 + 2 Z 2 Z0 + 2 Z1Z 2 + Z1Z0 + 2 Z 2 Z0
2Z 2 + Z0
2 Z 2 ( 2 Z1Z 2 + Z1Z0 + 2 Z 2 Z0 )
=
4 Z 2 2 + 2 Z1Z 2 + Z1Z0 + 4 Z 2 Z0
4 Z1Z 22 + 2 Z1Z 2 Z0 + 4 Z 22 Z0
Zin =
4 Z 2 2 + 2 Z1Z 2 + Z1Z0 + 4 Z 2 Z0
By definition, Zin = Z0, substituting this value in the equation, we get the following:
4 Z1Z 22 + 2 Z1Z 2 Z0 + 4 Z 22 Z0
Z0 =
4 Z 2 2 + 2 Z1Z 2 + Z1Z0 + 2 Z 2 Z0
4 Z 22 Z 0 + 2Z 1Z 2 Z 0 + Z 1Z 0 2 + 2Z 2 Z 0 2 = 4 Z 1Z 22 + 2Z 1Z 2 Z 0 + 4 Z 2 2 Z 0
Z 1Z 0 2 + 2 Z 2 Z 0 2 = 4 Z 1Z 2 2
or Z 0 2 ( Z 1 + 2 Z 2 ) = 4 Z 1Z 2 2
4 Z 1Z 2 2
or Z 02 =
Z 1 + 2Z 2
Multiplying and dividing by Z1, we get the following:
4 Z 12 Z 22
Z 02 =
Z 12 + 4 Z 1Z 2

4 Z12 Z 22 Z12 Z 22
Z02 = =
Z2  Z12
4  1 + Z1Z 2  + Z1Z 2
 4  4
Z1Z 2
Z 0 = Z 0p
Z12 (13.16)
+ Z1Z 2
4
Now, we will prove the following:
Zop = ZOC ZSC
where ZOC and ZSC are, respectively, the open-circuit and short-circuit impedance of the
p-Network.
Open-circuit Impedance (Zoc) of p-Network
Z1 From Figure 13.16, ZOC = 2 Z 2 ( Z1 + 2 Z 2 )

Open
ZOC 2Z2 2Z2 2 Z 2 ( Z1 + 2 Z 2 )
circuit =
2 Z 2 + Z1 + 2 Z 2
Figure 13.16 Determination 2 Z 2 ( Z1 + 2 Z 2 )

of Open-circuit = (13.17)
Z1 + 4 Z 2
Impedance of a
p -Network Let us find short-circuit impedance of p-network:
From Figure 13.17 and its equivalent circuit shown in Figure 13.18, we get,
ZSC = Z1 2 Z 2
Z1
Short Z1 ⋅ 2 Z 2
ZSC 2Z2 2Z2
circuit =
Z1 + 2 Z 2
2 Z1Z 2
Figure 13.17 Determination ZSC = (13.18)
of Short-circuit Z1 + 2 Z 2
Impedance of a
Multiplying equation (13.17) and (13.18), we get the
p -Network
following:
Z1
2Z 2 ( Z 1 + 2Z 2 ) 2 Z 1Z 2
Z OC Z SC = ×
Z 1 + 4Z 2 Z 1 + 2Z 2
2 Z2
ZSC 2 Z 2 ( 2 Z 1Z 2 )
=
Z 1 + 4Z 2
Figure 13.18 Equivalent
Circuit of 4 Z 1Z 22
=
Figure 13.17 Z 1 + 4Z 2

Multiplying and dividing by Z1, we write the equation as follows:
4 Z12 Z 22
ZOC ZSC =
Z12 + 4 Z1Z 2
4 Z12 Z 22
=
Z2 
4  1 + Z1Z 2 
 4 
Z12 Z 22
ZOC × ZSC =
Z12
+ Z1Z 2
4
Z1Z 2
or ZOC ZSC = = ZO = ZOπ
Z12
+ Z1Z 2
4
Therefore, ZOp = ZOC ZSC
The relation between the characteristic impedances of T-network ZOT and p-network ZOp are
given as in the following:
We have
Z12
ZOT = + Z1Z 2 (13.19)
4
Z1Z 2
and ZOπ = (13.20)
Z12
+ Z1Z 2
4
Z12
Substituting the value of + Z1Z 2 = ZOT from equation (13.19) in equation (13.20), we get
the following form: 4
Z 1Z 2
Z Oπ =
Z OT
or Z OT Z Oπ = Z 1Z 2
Hence, the product of characteristic impedance of T-network and p-network is equal to the
product of series and shunt impedances.
Here, Z1 is equal to the total series impedance of the filter network and Z2 is equal to the total
shunt impedance of the filter network.

13.6.3 Summary of Parameters of Filter Network

Parameters of filter network are given in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1 Parameters of T-network and p -network
Parameter T-network p -network

Characteristic impedance Z12 Z1Z 2
ZOT = + Z1Z 2 ZOπ =
4 Z12
+ Z1Z 2
ZOT = ZOC ZSC 4
ZOπ = ZOC ZSC
Z1 Z1
Propagation constant g = 2 sinh −1 g = 2 sinh −1
4Z2 4Z2
Z1 Z1
Attenuation constant a a = 2 cosh −1 a = 2 cosh −1
4Z2 4Z2
Z1 Z1
Phase shift b b = 2 sinh −1 b = 2 sin −1
4Z2 4Z2
Equation to obtain cut-off Z1 + 4 Z 2 = 0 Z1 + 4 Z 2 = 0
frequency
13.7 CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS

So far, we have seen four types of filters, that is, LPF, HPF, BPF and BSF. When a number of
signals are transmitted along a line, filters need to be used to separate them. For example, a
speech channel using a carrier frequency of 50 kHz requires a bandwidth of say, 46 to 54 kHz.
A band-pass filter (BPF) should pass freely signal of any frequency within this band of frequen-
cies, that is, 46 kHz to 54 kHz and reject all other signals outside this range.
Thus, the output of a filter varies with the frequency. This is called the frequency response
of a filter. If the range of frequency or the range of variation of the signal amplitude is large,
logarithmic scale is used to plot the frequency response.
We have also known that filters are of two basic types: passive filters and active filters. In
both cases, filters are designed to select or reject a band of frequencies. This is achieved by
using series or parallel combination of R, L and C. In active filters, operational amplifiers or
transistors and R, L and C are used.
Filters may be classified to be of constant K-type or m-Derived type.
Depending upon the relationship between Z1 and Z2, filters are classified as follows:
1. Constant K-type or prototype filters.
2. m-Derived filters
These are described in this section.

13.8 CONSTANT K-TYPE OR PROTOTYPE FILTERS

A constant K-type filter is a filter that satisfies the following relationship:
Z1Z2 = K2(13.21)
where Z1 is the series arm impedance.
Z2 is the shunt arm impedance.
K is the design impedance or nominal impedance or zero characteristic impedance.
Constant K-type filters can be of T-type or p -type. These filters are also called prototype filters
because other complex type of filters can be derived from constant K-type filters. Constant
K-type filters may be of low-pass type, high-pass type, band-pass type or band-stop type. These
are discussed in the following sections.
13.8.1 Constant K-type Low-Pass Filters (LPF)

In LPF, the series element is inductor and shunt element is capacitor. T- and p-Section for con-
stant K-type LPF are shown in Figure 13.19.
L L
2 2 (Z1)
Z1 Z1 L
2 2 C C
C 2 2
(Z2) (2Z2) (2Z2)
Figure 13.19 Constant K-type LPF
Expressions for Different Parameters of Constant K-type LPF

Design Impedance (K). In constant K-type LPF,
Total series impedance, Z1 = jwL and
1
Total shunt impedence, Z2 =
jw C
Further, for constant K-type filters, we have, Z1Z 2 = K 2
Substituting the values of Z1 and Z2 in the equation, we get the following:
 1 
( jw L)  = K2
 jw C 
L
or = K2
C
L
or K= This is the expression that will be used in design of constant K-type LPF(13.22)
C

Cut-off Frequency (fc). We have limits of pass band as given in the following:
Z1
−1 < <0
4Z2
Z1 Z1
This means, either =0 or = −1
4Z2 4Z2
Z1 = 0 or Z1 = −4 Z 2
jw L = 0 or Z1 + 4Z2 = 0
4
or j 2p f c L = 0 or jw L + =0
jw C
j 2w 2 LC + 4
or fc = 0 or =0
jw C
j 2w 2 LC + 4
Now, we have fc = 0 and the condition = 0.
jw C
w 2 LC + 4
Substituting j2 = -1, we have − =0
jw C
2
or, −w 2 LC + 4 = 0; or, w =
LC
2 1
or, 2p f c = ; or, fc =
LC p LC
1
Therefore, f c = 0 and f c = (13.23)
p LC
Attenuation Constant (a ). To find attenuation constant, we have the following relation:
Z1
a = 2 cosh −1
4Z2
1
Substituting Z1 = jw L and Z 2 = in the equation, we get the following:
jwC
jw L
a = 2 cosh −1
4
jw C

j 2w 2 LC
= 2 cosh −1 \w 2 = -1
4
−w 2 LC
= 2 cosh −1
4
w 2 LC
= 2 cosh −1
4
Substitute w = 2p f
( 2p f ) 2 LC
a = 2 cosh −1
4
4p 2 f 2 LC
= 2 cosh −1 = 2 cosh −1 p 2 f 2 LC (13.24)
4
Now, from equation (13.23), we have the following form:
1
fc = ; or f 2 = 1
c
p LC p 2 LC
1
or p 2 LC = 2 (13.25)
fc
Substituting this value in equation (13.24), we get the following forms:
a = 2 cosh −1 f 2p 2 LC
 1 
= 2 cosh −1 f 2 2
 fc 
f2
= 2 cosh −1
f c2
 f 
a = 2 cosh −1  
 fc 
and attenuation in pass band a = 0.
Phase Constant b. In stop band, b = p and in pass band,
Z1
b = 2 sin −1
4Z2
 f 
= 2 sin −1  
 fc 
[derivation is same as that for attenuation constant]

The performance characteristic of a constant K-type LPF has been shown in Figure 13.20.
p
∞
a b Pass Stop
(Attenuation) band band
Pass Stop
band band
O fc Frequency O fc ∞ Frequency
Variation of attenuation Variation of
with frequency phase shift
Figure 13.20 Performance Characteristic of a Constant K-type LPF
Characteristic Impedance (Z0). We have
Z12
ZOT = + Z1Z 2
4
1
Substituting Z1 = jw L and Z 2 = ,we get the following:
jw C
( jw L) 2  1 
ZOT = + ( jw L) 
4  jw C 
−w 2 L2 L
= +
4 C
or L w 2 L2
ZOT = −
C 4
L  w 2 LC  L w 2 LC L ( 2p f 2 ) LC
ZOT =  1−  = 1− = 1−
C 4  C 4 C 4
L
Now, =K
C
4p 2 f 2 LC
ZOT = K 1 − = K 1 − f 2p 2 LC
4
or, f2
ZOT = K 1 −
fc2
Further, for LPF
1
fc = (13.26)
p LC

or f c 2 = p 2 LC
1
or p 2 LC = 2
fc
2
 f 
ZOT = K 1 −   (13.27)
 fc 
and
Z1Z 2
ZOπ =
Z12
+ Z1Z 2
4
ZZ
= 1 2 (13.28)
ZOT
Substituting the value of Z1 = jwL
1
Z2 = xc
jw L
 1 
( jw L) 
 jw C 
ZOπ =
ZOT
L
K2
ZOπ = C =
ZOT ZOT
L L
Since, = K, = K 2
C C
Using equation (13.26), we get the following form:
K2 K
ZOπ = =
2 2
 f   f 
K 1−   1−  
 fc   fc 
Design Parameters. We have
L L
= K , that is, K 2 = (i)
C C
1 1
and fc = or f c 2 = 2 (ii)
p LC p LC
From equation (i), L = K2C (iii)

1
and from equation (ii), we get L= (iv)
p f c2C
2
Equating the two equations, that is, equation (iii) and (iv), we get the following form:
1 1
K 2C = 2 2
or, C 2 = 2 2 2
p fc C p K fc
1
That is, C = (13.29)
p Kf c
Substituting this value in equation (iii), the equation can be written as follows:
1
L = K2 C = K 2
p Kf c
K
Therefore, L= (13.30)
p fc
Summary of Constant K-type LPF
L
1. Design impedance: K=
C
2. Design parameters: L = K
p fc
1
C=
K p fc
1
3. Cut-off frequency: fC =
p LC
4. Attenuation:
 f 
a = 2 cosh −1   in stop band
 fc 
= 0 in pass band
5. Phase constant:
 f 
b = 2 sin −1   in pass band
 fc 
= p in stop band
6. Characteristic impedance:
2
f 
Z OT = K 1−  
 fc 
K
Z Oπ =
2
f 
1−  
 fc 

Solved Numerical on Constant K-type LPF

Example 13.1 Design a low-pass T-section filter having a cut-off
L L
frequency of 1.5 kHz to operate with a design impedance of 600 W. 2 2
Solution: Given (63.66 mH) (63.66 mH)

fc = 1.5 kHz = 1500 Hz C(0.353 µF)
K = 600 W
Now, for constant K-type LPF we write the equation as follows: T-section constant K-LPF
K 600 Figure 13.21(a)
L= = = 0.12732H = 127.32 mH
p f c p (1500)
1 1 0.02 H 0.02 H
and C= = = 3.53 × 10 −7 = 0.353 × 10 −6 F
K p f c 600 ⋅ p ⋅1500
= 0.353 µF 0.06 µF
The required design is shown in Figure 13.21a.
Example 13.2 Figure 13.21(b) shows a passive filter section. Find Figure 13.21(b)
its cut-off frequency and characteristic impedance at f = 0.
Solution: Given filter is T-section LPF of Constant K-type. By L L

2 2
comparing Figure 13.21(b) with Figure 13.21(c), we get,
L
= 0.02 H ⇒ L = 0.04 H C
2
and C = 0.06 µF ⇒ C = 0.06 × 10 −6 F
Figure 13.21(c)
Now, for LPF, fc can be written as follows:
1 1
fc = = = 6497.47 Hz
p LC p 0.04 × 0.06 × 10 −6
and
2 2
 f   0
ZOT = K 1−   f c = 816.49 1 −   f c = 816.49 Ω
 fc   fc 
L 0.04
Now, K= = = 816.49 Ω
C 0.06 × 10 −6
Example 13.3 Design a constant K-type LPF having a cut-off frequency of 2000 Hz
and a zero-frequency characteristic impedance of 200 W. Draw T- and p-Section of the
filter.

Solution: Given
fc = 2000 Hz
K = 200 W
Now, for an LPF, L and C can be calculated as follows:
K 200
L= = = 0.03183 H = 31.83 mH
p f c p ( 2000)
1 1
C= = = 7.957 × 10 −7 = 0.7957 × 10 −6 F = 0.7957 µF
K p f c 200(p × 2000)
Required design is given in Figure 13.22.

L L
2 2
= 15.915 mH = 15.915 mH L = 31.83 mH
C C
C = 0.7957 µF 2 2
= 0.398 µF = 0.398 µF
T-section p -Section
Figure 13.22
Example 13.4 A constant K-type LPF composed of T-section has 63.6 mH inductance in
each series arm and 0.088 μF in the shunt arm. Find (1) cut-off frequency and (2) attenuation
in b at 5000 Hz.
Solution: The circuit is given in Figure 13.23. For comparison, the general design has also
been shown.
L L
63.6 mH 63.6 mH 2 2
0.088 µF Compare it with C

general design as
Figure 13.23
L
We get = 63.6 mH, that is, L = 127.2 mH = 0.1272 H
2
and C = 0.088 µF = 0.088 × 10 −6 F
1 1
1. Cut-off frequency f c = =
p LC p 0.1272 × 0.088 × 10 −6
= 3008.6 Hz

2. Attenuation at 5000 Hz, that is, f = 5000 Hz and we have
 f   5000 
a = 2 cosh −1   = 2 cosh −1 
 fc   3008.6 
= 2 × 1.09503
= 2.19006 Nepers
= 8.686 × 2.19006 dB
= 19.02 dB.
Example 13.5 Each arm of a symmetrical T-section LPF consists of 6 mH inductor, while the
shunt arm is a 0.03 μF capacitor. Find the design impedance and cut-off frequency.
Solution: Given circuit is shown in Figure 13.24

L L
L 2 2
That is, = 6 mH ⇒ L = 12 mH
2 (6 mH) (6 mH)
C = 0.03 µF
C = 0.03 µF
Now for LPF, the design impedance T-section LPF

Figure 13.24
L 12 × 10 −3
K= = = 632.455 Ω
C 0.03 × 10 −6
and
1
Cut-off frequency fc =
p LC
1
=
−3
p 12 × 10 × 0.03 × 10 −6
1 1
= −5
= = 16776.40 Hz
p × 1.8973 × 10 5.96 × 10 −5
Example 13.6 Design the T- and p-Section of a constant K-type LPF having a cut-off
frequency of 10 kHz and design impedance of 450 W. Further, find its characteristic impedance
and phase constant at 5 kHz as well as determine the attenuation at 12 kHz.
Solution: Given
K = 450 W
fc = 10 kHz = 10,000 Hz

Now for LPF, L and C can be calculated as follows:

K 450
L= = = 0.01432 H = 14.32mH
p f c p (10, 000)
1 1
C= = = 7.0735 × 10 −8 F
K p f c 450(p )10, 000
= 0.0707 × 10 −6 F = 0.0707 µF.
The constant K-type LPF for both T- and p-Sections are shown in Figure 13.25.
L L
2 2
= 7.16 mH = 7.16 mH L = 14.32 mH
C = C =
C = 0.0707 µF 2 2
0.03535 µF 0.03535 µF
T-type LPF p-Type LPF

Figure 13.25
Characteristic impedance at f = 5 kHz = 1500 Hz

2
 f 
We have ZOT = K 1 −  
 fc 
2
 5000 
= 450 1 − 
 10, 000 
= 450 1 − (0.5) 2 = 450(0.8666) = 389.71 Ω

and
K 450
ZOp = = = 519.615 Ω
 f  0.8666
1−   2
 fc 
We now calculate Phase shift at f = 5 kHz = 5000 Hz as
 f   5000 
b = 2 sin −1   = 2 sin −1 
 fC   10, 000 
= 2 sin −1 (0.5) = 60°
p
= 60 × = 1.047 radians
180
Attenuation a at f = 12 kHz, is calculated as below
For constant K-type LPF, we have the value of a as,

 f 
a = 2 cosh −1  
 fC 
 12000 
= 2 cosh −1  = 2 cosh −1 (1.2) = 2 × 0.622
 10000 
= 1.244 N
= 1.244 × 8.686 = 10.81 dB.
13.8.2 Constant K-type High-Pass-Filters (HPF)

In an HPF, the series element is a capacitor and the shunt arm element is an inductor, that is, in
case of HPF.
1
Z1 = and Z 2 = jw L
jw C
The circuit configuration of constant K-type HPF, both T-type and p-type, have been shown in
Figure 13.26.
2C 2C C(Z1)
Z1 Z1
2 L 2 2Z2 2Z2
(2L) (2L)
(Z2)
Figure 13.26 Circuit Configurations of HPF
Expression of parameters for HPF are given as follows.

Design Impedance (K)
We know that for constant K-type HPF, the following can be written as follows:
Z1 Z2 = K2
Substituting the values of Z1 and Z2, we get the following:
 1  2
 jw C  ( jw L) = K
L
or = K2
C
L
K=
C
Cut-off Frequency (fc )

In pass band, we get the following:
Z1
−1 < <0
4Z2

That is,
Z1
= 0 or Z1 = 0
4Z2
1 1
∴ = 0 or = 0
jw C w
1 1
or = 0 or = 0 or f c = ∞
2p f c fc
or 1 = −4( −1)w 2 LC
or Z1
= −1
4Z 2
or Z 1 = −4 Z 2
 1 
or
 jw C  = −4 jw L
or 1 = −4 j 2w 2 LC
or 1 1
w2 = or, w =
4 LC 2 LC
1
∴ 2p f c =
2 LC
or 1
fc =
4 LC
Attenuation Constant (a )
In pass band, a = 0 and in stop band
Z1
a = 2 cosh −1
4Z 2
1
Substituting Z1 = and Z 2 = jw L
jw L
We get
1 1 1
a = 2 cosh −1 = 2 cosh −1 ; = 2 cosh −1 ∵ j 2 = −1
jw C 2
4 j w LC2
−4w 2 LC
4 jw L
1 1 1
= 2 cosh −1 2
; = 2 cosh −1 2
; = 2 cosh −1 2 2
−4w LC 4( 2p f ) LC 4.4p f LC

1 1
or a = 2 cosh −1 = 2 cosh −1
16p f LC2
f 16 p 2 LC (13.31)
2 2
Now for HPF, we have the following:

1 1 1
fc = or, f c2 = or, 16p 2 LC = 2 (13.32)
4p LC 16p 2 LC fC
Substituting this value in equation (13.31), we get:
2
1 f c2  f 
a = 2 cosh −1 = 2 cosh −1 = 2 cosh −1  c 
 1  f2  f 
f 2 2
 fc 
 f 
∴ a = 2 cosh −1  c 
 f 
Phase Constant (b )
In pass band, b = p
In stop band,
∞ ∞
Z1
b = 2 sin −1 a
4 Z 2 [derivation is same as that of (Attenuation)
 f  attenuation]
b = 2 sin −1  C  Stop Pass
 f  band band
0 ∞
O fc
Performance of HPF Frequency
The variation of a with frequency and variation of b
with frequency have been shown in Figure 13.27 and Figure 13.27 Variation of
Figure 13.28, respectively. Attenuation
with Frequency
Characteristic Impedance (Z0 )
Frequency
We have the following: O ∞
fc
Z 12
Z OT = + Z 1Z 2 b
4 (Phase Stop Pass
shift) band band
1
Substituting Z1 = and Z 2 = jw L −p −p
jw C
Figure 13.28 Variation
2 Phase
 1 
 jw c  Shift with
 1  1 L −1 L Frequency
ZOT = + ( jw L) = + = +
4  jw c  2
j 4w c 2 2 C 4w 2 c 2 C

L 1 L 1  L 1
= − 2 2
= 1 − 2  = 1−
C 4w c C 4w LC C 4w 2 LC
L
Substituting =K
C
1 1 1
ZOT = K 1 − = K 1− = K 1−
4w 2 LC 4( 2p f ) 2 LC 4( 4p 2 f 2 ) LC
1 1
= K 1− = K 1−
16p 2 f 2 LC f 2 16p 2 LC
(From equation (13.32) we had 16p 2 LC = 1/fC2
1 fc
Therefore, ZOT = K 1 − = K 1−
1 f2
f 2.
fc
2
 f 
or, ZOT = K 1 −  c 
 f 
Z1Z 2 K2 K
ZOπ = = =
ZOT 2 2
and  f   f 
K 1−  c  1−  c 
 f   f 
Design Parameters
We have derived the following for HPF:
L L
K= ⇒ K 2 = ⇒ L = K 2C (13.33)
C C
and
1 1 1
fc = ⇒ f c2 = 2
and L = (13.34)
4p LC 16p LC 16p f c2C
2
From equations (13.33) and (13.34), it is clear that C can be written as follows:
1
K 2C =
16p f c2C
2
1
or C2 =
K 16p 2 f c2
2
1
or C=
K 4p f c

Substituting this value in equation (13.33), we get the value of L as follows:

1
L = K2 ⋅
K 4p f c
K
L=
4p f c
Summary of Constant K-type HPF
L
Design impedance: K=
C
1
Cut- off frequency: fc =
4p LC
Design parameters:
K
L=
4p f c
1
C=
K 4p f c
Attenuation:
 f 
a = 2 cosh −1  C  in stop band and in pass band a = 0.
 f 
Phase constant:
b = p in stop band
 f 
= 2 sin −1  C  in pass band
 f 
Characteristic impedance:
2
 f 
ZOT = K 1 −  C 
 f 
K
ZOP =
2
 f 
1−  C 
 f 
13.8.3 Comparison of Constant K-type LPF and HPF

We have, so far, discussed the constant K-type low-pass and high-pass filters in both p-section and
T-section. The design parameters of these filters are shown in a consolidated manner in Table 13.2.

Table 13.2 Comparative Table of Design Parameters of Constant K-type LPF

and HPF
Parameters LPF HPF
Circuit L L C 2C 2C
L 2 2
configuration
C C 2L 2L L
2 2 C
p -Section T-section p -Section T-section
Design L L
impedance K= K=
C C
Design K K
L= L=
parameters p fC 4p fC
Cut-off 1 1
C= C=
frequency K p fC K 4p fC
Attenuation 1 1
fC = fC =
p LC 4p LC
Phase short a = 0 in pass band a = 0 in pass band
 f   f 
a = 2 cosh −1   in stop band = 2 cosh −1  C  in stop band
 fC   f 
Characteristic b = p in stop band b = p in stop band

impedance
 f   f 
= 2 sin −1   in pass band = 2 sin −1  C  in pass band
 fC   f 
2 2
 f   f 
ZOT = K 1 −   ZOT = K 1 −  C 
 fC   f 
K K
Z 0p = Z 0p =
2 2
 f   f 
1−   1−  C 
 fC   f 
Solved Numericals on Constant K-type HPF
Example 13.7 Design a constant K-type HPF having a cut-off frequency of 5500 Hz and a
design impedance of 750 W. Draw T-section filter and p-Section filter.

Solution: Given
fc = 5500 Hz
K = 750 W
Now for an HPF, L and C can be calculated as follows:
K 750
L= = = 0.01085 H = 10.85 mH
4p f C 4p (5500)
1 1
and C= = = 1.929 × 10 −8 F
K ⋅ 4p f C 750( 4p )(5500)
= 0.01929 µF
Therefore, the T-section and p -section filters are as shown in Figure 13.29.
2C = 2C =
0.03858 µF 0.03858 µF C = 0.01929 µF
2L = 2L =
L = 10.85 mH
21.7 mH 21.7 mH
T-section filter is p -Section filter

Figure 13.29
Example 13.8 A T-section HPF has a cut-off frequency of 3000 Hz and infinite frequency
characteristic impedance of 500 W. Find characteristic impedance at 5000 Hz.
Solution: Given
fC = 3000 Hz
K = 500 W
We have to find ZOT at f = 5000 Hz
Now for HPF, we get the following:
2 2
 f   3000 
ZOT = K 1 −  c  = 500 1 − 
 f   5000 
2
 3
ZOT = 500 1 −   = 500 0.64 = 400 Ω
 5 0.03 µF 0.03 µF
Example 13.9 Figure 13.30 shows an HPF section. Find the cut-
off frequency and characteristic impedance at f = ∞. 0.04 H
Solution: Given circuit is a T-type HPF and we know the general

circuit configuration for T-type HPF is shown in Figure 13.31. Figure 13.30

2C 2C Therefore, given
2C = 0.03 mF or C = 0.015 mF
and L = 0.044 H
L
L 0.04
Therefore, K= = = 1632.993Hz
C 0.05 × 106
Figure 13.31 and
1 1
Cut-off frequency is fc = =
4p LC 4p 0.04 × 0.015 × 10 −6
= 3248.73 Hz
Characteristic impedance at f = ∞
2 2
 f   f 
ZOT = K 1 −  c  = K 1 −  c  = K 1 = 0
 f   ∞
K = 1632.993 Hz
Example 13.10 Figure 13.32 shows a high-pass filter section. 0.05 µF

Find cut-off frequency and characteristic impedance at f = ∞.
Solution: The general circuit configuration of p-Section high-pass

0.1 H 0.1 H
filter is as shown in Figure 13.33.
By comparing the general configuration with the given p-Section
we get Figure 13.32
C = 0.05 mF and L = 0.05 H
C
1 1
Cut-off frequency ( fc ) = =
4p LC 4p 0.05 × 0.05 × 10 −6 2L 2L
= 1591.54 Hz
and
Characteristic impedance at f equal to É is calculated as Figure 13.33
K K K
ZOp = = = =K
 f 
2
 591.54 
2 1− 0
1−  c  1− 
 f   ∞ 
L 0.05
and K= = = 1000 Ω
C .05 × 10 −6
Example 13.11 Design the T- and p-Section of a constant K-type high-pass filter having cut-
off frequency of 20 kHz and design impedance of 450 W. Also, find its characteristic impedance
and phase constant at 25 kHz as well as determine the attenuation at 4 kHz.

Solution: Given
fc = 20 kHz = 20,000 Hz; K = 450 W
Now for an HPF, we get the following:
K 450
L= = = 1.79 × 10 −3 H = 1.79 mH
4p f c 4p ( 20, 000)
1 1
C= = = 8.841 × 10 −9 F = 0.008841 µF
K 4p f c 450( 4p )( 20, 000)
Therefore, the designs are shown in Figure 13.34.
2C = 2C =
C = 0.008841 µF 0.017682 µF 0.017682 µF
2L = 2L =
L = 1.79 mH
3.58 mH 3.58 mH
Figure 13.34
The characteristic impedance at f = 25,000 Hz

2 2
 f   20, 000 
ZOT = K 1 −  C  = 450 1 − 
 f   25, 000 
2
 20 
= 450 1 −   = 450 × 0.6 = 270 Ω
 25 
K 450
ZOp = =
2 2
 f   20, 000 
1−  C  1− 
 f   25, 000 
450 450
= = = 750 Ω
2 0.6
 20 
1−  
 25 
The phase constant at 25 kHz, that is, at f = 25,000 Hz.
We have
 f   20, 000   20 
b = 2 sin −1  c  = 2 sin −1  = 2 sin −1  
 f   25, 000   25 
p
= 2 × 53.13 = 106.26° = 106.26 × = 1.854 radians
180

The attenuation at f = 4 kHz, that is, at 400 Hz

For constant K-type HPF, we have the following:
 f 
a = 2 cosh −1  c 
 f 
 20, 000 
= 2 cosh −1 
 4, 000 
= 2 cosh −1 (5) = 2 × 2.2924 = 4.5848 Nepers = 4.58486 × 8.686 dB
a = 39.824 dB.
13.8.4 Constant K-type Band-Pass Filter

A band-pass filter can be obtained by connecting a LPF
+ LPF HPF + and a HPF in cascade as shown in Figure 13.35.
Vin Vout
The circuit configuration of constant K-type BPF has
been shown in Figure 13.36.
− −
T-section
After connecting the T-sections in cascade (series arm is
Figure 13.35 B
lock Diagram of
made up of series resonant circuit and short arm is made
a Constant K-type
up of parallel resonant circuit), we get a band-pass filter as
Band-pass Filter
shown in Figure 13.37.
L1 L1
2 2 2C1 2C1
C2 L2
T-section of constant-K LPF T-section of constant-K HPF

Figure 13.36 A
Band-pass Filter Obtained by Connecting in Series an
LPF and an HPF
L1 2C1 2C1 L1
2 2
C2 L2
T-section of BPF
Figure 13.37 A
Band-pass Filter in T-section Obtained by Connecting in Series
an LPF and an HPF

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M13_NETWORK_ANALYSIS_AND_SYNTHESIS_XXXX_CH13.indd 585 12/3/2014 8:20:07 PM

Input signal Output signal Vo

Input signal Low-pass filter network Output signal Frequency response

Figure 13.1(a) Low-Pass Filter

Figure 13.1(c) Band-Pass Filter

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Figure 13.1(d) Band-Stop Filter

13.1.1 Measurement in Decibels

13.2 TYPES OF FILTERS

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13.3 CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE FILTERS

13.3.1 Low-Pass Filters

13.3.2 High-Pass Filters Attenuation

13.3.3 Band-Pass Filters

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Stop band Pass band Stop band

Figure 13.4 Attenuation Characteristic of a BPF

13.3.4 Band-Stop or Band-Elimination Filter

Pass band Stop band Pass band

Figure 13.5 Attenuation Characteristic of a Band-Stop Filter

Therefore, for a BPF, the following are given:

13.4 PARAMETERS OF A FILTER

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13.4.1 Propagation Constant (f ) I1 I2

For any two-port network terminated by characteristic

13.4.2 Attenuation Constant

Relation Between Nepers and Decibel

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13.4.3 Phase Shift Constant (a )

Units of Phase Shift

13.4.4 Characteristic Impedance (Z0)

13.5 FILTER NETWORKS

13.5.1 Formation of Symmetrical T-Network

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13.5.2 Formation of Symmetrical o-Network

Asymmetrical L-network Asymmetrical L-network

13.5.3 Ladder Network

T-section T-section T-section

Figure 13.9 T-section Ladder Network

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p-Section Ladder Network

2Z2 2Z2 2Z2 2Z2 2Z2 2Z2

2Z2 2Z2 2Z2 = Z2 Z2 2Z2

Figure 13.10 p -Section Ladder Network

13.6 ANALYSIS OF FILTER NETWORKS

13.6.1 Symmetrical T-network

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Z1Z0 Z1Z 2 Z12 ZZ

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From Figure 13.13, the short-circuit impedance of the

= ZOT (using equation (13.8))

Therefore, the characteristic impedance for a T-network, ZOT is given as follows:

ZOT = ZOC ZSC (13.11)

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Dividing both sides by 2, we get the following:

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This is the required expression for propagation constant of symmetrical T-network.

Attenuation Constant (a ) and Phase Shift Constant (b )

Substituting g = a + jb, in the equation, we get the following:

[∵ sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B]

Case I: When a = 0, equation (13.15) can be written as follows:

ZOT = ZOC ZSC (13.11)

Figure 13.16 Determination 2 Z 2 ( Z1 + 2 Z 2 )