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Parishram (2024)
FORMULA SHEET_(Alternating Current)

Alternating current and alternating e.m.f

 Instantaneous values (I) and (E)
I = I0sinωt or I = I0 cosωt
E = E0 sinωt or E = E0cosωt where
I, E = instantaneous values of current and e.m.f.
I0, E0 = peak values of current and e.m.f
ω = angular velocity
ω = 2πf where f denotes frequency
ω = 2π/T where T denotes periodic time.
 Mean or average values
(i) In first half -cycle
2 2
Im= I 0 and Em = E0 ⇒ I m = 0.637 I 0 , Em = 0.637 E0
π π
(ii) In second half-cycle.
2 2
Im = − I0 = −0.637 I 0 , Em =− E0 = −0.637 E0
π π
(iii) Over a complete cycle,
Im = 0 and Em = 0 .
 Root mean square (RMS = r.m.s.) value
(i) RMS value is also known as virtual value or effective value.
(ii) All A.C. instruments measure virtual value.
I0 E0
(iii) =Iv = 0.707 I 0 , =
Ev = 0.707 E0
2 2
I v 0.707 I 0
=
(iv) Form factor of A.C. (K) = = 1.11
I m 0.637 I 0
 Reactance
(i) It is the opposition offered to A.C. by a coil of inductance L or by a capacitor of capacitance C.
(ii) Reactance arises on account of induction effects.

 Inductive reactance (XL)

2π
(i) X L =ωL =2πfL = L
T
(ii) Alternating current lags behind the alternating e.m.f. applied to a pure inductor by phase angle of 90°.
(iii) For direct current (d.c.), frequency f = 0.
∴ XL = zero.
An inductor thus behaves like a perfect conductor for d.c.
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(iv) For a.c., higher the frequency f, greater is the inductive reactance.
(v) Average power over one full cycle of a.c.
=
Pav Ev I=
v cos θ Ev I v cos90
= ° zero.
1 2
(vi) Energy stored in inductor = LI 0 .
2
(vii) Choke coil: It is a pure inductance coil. Since power consumed in it is zero, the current in choke coil is known as
wattless current.
1 1 1
(viii) Susceptance = ⇒ SL = =
reactance X L ωL
It is measured in siemen or (ohm)–1

 Capacitate reactance (XC)

1 1
(i) X=
C =
ωC 2πfC
(ii) Alternating current leads the alternating e.m.f. in a pure capacitor by phase angle of 90°.
1 1
(iii) For d.c. X C = = = ∞.
2πfC 0
A condenser blocks d.c.
(iv) For a.c., higher the frequency f, lower is the capacitive reactance.
(v) Average power or true power over one full cycle of a.c.
Pav = EvIv = cosθ = EvIv cos 90° = zero.
1 QV Q 2
(vi) =
Energy stored in a capacitor =
CV 2
=
2 2 2C
1
(vii) Susceptance is reciprocal of reactance. SC = = ωC .
XC
Susceptane is measured in (ohm)–1 or siemen.

 Impedance
(i) The total effective opposition in LCR circuit is called impedence (Z).

R2 + ( X L − X C )
2
(ii) Z=
X L − XC
tan φ =
R
φ = angle by which e.m.f. leads the current in LCR circuit.
(iii) Admittance (K)
1 1
Reciprocal of impedence is called admittance K= =
Z R2 + ( X L − X C )
2

It is measured in (ohm)–1 or siemen.

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 Power in a.c. circuit

(i) Instantaneous power = Pin = EI
Pin = (E0 sinωt) I0 sin(ωt ± θ)
(ii) Average power or true power
E0 I 0
Pav =
or P > Ev I=
v cos θ cos θ
2
(iii) Apparent power (Pv)
E0 I 0
Pv = Ev ⋅ I v =
2
It is equal to maximum value of average power.

 Power factor
true power
(i) Power factor of an a.c. circuit =
apparent power
⇒ power factor = cos θ = R/Z.
(ii) It is a unitless and dimensionless quantity.
(iii) Its value lies between 0 and 1.
(iv) Power lost in the circuit is the meaning of power factor of the circuit.

 Purely resistive circuit

(i) E = E0 sinωt
(ii) I = I0 sinωt
(iii) Phase difference between I and E is zero.
(iv) Peak current I0 = E0/R
(v) Average power = true power = Ev Iv
(vi) Power factor = cos θ = cos 0 = 1.

 Pure inductive circuit

(i) E = E0 sinωt
 π
(ii) =I I 0 sin  ωt − 
 2
(iii) Current lags behind e.m.f. by π/2 or
e.m.f. leads over current by π/2
(iv) Reactance XL = ωL = 2πf L
(v) Peak current I0 = E0/XL
(vi) Average power = zero.
(vii) Power factor = cos θ = cos 90° = zero.
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 Pure capacitive circuit

(i) E = E0 sinωt
 π
(ii) =I I 0 sin  ωt + 
 2
(iii) Current leads the e.m.f. by π/2 or e.m.f. lags behind the current by π/2
1 1
(iv) = X=
Reactance C =
ωC 2πfC
(v) Peak current = I0 = E0/XC
(vi) Average power = zero
(vii) Power factor = cos θ = cos 90° = zero

 L-R circuit
(i) Equations of E and I
E = E0 sinωt
I = I0 sin(ωt – θ)
Current I lags behind the applied e.m.f. E by θ.
It means that the e.m.f. leads over current by θ.
Equations can also be represented as
E = E0 sin(ωt – θ) and
I = I0 sinωt
(ii) Resultant voltage
(V=
0 ) LR (V0 ) L + (V0 ) R
2 2 2

(
= I 02 R 2 + X L2 )
or (V=
0 ) LR I 0 R 2 + ω2 L2
R R
=
(iii) Power factor (cos θ) =
R +ω L
2 2 2 Z LR
(iv) Average power < P >
< P > = Erms Irms cosθ.

 R–C circuit
(i) Equations of E and I
E = E0 sinωt
I = I0 sin(ωt – θ)
or E = E0 sin(ωt – θ)
I = I0 sinωt
emf E lags behind the current I by θ
or current I leads over e.m.f by θ
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(ii) Resultant voltage (V0)CR

(V=
0 )CR (V0 ) R + (V0 )C
2 2 2

(
= I 02 R 2 + X C2 )
1
or (V=
0 )CR I0 R2 +
ω C22

(iii) Power factor (cos θ)

R R
=
cos θ =
ZCR R22 + X C2
(iv) Average power < P >
E I R
< P >= rms rms
ZCR
 L-C circuit

(i)

(ii) Resultant voltage

(V0 ) LC = (V0 ) L ~ (V0 )C

) I 0  ωL ~ 
1
= I 0 ( X L ~ X C=
 ωC 
 1 
= I 0  2πfL ~
 2πfC 
 Phase relations
(i) The phase difference between VL and VC is 180° i.e. they are in mutually opposite phase.
(ii) VL leads I by a phase angle of 90°
(iii) VC lags behind I by a phase angle of 90°
(iv) I will lead E by 90° if XC > XL
(v) I will lag behind E by 90° If XC > XL

 Impedence or reactance
(i) Z = XL ~ XC
1
(ii) Z = Lω ~
Cω
1
(iii) Z = 2πfL ~
2πfC
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1
(iv) If XL > XC then Z = XL – XC = ωL −
ωC
1
(v) If XL < XC then Z = XC – XL = − ωL
ωC
(vi) If XL < XC then Z = 0

 LCR series circuit

(i) The alternating e.m.f. leads/lags behind the current by a phase angle φ given by
ωL − 1 / ωC
tan φ =
R
(ii) The e.m.f. leads the current, if ωL > 1/ω C and it lags behind the current, if ω L < 1/ω C.
(iii) Impedance of LCR circuit, =
Z R 2 + ( ωL − 1 / ωC ) 2
R R
(iv) =
Power factor, cos φ =
2 Z
 1 
R 2 +  ωL − 
 ωC 

 Series resonant circuit

(i) L, C and R are connected in series.
(ii) Condition of resonance is XL = XC .
1 1
⇒ Lω = ⇒ LC ω2 = 1 ⇒ ω =
Cω LC
1 1
⇒ 2=
πf ⇒=
f
LC 2π LC
This means that frequency of a.c. applied to circuit becomes equal to natural frequency of energy oscillations in
the circuit.
(iii) Z = R at resonance
E0 E0
=I0 = = circuit admits maximum current.
2 R
The following figures indicate variation of Z and current with frequency.
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(iv) Acceptor circuit : Series resonance circuit is known as acceptor circuit.

(v) Sharpness at resonance or Q–factor : Q should be higher for sharper resonance
1 L
Q=
R C
 Parallel resonant circuit
(i) It is known as rejector circuit.
(ii) L and C are connected in parallel with each other.
(iii) At resonance, XL = XC
Impedence Z is maximum.
Current I0 is minimum.
The figures indicate the variations.

 Transformer
• It is based on the phenomenon of mutual induction between two coils known as the primary coil and the secondary
coil.
• It is used for transmission of a.c. over long distances at high voltages. The energy losses and cost of transmission
are reduced by this device.
 Step-up transformer :
(i) The output voltage Es across secondary coil is greater than input voltage Ep in primary coil.
(ii) But Is < Ip.
(iii) Ns > Np where N denotes the number of turns in the coils.
Es I p Ns
(iv) = = >1
Ep I s N p
 Stepdown transformer
(i) The output voltage Es < Ep
(ii) The output current Is > Ip
(iii) The number of turns Ns < Np
Es I p Ns
(iv) = = < 1.
Ep I s N p

Es I p Ns
 Transformation ratio (K) =
K = = .
Ep I s N p
output power
Efficiency of transformer =
input power
Es I s
η=
Ep I p
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 Energy losses in transformer

• For an ideal transformer,
output power = input power
EsIs = EpIp
Es I p Ns
= =
Ep I s N p
But in practice, these are losses.
Output power < input power.
The losses are discussed along with remedy.

 Copper losses
(i) Windings are made of copper wire. Energy is lost as heat in resistance of copper wire.
(ii) It is reduced by use of thick wires of copper.

 Iron losses/eddy current losses

(i) Energy is lost due to eddy currents in the core of transformer.
(ii) It is reduced by using laminated soft iron core.

 Flux leakage
(i) Some magnetic flux leaks in air between primary and secondary coils
(ii) It is reduced by winding the secondary coil over a primary coil using insulator between them.

 Hysteresis loss
(i) The core is magnetized and demagnetized and energy is lost as heat
(ii) It is reduced by using soft iron core.

 Various material points about transformer

• There is a phase difference of π radian between Es and Ep . Obviously they are in opposite phase
• Transformer, a device based on mutual induction, converts magnetic energy into electrical energy
• Transformer does not amplify power as a vacuum tube (triode) does.
• Law of conservation of energy holds good for a transformer.
• It does not operate on d.c. or direct voltages. It operates only on alternating voltages at input as well as at output.
• Frequency of output voltage across secondary coil is same as that of input voltage across primary coil.
Output power power in secondary
• =
Efficiency =
Input power power in primary
Power available in secondary can never be greater than power fed in primary.
At the most, efficiency = 1 = 100%.
Generally, efficiency ranges from 70% to 90%.
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 Some salient features about a.c., transformer and inductance

• The dimensions of L/R, RC and LC are the dimensions of time. Their reciprocal have dimensions of frequency.
I v 0.707 I 0
• Form factor of a.c. is =
K = = 1.11
I m 0.637 I 0
• The direction of induced e.m.f. depends on
(i) direction of magnetic flux
(ii) rate of change of magnetic flux i.e. dφ/dt is increasing or decreasing
• An induction coil generates high voltages of the order of 105 volts from a battery. It is based on the phenomenon
of mutual induction.
• A choke coil is a pure inductor. Average power consumed per cycle is zero in a choke coil
• For reducing low frequency a.c., choke coil with laminated soft iron cores are used.
• For reducing high frequency a.c., air cored chokes are used.
• A d.c. motor converts d.c. energy from a battery into mechanical energy of rotation.
• A motor starter is a variable resistance connected in series with the motor coil. It protects the motor from damage
when it is switched on.
• A d.c. dynamo/generator produces d.c. energy from mechanical energy of rotation of a coil
• An a.c. dynamo/generator produces a.c. energy from mechanical energy of rotation of a coil
• Effective current
(i) The component of a.c. which remains in phase with the alternating e.m.f. is defined as the effective current.
(ii) The power lost due to effective current is given by EvIv cosθ.
I0
(iii) The peak value of effective current is I0 cosθ. Its r.m.s. value is cos θ
2
• Lenz's law is based on the law of conservation of energy.
volt volt × sec
• =
henry = = ohm × sec
amp / sec amp
µ0 N1 N 2
• If a solenoid is placed partly in different media, =
then M ( µ1 A1 + µ2 A2 + …)
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• Reciprocity relation : Mutual inductance M depends on two coils. It does not matter which one of them acts as
µ AN N
the primary or the secondary coil. The relation M = 0 1 2 for a solenoid is known as reciprocity relation.
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