6.

Abstraction Losses
6.1. Infiltration
6.1.1. Infiltration Index
6.2. Evaporation
6.2.1. Water Budget Method
6.2.2. Pan Evaporation
6.3. Evapotranspiration

6. Abstraction Losses
All the water received from rainfall is neither use by plants nor does it flow out as the
runoff. It gets lost to some of the natural processes called abstraction losses, which consist of
infiltration, evaporation and evapotranspiration.

6.1. Infiltration

The downward flow of water from the land surface into the soil medium is called
infiltration. The infiltration rate, which has dimension of velocity, is a soil characteristic which in
turn determines the maximum rate at which the water can enter the soil.
The intake rate of a soil is a measure of its capacity to take and absorb the ponded water or
the water applied. The intake rate is also known by the term infiltration capacity.

6.1.1. Infiltration Index

The infiltration index is the most commonly used method for determination of loss of rain
water due to abstraction. The method assumes the constant value for the intake rate of rain water
into the soil for the full duration of the storm. The infiltration index is also called ϕ (phi) index.
The ϕ index gives the index of the average abstraction of rainwater. The remaining volume
of rainfall, which flows out as surface runoff is called the excess rainfall volume, and is considered
to be equal to the excess runoff volume. The excess runoff volume is the runoff volume of a storm
hydrograph after separation base flow from it.
The time during which the excess rainfall occurs is called the effective time period.

Procedure for determination of the index

1. Draw the hyetograph of the storm rainfall and compute the total volume of rainfall.
2. Compute the excess runoff volume form the storm hydrograph by separating the base
flow from it.
3. Subtract 2 from 1 to determine the total intake of rain water to the soil.
4. Divide the value of 3 with the effective time period to get the index (cm/h)

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 Therefore, ϕ index (cm/h)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
=
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

The iterative process is applied to get the solution.

6.2. Evaporation

Evaporation is the process by which a liquid on a free surface is transformed into a gaseous
state at a temperature less than the boiling point through the process of transfer of heat energy. In
hydrological studies, evaporation from free water surfaces forms a part of the abstraction of
rainwater.
Evaporation rate is affected by solar radiation, air temperature, vapour pressure,wind
velocity, atmospheric pressure and salinity of water.

6.2.1. Water Budget Method

Evaporation from ponded water, namely lakes, reservoirs, etc. can be determined by the
water budget method. The analysis involves careful and correct accounting of all inflows and
outflows from the lake.

E = I + P – O – Ogw + (S1 – S2)

Where:
E = evaporation
I = inflow, measured by stream gauging
P = precipitation, measured by rain gauges
O = outflow, measured by stream gauging
Ogw = inflow to groundwater, measured through groundwater observations, and
permeability of aquifer
S1 = storage at the start of time period, measured by water stage recorders at the reservoir
S2 = storage at the start of time period, measured by water stage recorders at the reservoir

6.2.2. Pan Evaporation

Evaporation is measured by evaporimeters. The commonly used are Piche evaporimeter,

Colorado sunken pan, IUS geological-survey-floating pan, ISI standard pan, and US National
Weather Service Class A pan.
The US Weather Bureau Class A pan evaporimeter is made of 22 gauge galvanized iron
sheet. The pan diameter is 120 cm, depth 25 cm, and is painted white. The pan is kept on a wooden
frame so that air can circulate freely. The height of the wooden frame is kept at 15 cm above the
ground surface. The depth of water in the pan is maintained at 20 cm. A hook gage is fixed on the
stilling well of the pan is used to measure the water level.

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 A factor of 0.7 is taken for conversion of data of pan evaporation from Class A pan
evaporimeter to data of free surface. The relationship is stated as

𝐿𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 0.7
𝑃𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

For other types of pan, the factor ranges from 0.65 to 0.82.

6.3. Evapotranspiration

The soil water used by crops is through the process of evaporation and transpiration. The
combined form of the two is known as water-use by evapotranspiration and is popularly called the
consumptive use of crops.
Transpiration is the process by which water vapour leaves the living plant body and enters
the atmosphere. The process involves collection of water from the soil by crops, circulation of
water in the plant body and finally, the evaporation of water from the stomata of the leaves. The
process also helps in transportation of nutrients to the plant body and in cooling of solar radiation,
air temperature, vapour pressure difference between the leaf and air, atmospheric pressure, wind
velocity, plant type, soil properties and availability of water.
Evapotranspiration (consumptive use) of crops is either estimated from climatological data
or found by conducting measurements in the field.

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Sample Problems:

1. A storm with 20 cm of precipitation produced a surface runoff of 11.6 cm. Estimate the
index of the storm if the data recorded is as follows:
Storm time (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Incremental rainfall per hour(cm) 0.8 1.8 3.0 4.6 3.6 3.2 2.0 1.0
Ans. 1.1 cm/h

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 2. Two consecutive storms of four hours duration each and of 3.5 cm and 2.5 cm respectively,
occurred on a catchment having an area of 25 km2. These two storms generated the
following runoff hydrograph at the catchment outlet. If a base flow of 5m3/s was distributed
uniformly over the storm period, calculate the excess runoff (ER) and the infiltration index.
Time from the start of the 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66
storm(h)
Runoff discharge (m3/s) 6 12 25 20 15 11 8 6 5 5 4.5 4.5
Ans. 0.075 cm/hr

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 3. The following mass curve was obtained fora14-hr effective rainfall period that occurred on
a catchment area of 25 km2. Calculate the ordinates of effective rainfall hyetograph and the
runoff volume, when the ϕ index is 0.35 cm/hr.
Time (h) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Accumulated rainfall (cm) 0 1.0 3.0 5.5 7.7 8.0 9.0 10.0
Ans. 1.375 x 106 m3

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 4. Anjuman’s Lake has a surface area of 70.8 ha. For the month of April the inflow was 1.5
m3/s. The dam regulated the outflow from Anjuman’s Lake to be 1.25 m3/s. If the
precipitation recorded for the month was 7.62 cm and the storage volume increased by an
estimated 650, 000 m3, what is the estimated evaporation in cubic meters and centimeters?
Assume that no water infiltrates into or out of the bottom of Anjuman’s L ake.
Ans. 7.06 cm/mo

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 5. In a canal, water has to be released from a reservoir for use at a location 50 km away from
the reservoir. Assume that the average width of the canal stream is 35 m. From a class A
tank, the measured mean daily evaporation is 0.5 cm. Determine the mean daily
evaporation loses from this canal stream. Assume that the evaporation pan coefficient is
0.7.
Ans. 0.6125 ha-m/day

6. Determine the amount of evapotranspiration from an area if the total rainfall precipitated
during a storm is 9.00 mm, the antecedent moisture near the root in the soil is 4.00 mm, the
loss of water due to seepage is 2.0 mm, losses due to percolation are 1.5 mm, the surface
runoff is 2.0 mm and the moisture retained in the soil is 1.00 mm.
Ans 6.5 mm

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