Introduction General Organic, and Biochemistry: Twelfth Edition

Introduction General
Organic, and
Biochemistry
Twelfth Edition
Bettelheim, Brown, Campbell, Farrell, Torres, Introduction General Organic, and Biochemistry, Twelfth Edition. © 2020
Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole
or in part.
Chapter 1
Matter, Energy, and Measurement
© 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly
accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chemistry
Chemistry The study of matter.

• Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
Matter can change from one form to another.
• In a chemical change (chemical reaction), substances are used up and others
formed in their place.
Example: When propane (bottled or LP gas) burns in air, propane and
oxygen are converted to carbon dioxide and water.
• In a physical change, matter does not lose its identity.
• A common physical change is a change of state.
Example: Ice (solid water) melts to become liquid water; liquid water boils to
become steam (gaseous water).
Scientific Method (1 of 2)
Fact: A statement based on direct experience.

Hypothesis A statement that is proposed, without actual proof, to
explain a set of facts or their relationship.
Theory The formulation of an apparent relationship among
certain observed phenomena, which has been verified to some
extent.
• In a sense, a theory is the same as a hypothesis except that we have a
stronger belief in it because more evidence supports it.
• If, however, we find new evidence that conflicts with the theory, it must be
altered or rejected.
Scientific Method (2 of 2)
If experiments contradict the theory, the

theory may have to be modified or
discarded
A unifying principle that explains a body of
observations and the laws a based on
them; suggests new experiments
Summarizes and explains a wide range of
observations
Direct observations (facts) about the
behavior of matter
Exponential Notation
Used to represent very large or very small numbers as

powers of 10.
• Examples:
0.00002 is written as 2 x 10–5
2,000,000 is written as 2 x 106
Metric System (1 of 2)
Table 1.1 Base Units in the Metric System

Length meter (m)
Volume liter (L)
Mass gram (g)
Time second (s)
Temperature kelvin (K)
Amount of substance mole (mol)
Metric System (2 of 2)
Table 1.2 The Most Common Metric Prefixes
Prefix Symbol Value
giga G 109 = 1,000,000,000 (one billion)
mega M 106 = 1,000,000 (one million)
kilo k 103 = 1000 (one thousand)
deci d 10−1 = 0.1 (one-tenth)
centi C 10−2 = 0.01 (one-hundredth)
milli m 10−3 = 0.001 (one-thousandth)
micro µ 10−6 = 0.000001 (one-millionth)
nano n 10−9 = 0.000000001 (one-billionth)
pico p 10−12 = 0.000000000001 (one-trillionth)
Significant Figures
1. Nonzero digits are always significant. For example 233.1 has four
significant figures; 2.3g has two.
2. Zeros at the beginning of a number are never significant. For example
0.0055 L has two significant figures.
3. Zeros at the end of a number that contains a decimal point are always
significant. For example 3.00 L has three significant figures. 0.0450 mm
also has three.
4. Zeros at the end of a number that contains no decimal point may or may
not be significant. For example, the number of significant figures for
$36,000 is ambiguous while $36,000.00 contains seven significant figures.
Likewise, 5,000 mL contains an unknown number of significant figures but
5,000. mL contains four significant figures.
Metric & English Systems
Table 1.3 Some Conversion Factors Between the English and

Metric Systems
Length Mass Volume
1 in. = 2.54 cm 1 oz = 28.35 g 1 qt = 0.946 L
1 m = 39.37 in. 1 lb = 453.6 g 1 gal = 3.785 L
1 mile = 1.609 km 1 kg = 2.205 lb 1 L = 33.81 fl oz
1 g = 15.43 grains 1 fl oz = 29.57 mL
1 L = 1.057 qt
accessible website, in whole or in part. 1
Mass and Weight
Mass The quantity of matter in an object.

• Mass is independent of location.
Weight The result of mass acted upon by gravity.

• Weight depends on location; depends on the force of gravity at
the particular location.
Temperature
Fahrenheit (F) Defined by setting the normal freezing point of water at 32°F
and the normal boiling point of water at 212°F.
Celsius (C) Defined by setting the normal freezing point of water at 0°C and
the normal boiling point of water at 100°C.
9° 5 °
°
F  C  32 °
C   F  32 
5 9
Kelvin (K) Zero is the lowest possible temperature; also called the absolute scale.
• A Kelvin degree is the same size as a Celsius degree
• K =°C + 273
Factor-Label Method
Conversion factor A ratio of two different units, used as a multiplier to

change from one system or unit to another.
• For example, 1 lb = 453.6 g
• Example: Convert 381 grams to pounds.
• Example: Convert 1.844 gallons to milliliters. Here we use two

conversion factors: from gallons to liters and then from liters to milliliters
The Three States of Matter
Gas
• Has no definite shape or volume.
• Expands to fill whatever container it is put into.
• Is highly compressible.
Liquid
• Has no definite shape but a definite volume.
• Is only slightly compressible.
Solid
• Has a definite shape and volume.
• Is essentially incompressible.
Density
Density The ratio of mass to volume.
d = density
m
d m = mass
v
V = volume
• The most commonly used units are g/mL for liquids and solids,
and g/L for gases.
• Example: If 73.2 mL of a liquid has a mass of 61.5 g, what is its
density in g/mL?
m 61.5 g
d   0.840 g/mL
v 73.2 mL
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity The density of a substance compared

to water as a standard.
• Because specific gravity is the ratio of two densities, it has no
units (it is dimensionless).
• Example: The density of copper at 20°C is 8.92 g/mL. The
density of water at this temperature is 1.00 g/mL. What is the
specific gravity of copper?
Energy (1 of 2)
Energy The capacity to do work.

• May be either kinetic energy or potential energy.
Kinetic energy (KE) The energy of motion
1 2
KE  mv
2
• KE increases as the object’s velocity increases.
• At the same velocity, a heavier object has greater KE.
Potential energy The energy an object has because of its
position; stored energy
Energy (2 of 2)
• Examples of kinetic energy are mechanical energy, light, heat,

and electrical energy.
• In chemistry, the most important forms of potential energy are
chemical energy and nuclear energy.
• Chemical energy is stored in chemical substances as, for example, in
foods such as carbohydrates and fats.
• It is given off when substances take part in chemical reactions.
• The law of conservation of energy
• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
• Energy can be converted from one form to another.
Heat and Temperature
Heat is a form of energy.

• Heating refers to the energy transfer process when two objects of
different temperature are brought into contact.
• Heat energy always flows from the hotter object to the cooler one until the
two have the same temperature.
• Heat is commonly measured in calories (cal), which is the heat necessary
to raise the temperature of 1 g of liquid water by 1°C.
• Calorie is not part of the SI. The official SI unit of heat is the joule (J),
which is about ¼ of a calorie.
1 cal = 4.184 J
Specific Heat (1 of 2)
Specific heat (SH) The amount of heat necessary to raise

the temperature of 1.00 g of a substance by 1.00°C.
Specific Heat (2 of 2)
The following equation gives the relationship between specific heat,

amount of heat, the mass of an object, and the change in temperature.
The units of specific heat are calories per gram per degree C (cal/g × °C)
Amount of heat = specific heat × mass × change in temperature

= SH × m × (T2 − T1)
Example: How many calories are required to heat 352 g of water from
23°C to 95°C? The specific heat of water is 1.00 cal/g × °C)
Chapter 1 Matter, Energy, and Measurement
End
Chapter 1

Introduction General Organic, and Biochemistry: Twelfth Edition

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Introduction General Organic, and Biochemistry: Twelfth Edition

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Introduction General

Matter, Energy, and Measurement

Chemistry The study of matter.

Fact: A statement based on direct experience.

If experiments contradict the theory, the

Used to represent very large or very small numbers as

Table 1.1 Base Units in the Metric System

Table 1.3 Some Conversion Factors Between the English and

Mass The quantity of matter in an object.

Weight The result of mass acted upon by gravity.

Conversion factor A ratio of two different units, used as a multiplier to

• Example: Convert 1.844 gallons to milliliters. Here we use two

Density The ratio of mass to volume.

Specific gravity The density of a substance compared

Energy The capacity to do work.

• Examples of kinetic energy are mechanical energy, light, heat,

Heat is a form of energy.

Specific heat (SH) The amount of heat necessary to raise

The following equation gives the relationship between specific heat,

Amount of heat = specific heat × mass × change in temperature

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