Introduction General Organic, and Biochemistry: Twelfth Edition

Introduction General
Organic, and
Biochemistry
Twelfth Edition
Bettelheim, Brown, Campbell, Farrell, Torres, Introduction General Organic, and Biochemistry, Twelfth Edition. © 2020
Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole
or in part.
Chapter 2
Atoms
© 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly
accessible website, in whole or in part.
Classification of Matter (1 of 4)
Figure 2-1 Classification of matter.
Element: A substance (for example, carbon, hydrogen,

and iron) that consists of identical atoms.
• There are 118 known elements.
• Of these, 98 occur in nature; the others have been made by
chemists and physicists.
• Their symbols consist of one or two letters.
• Names are derived from a variety of sources: the English name
of the element, people important in atomic science, geographic
locations, planets, mythological sources, etc.
Compound: A pure substance that is made up of two or

more elements in a fixed ratio by mass.
Formula of a compound: tells us the ratios of its
constituent elements and identifies each element by its
atomic symbol.
• NaCl: the ratio of sodium atoms to chlorine atoms in sodium
chloride is 1:1
• H2O: the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in water is 2:1
A Water Molecule
Figure 2-2 Four representations of a water molecule.
Mixture: A combination of two or more pure substances.

• The substances may be present in any mass ratio.
• Each substance has a different set of physical properties.
• Mixtures may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
• If we know the physical properties of the individual components of the
mixture, we can use appropriate physical means to separate the mixture
into its component parts.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• John Dalton (1766–1844)

• All matter is composed of very tiny particles, which Dalton
called atoms.
• All atoms of the same element have the same chemical
properties. Atoms of different elements have different chemical
properties.
• Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or
more of the same or different kinds of atoms.
• Molecules are a tightly bound combination of two or more
atoms that act as a single unit.
Evidence for Dalton’s Theory (1 of 2)
Law of Conservation of Mass

• Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.
• As Dalton explained, if matter is made up of indestructible atoms,
then any chemical reaction just changes the attachments among
atoms, but does not destroy the atoms themselves.
Evidence for Dalton’s Theory (2 of 2)
Monatomic, Diatomic, and Polyatomic Elements

Monatomic elements consist of single atoms; for example, helium (He)
and neon (Ne).
Diatomic elements: There are seven elements that occur as diatomic
molecules:
• H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2
Polyatomic elements: Some elements have three or more atoms per molecule:
• O3, P4, S8
• Diamond has millions of carbon atoms bonded together to form one gigantic cluster.
accessible website, in whole or in part. 1
Subatomic Particles
Table 2.1 Properties and Location within Atoms of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Mass (amu);
Subatomic Location in
Charge Mass (g) Mass (amu) Rounded to One
Particle an Atom
Significant Figure
Proton +1 1.6726 1.0073 1 In the nucleus
× 10−24
Electron −1 9.1094 5.4858 0.0005 Outside the
× 10−28 × 10−4 nucleus
Neutron 0 1.6726 1.0087 1 In the nucleus
× 10−24
• The unit of mass is given in atomic mass units (amu).

• One amu is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon with 6 protons and 6
neutrons in its nucleus.
1amu = 1.6605 × 10−24 g
A Typical Atom
Figure 2.6 Relative sizes of the atomic nucleus and

an atom.
Mass and Atomic Number
Mass number: The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in

the nucleus of an atom.
• The mass of the electrons in an atom is so small compared to that of its
protons and neutrons that electrons are not counted in determining mass
number.
Atomic number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
A carbon atom of this composition is referred to as carbon-12.

Isotopes
Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but a

different number of neutrons.
• Carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons
Most elements found on Earth are mixtures of isotopes.
• Chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 (18 neutrons) and 24.23%
chlorine-37 (20 neutrons).
Atomic Weight
Atomic weight: The weighted average of the masses (in

amu) of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element.
• Example: Chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 and 24.23% chlorine-37
Mass and Size of an Atom
Consider an atom of lead-208.

• A lead-208 atom has 82 protons, 82 electrons, and 208 – 82 = 126 neutrons.
• The mass of a lead-208 atom is 3.5 x 10–22 g.
• It requires 1.3 x 1024 atoms of lead-208 to make 1 lb.
• The diameter of a lead-208 atom is 3.1 x 10–10 m.
• Virtually all of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus, because
the nucleus contains its protons and neutrons.
• The diameter of a lead-208 nucleus is 1.6 x 10–14 m.
• The density of a lead-208 nucleus is 1.6 x 1014 g/cm3.
The Periodic Table
Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834–1907)

• Arranged the known elements in order of increasing atomic weight
beginning with hydrogen.
• He observed that when elements are arranged in this manner,
certain sets of properties recur periodically.
• He then arranged elements with recurring sets of properties in the
same column (vertical row); Li, Na, and K, for example, fall in the
same column and start new periods (horizontal rows).
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.8 The four halogens. Fluorine and chlorine are

gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid.
Classification of the Elements (1 of 3)
Figure 2.9 Classification of the elements.
Metals
• Are solids at room temperature (except for Hg, which is a liquid), shiny,
conduct electricity, and are ductile and malleable.
• Form alloys (solutions of one metal dissolved in another); brass, for
example, is an alloy of copper and zinc.
• In chemical reactions, they tend to give up electrons.
Nonmetals
• Except for hydrogen (H), they lie on the right side of the Periodic Table.
• Except for graphite, do not conduct electricity.
• In chemical reactions, they tend to accept electrons.
Metalloids
• They have some of the properties of metals and some of
nonmetals; for example, they are shiny like metals but, unlike
metals, do not conduct electricity.
• Six elements are classified as metalloids: boron, silicon,
germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium.
B Si Ge As Sb Te
• One of the metalloids, silicon, is a semiconductor; it does not
conduct electricity under certain applied voltages, but becomes
a conductor at higher applied voltages.
Examples of Periodicity (1 of 3)
Electron Configuration (1 of 12)
Electron configuration: The arrangement of electrons

in the extranuclear space.
• The energy of electrons in an atom is quantized, which means
that an electron in an atom can have only certain allowed
energies.
Ground-state electron configuration: The electron
configuration of the lowest energy state of an atom.
Table 2.5 Distribution of Electrons in Shells
Number of Electrons Relative Energies of

Shell
Shell Can Hold Electrons in Each Shell
4 32 Higher
3 18
2 8
1 2 Lower
Rule 1: Orbitals fill in the order of increasing energy from lowest to

highest. For elements in the first three periods; the order is
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d (Figure 2.13).
Rule 2: Each orbital can hold up to two electrons with spins
paired.
• With four electrons, the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled and are written 1s2 2s2.
• With an additional six electrons, the three 2p orbitals are filled and are
written either 2px2 2py2 2pz2, or they may be written 2p6.
Figure 2.13 Energy levels for orbitals through the third shell.
Figure 2.12 The 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals. Orbitals have

definite shapes and orientations in space
Figure 2.14 The pairing of electron spins.
Rule 3: When there is a set of orbitals of equal energy,

each orbital becomes half filled before any of them
becomes completely filled.
• Example: After the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled, a 5th electron
is put into the 2px, a 6th into the 2py, and a 7th into the 2pz.
Only after each 2p orbital has one electron is a second added
to any 2p orbital.
Orbital box diagrams

• A box represents an orbital.
• An arrow represents an electron.
• A pair of arrows with heads in opposite directions represents a pair of
electrons with paired spins.
Example: carbon (atomic number 6)
Noble gas notation

• The symbol of the noble gas immediately preceding the
particular atom indicates the electron configuration of all filled
shells
Example: carbon (atomic number 6)
Valence shell: The outermost incomplete shell.

Valence electron: An electron in the valence shell.
Lewis dot structure:
• The symbol of the element represents the nucleus and filled shells.
Figure 2.15 Electron configuration and the Periodic Table.
Periodic Properties (1 of 3)
• As we have seen, the Periodic Table was constructed on the

basis of trends (periodicity) in chemical properties.
• With an understanding of electron configuration, chemists
realized that the periodicity of chemical properties could be
understood in terms of periodicity in electron configuration.
• The Periodic Table worked because elements in the same
column (group) have the same configuration in their outer shells.
• We look at two periodic properties: Atomic size and ionization
energy.
The size (radius) of an atom is determined by the radius of its

outermost occupied orbitals.
• Example: The radius of a chlorine atom (99 pm) is determined
by the size of its three 3p orbitals, the radius of a carbon atom
(77 pm) is determined by the size of its three 2p orbitals.
Figure 2.16
Atomic radii of
the main-group
elements (in
picometers).
Ionization Energy (1 of 2)
Ionization energy: The energy required to remove the most

loosely held electron from an atom in the gaseous state.
• Example: When lithium loses one electron, it becomes a lithium
ion; it still has three protons in its nucleus, but now only two
electrons outside the nucleus, and therefore has a positive charge.
Ionization Energy (2 of 2)
Figure 2.17 Ionization energy versus atomic energy for

elements 1 through 37.
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is a periodic property:
• In general, it increases across a row; valence electrons are in the same shell and
subject to increasing attraction to the nucleus as the number of protons in the
nucleus increases.
• It increases going up a column; the valence electrons are in lower principal energy
levels, which are closer to the nucleus and feel the nuclear charge more strongly.
Chapter 2 Atoms
End
Chapter 2

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Introduction General

Figure 2-1 Classification of matter.

Element: A substance (for example, carbon, hydrogen,

Compound: A pure substance that is made up of two or

Figure 2-2 Four representations of a water molecule.

Mixture: A combination of two or more pure substances.

• John Dalton (1766–1844)

Law of Conservation of Mass

Monatomic, Diatomic, and Polyatomic Elements

• The unit of mass is given in atomic mass units (amu).

Figure 2.6 Relative sizes of the atomic nucleus and

Mass number: The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in

A carbon atom of this composition is referred to as carbon-12.

Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but a

Atomic weight: The weighted average of the masses (in

Consider an atom of lead-208.

Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834–1907)

Figure 2.8 The four halogens. Fluorine and chlorine are

Figure 2.9 Classification of the elements.

Electron configuration: The arrangement of electrons

Table 2.5 Distribution of Electrons in Shells

Number of Electrons Relative Energies of

Rule 1: Orbitals fill in the order of increasing energy from lowest to

Figure 2.12 The 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals. Orbitals have

Figure 2.14 The pairing of electron spins.

Rule 3: When there is a set of orbitals of equal energy,

Orbital box diagrams

Noble gas notation

Valence shell: The outermost incomplete shell.

Figure 2.15 Electron configuration and the Periodic Table.

• As we have seen, the Periodic Table was constructed on the

The size (radius) of an atom is determined by the radius of its

Ionization energy: The energy required to remove the most

Figure 2.17 Ionization energy versus atomic energy for

Ionization energy is a periodic property:

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