( ( (- ( '

Licence Category A, 81, 82 and 83

Electrical Fundamentals
3.c.i cieci:i or u 1eory
Module 3.1 c~ec ron Yheo1y
Certification Statement and Objectives
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA
Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex Ill (Part-66) Appendix I,
its amendment, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:

Part-66 Knowledge Levels

Objective
Ref. A 81 82 83
Electron Theory 3.1 1 1 1 1
Structure and
distribution of electrical
charges within: atoms,
molecules, ions,
compounds.

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Module 3.1 ~]ectronTheory
Table of Contents
CertificationStatementandObjectives-------- 2
Natureof matter 6
Structureof atoms 8
Protons 8
Neutrons 8
Electrons 8
Electronarrangements 10
Shells 10
Subshells 12
Ionisation 12
Examples of electron arrangements 12
Valency 14
Energy levels 18
Elements,ions andcompounds 22
Elements 22
Compounds 24
Conductors, semiconductors and non-conductors 30
Summary 34

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Module 3.1 Eieeiron Theory
Nature of matter
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose properties we
study in chemistry. However, from experiments done in the late
19th and early 20th century it was deduced that atoms were
made up of three fundamental sub-atomic particles.
The early Greek philosophers proposed that all matter is made
up of incredibly small but discrete units (like the bricks in our
wall example). Democritus (460 - 370 BC) was the first to call
these units 'atomos'. From this phrase came the term atom that
we use today. Atomos is a Greek phrase which means 'not cut'
or 'that which is indivisible'.
Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed during chemical
reactions.
All atoms are, crudely speaking, the same size and can be
thought to consist of two main parts. The outer part is
composed of one or more orbits of electrons.
Also, what we perceive as the mass of an object is related
directly to the number of protons and neutrons contained it.
The simplest atom is hydrogen which has a single proton for a
nucleus. An atom of lead, on the other hand, has 82 protons
and 125 neutrons in its nucleus and so has 207 (125 + 82)
times as much material or substance as an atom of hydrogen.
The size of an atom bears no simple relation to the number of
particles in its nucleus. A sodium atom, for example, with
11 protons and 12 neutrons is approximately the same size as
an atom of mercury with 80 protons and 121 neutrons.
In general, we can say that the size of an atom is determined
by its electron orbits, its substance is determined by the total
number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.

These orbits make up most of the volume of the atom yet

contributes practically nothing to its substance. The other part,
located at the centre, is extremely small compared to the atom
as a whole, yet essentially all of the real substance of the atom
can be attributed to this small speck. We call this speck the
nucleus.

Further investigation revealed that the nucleus is actually

composed of two kinds of particles of a roughly equal size and
substance packed closely together. These nuclear particles are
the proton and neutron. When we refer to the amount of
material or substance in an object, we are really talking about
the number of protons and neutrons in that object.

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Module 3.1 E~ect~~on Theory
Structure of atoms
Atoms cannot be seen with the naked eye, only recently has
this been possible, with very powerful microscopes. However,
scientists have a good idea of how they behave in different
situations. Based on these ideas, they have developed a model
of what the atom looks like, to help us understand atoms better.
The modern model of the atom teaches us that all atoms are
made up of sub-atomic particles. Sub-atomic means 'smaller
than the atom'.
Protons
The protons are deep inside the atom, in a zone called the
nucleus. The protons are said to be positively charged.
Electrons
Electrons are the smallest of the three sub-atomic particles.
Electrons are nearly 2,000 times smaller than protons and
neutrons. The electrons move in a zone around the atomic
nucleus at extremely high speeds, forming an electron cloud
that is much larger than the nucleus. Have a look again at the
diagram which shows a model of the atom to see this.
What Is An Atom?
https://youtu.be/o-311 JGW-Ck
What Is An Atom - Part 1 I Chemistry for All I FuseSchool
https ://youtu. be/7VZApOzxYC4

• When two protons get near each other, they push each What Is An Atom - Part 2 - Isotopes I Chemistry for All I
other away. FuseSchool
• When an electron gets near a proton, they attract each https://youtu. be/51zQgewbj Es
other.
• Two electrons will also push each other away.

Scientists use the word 'charge' to represent the property these

particles have. We observe that:

• like charges repel (meaning the same charges push

each other away); and
• opposite charges attract.

Neutrons
Neutrons are particles that are neither positively nor negatively
charged. They are neutral. The neutrons together with protons
form the tightly packed nucleus at the centre of the atom.

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In the nucleus

r
1 + 1 (positive) In the nucleus
[ Electron ~.850 -1 (negative) Arranged in energy levels or
shells around the nucleus
The sub-atomic components of atoms

Electrons, neutrons, protons.

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Electron arrangements
Shells
The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around Electrons in the same orbit have the same energies. The
the nucleus and with increasing distance from the nucleus. The electron orbits are also called electron energy levels or shells.
shells are lettered from the innermost shell outwards from K to Electronic shells are known as K shell, L shell, M shell, N shell
Q. There are rules about the maximum number of electrons corresponding to orbit number n=1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
allowed in each shell. Higher number orbits are assigned shell names in alphabetical
order after N.
• The 1st shell (K) has a maximum of 2 electrons
• The 2nd shell (L) has a maximum of 8 electrons
• The 3rd shell (M) has a maximum of 18 electrons
• The 4th shell (N) has a maximum of 32 electrons

Our knowledge about the structure of atoms depends on the

mathematical formulations predicted by Neils Bohr. He
suggested that electrons are distributed in orbits and the number
of electrons held in the orbit depends on the number of the orbit.
The orbits are counted outwards from the nucleus. Higher the
orbit number, the further the electrons are in that orbit from the
nucleus. If the orbit number is "n", then the maximum electrons
held in the orbit is given as 2n2. The first orbit has n=1 and will
hold a maximum of two electrons, the second orbit has n=2 and
is capable of holding a total of eight electrons; similarly, the third
orbit will be able to contain 18 electrons and so on. This is known
as Pauli's exclusion principle.

Electrons within an atom have definite energies. The electrons

closest to the nucleus (n=1) are most tightly bound; the reason
is that of the stronger electrostatic attraction with the nucleus.
Electrons in the highest orbit are least tightly bound.

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~-~

-
( 1Qp+
\ -

=:«.
~----~
Helium (Z=2) Neon (Z=10)
Shell number

The atomic structure of helium and neon Electron shell ( orbit) designation

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Module 3.1 E:~ectronTheory
Subshells
Shells also have subshells. The subshells define the energy
levels.
's, p, d, f' are the names given to the subshells that hold the
electrons in the shells of atoms. These orbitals have different
shapes (e.g. electron density distributions) and energies (e.g. 1 s
is lower energy than 2s which is lower energy than 3s; 2s is
lower energy than 2p).
Physicists and chemists use a standard notation to indicate the
electron configurations of atoms. The notation consists of a
sequence of atomic orbital labels (e.g. for phosphorus the
sequence 1 s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p) with the number of electrons
assigned to each orbital (or set of orbitals sharing the same
label) placed as a superscript.
For example, hydrogen has one electron in the s-orbital of the
first shell, so its configuration is written 1 s 1. Lithium has two
electrons in the 1 s-subshell and one in the (higher-energy)
2s-subshell, so its configuration is written 1 s2 2s 1 (pronounced
"one-s-two, two-s-one"), Phosphorus (atomic number 15) is as
follows: 1 s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3.
For atoms with many electrons, this notation can become
lengthy and so an abbreviated notation is used, since all but the
last few subshells are identical to those of one or another of the
noble gases. Phosphorus, for instance, differs from neon
(1 s2 2s2 2p6) only by the presence of a third shell. Thus, the
electron configuration of neon is pulled out, and phosphorus is
written as follows: [Ne] 3s2 3p3. This convention is useful as it is
the electrons in the outermost shell that most determine the
chemistry of the element.
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Ionisation
When the atom loses electrons or gains electrons in this process
of electron exchange, it is said to be ionised. For ionisation to
take place, there must be a transfer of energy which results in a
change in the internal energy of the atom. An atom having more
than its normal number of electrons acquires a negative charge
and is called a negative ion ( or 'anion'). The atom that gives up
some of its normal electrons is left with less negative charges
than positive charges and is called a positive ion (or 'cation').
Thus, ionisation is the process by which an atom loses or gains
electrons.
• Cation - A cation is a positively charged ion. Metals
typically form cations.
• Anion - An anion is a negatively charged ion. Non-
metals typically form anions.
Examples of electron arrangements
The diagrams below show some examples of electron
arrangements in the shells of the respective atoms. Subshells
are not shown.
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On period 1 hydrogen (1) 1 On period 3

•=electron
helium (2) 2
(atomic number) sodium (11) 2.8.7 chlorine (17) 2.8.7 argon (18) 2.8.8
or
(electrons)

Electron arrangement of hydrogen and helium Electron arrangement of sodium, chlorine and argon

On period 2 On period 4

lithium (3) 2.1 carbon (6) 2.4 neon (10) 2.8 potassium calcium
(19) 2.8.8.1 (20) 2.8.8.2

Electron arrangement of lithium, carbon and neon Electron arrangement of potassium and calcium

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Module 3.1 c~eciron Yl1eo y
Valency
Hydrogen is the simplest element. It has one electron. Its outer Please note that both nitrogen and phosphorus can also have
shell only holds two electrons. Let us use hydrogen as a a valency of 5. Some atoms are capable of having more than
standard to see how other atoms combine with it. The table one valence. That will confuse the issue, so we will talk about
below lists the simplest compound of selected elements with normal valency.
hydrogen.
Now to oxygen and sulphur. Both have six outer electrons. Six
Valency can be simply defined as the number of hydrogen is two short of a full shell. Their normal valences are 2 and they
atoms that an element can combine with. In the table, helium, combine with two atoms of hydrogen.
neon and argon have a valency of 0. They do not normally form
compounds. Finally, fluorine and chlorine - seven outer electrons. This is
one short of a full shell. They both combine with a single
Lithium, sodium and potassium have a valency of 1 because hydrogen atom and their normal valences are 1.
they combine with one hydrogen atom. Beryllium, magnesium
and calcium all have a valency of 2: they combine with two As a side note, chlorine can also have valences of 3, 5 and 7.
hydrogen atoms. Note that the valences of all these atoms are The reasons are well beyond the scope of these notes.
equal to the number of outer electrons that these elements
The rules above can be summarised as follows:
have.
The normal valency of an atom is equal to the number of
Boron and aluminium combine with three hydrogen atoms -
outer electrons if that number is four or less. Otherwise,
their valences are 3 - and they have three outer electrons.
the valency is equal to eight minus the number of outer
Carbon and silicon combine with four hydrogen atoms. The electrons.
valency of these elements is 4. It will come as no surprise that
The atoms with full electron shells (helium, neon, argon) are
they both have four outer electrons. Any element with four
chemically inert forming few compounds. The atoms don't even
electrons in its outer shell is known as a semiconductor.
interact with each other very much. These elements are gases
What about nitrogen and phosphorus? They have five outer with very low boiling points.
electrons. But they normally only combine with three hydrogen
atoms. Their valences are 3. Note that three is five less than
eight. These atoms are three electrons short of a full shell.

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The atoms with a single outer electron or a single missing
electron are all highly reactive. Sodium is more reactive than
magnesium. Chlorine is more reactive than oxygen. Generally
speaking, the closer an atom is to having a full electron shell, Lithium Li
the more reactive it is. Atoms with one outer electron are more [ Beryllium Be 2 BeH2
reactive than those with two outer electrons, etc. Atoms that are
Boron B 3 BH3
one electron short of a full shell are more reactive than those
that are two short. [ Carbon c 4 CH4
Nitrogen N 5 NH3
Atoms with only a few electrons in its outer shell are good
Loxygen 0 6 H20
electrical conductors. Atoms with eight or close to eight
electrons in their outer shells are poor conductors (or good Fluorine F 7 HF
insulators). This is why atoms with four electrons in its outer [ Neon Ne Full None
shell are semiconductors. Sodium Na 1 NaH
l Magnesium Mg 2 MgH2
t Aluminium Al 3 AIH3
Silicon Si 4 SiH4
Phosphorus p 5 PH3
Sulphur s 6 H2S
Chlorine Cl 7 HCI
Argon Ar Full None
Potassium K 1 KH
Calcium Ca 2 CaH2

Electrons in outer shells of some common elements

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Module 3.1 Eiectron Theory
When a semiconductor (such as silicon or germanium) atom
bonds with another similar atom, it does so covalently. Each
atom shares one electron with four neighbour atoms. Thus all
its electrons are used up in what becomes a solid lattice of
semiconductor atoms. The solid material has, therefore, no free
electrons (and no holes for electrons to fit into).

The following names are given to ions of the specific number

of electron bindings (valence):

• 1 electron binding - monovalent

• 2 electron binding - divalent
• 3 electron binding - trivalent
• 4 electron binding - tetravalent
• 5 electron binding - pentavalent
• 6 electron binding - hexavalent

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Module 3.1 E'.~ectron Theory
Energy levels
Since an electron in an atom has both mass and motion, it
contains two types of energy. By virtue of its motion, the
electron contains kinetic energy. Due to its position, it also
contains potential energy. The total energy contained by an
electron (kinetic plus potential) is the factor which determines
the radius of the electron orbit. In order for an electron to remain
in this orbit, it must neither gain nor lose energy.
It is well known that light is a form of energy, but the physical
form in which this energy exists is not known
One accepted theory proposes the existence of light as tiny
packets of energy called photons. Photons can contain various
quantities of energy. The amount depends upon the colour of
the light involved. Should a photon of sufficient energy collide
with an orbital electron, the electron will absorb the photon's
energy, as shown in the figure below. The electron, which now
has a greater than normal amount of energy, will jump to a new
orbit farther from the nucleus. The first new orbit to which the
electron can jump has a radius four times as large as the radius
of the original orbit. Had the electron received a greater amount
of energy, the next possible orbit to which it could jump would
have a radius nine times the original. Thus, each orbit may be
considered to represent one of a large number of energy levels
that the electron may attain. It must be emphasised that the
electron cannot jump to just any orbit. The electron will remain
in its lowest orbit until a sufficient amount of energy is available,
at which time the electron will accept the energy and jump to
one of a series of permissible orbits. An electron cannot exist
in the space between energy levels.
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This indicates that the electron will not accept a photon of
energy unless it contains enough energy to elevate itself to one
of the higher energy levels. Heat energy and collisions with
other particles can also cause the electron to jump orbits.
Once the electron has been elevated to an energy level higher
than the lowest possible energy level, the atom is said to be in
an excited state.
The electron will not remain in this excited condition for more
than a fraction of a second before it will radiate the excess
energy and return to a lower energy orbit. To illustrate this
principle, assume that a normal electron has just received a
photon of energy sufficient to raise it from the first to the third
energy level. In a short period of time, the electron may jump
back to the first level emitting a new photon identical to the one
it received.
A second alternative would be for the electron to return to the
lower level in two jumps; from the third to the second, and then
from the second to the first. In this case, the electron would emit
two photons, one for each jump. Each of these photons would
have less energy than the original photon which excited the
electron.
This principle is used in the fluorescent light where ultraviolet
light photons, which are not visible to the human eye, bombard
a phosphor coating on the inside of a glass tube. The phosphor
electrons, in returning to their normal orbits, emit photons of
light that are visible. By using the proper chemicals for the
phosphor coating, any colour of light may be obtained,
including white.
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New orbit Old orbit

\~/ / '
\
( +
)
\
-~/

Energy levels in an atom

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Module 3.1 ~iectron Yheory
This same principle is also used in lighting up the screen of a
television picture tube.

The basic principles just developed apply equally well to the

atoms of more complex elements. In atoms containing two or
more electrons, the electrons interact with each other and the
exact path of any single electron is very difficult to predict.
However, each electron lies in a specific energy band and the
orbits will be considered as an average of the electron's
position.

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Module 3.1 EiectronTt eory @ ,,.
.

Elements, ions and compounds

There are only two classes of pure substances, namely
elements and compounds. To understand the difference
between the two, look at the two diagrams below.

Elements
Elements are pure substances made up of atoms with the same
number of protons. An element is a material that is made up of
atoms of only one kind.

Note that an element:

• consists of indivisible, minute particles called atoms;

• consists of only one kind of atom, all atoms of a given
element are identical;
• cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by
either physical or chemical means;
• can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g.
nitrogen);
• atoms of different elements have different masses; and
• is identified by the number of protons in its nucleus - the
number of neutrons may change (isotopes) and/or the
number of electrons may change (ions) but the element
will retain its identity.

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O oOOO
Oo O Oo
000 o0
O oo
000 00
00 0
An element consists of atoms
that are all the same kind A compound consists of two or more
kinds of atoms in a fixed ratio.

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Module 3.1 Eiectron 'l'heory
Compounds
A compound is a material that is made up of two or more kinds
of atoms that are chemically bonded together. The properties
of a compound are different from the atoms that make it up.

Chemical synthesis is the name given to the purposeful

execution of chemical reactions to obtain a compound.

Compounds can only be broken down chemically (i.e. by a

chemical reaction). The splitting of a compound into its
constituent elements is called chemical analysis,
decomposition or breakdown.

Note that a compound:

• consists of atoms of two or more different elements

bound together chemically;
• can be broken down into a simpler type of matter
(elements) by chemical means (but not by physical
means);
• has properties that are different from its component
elements; and
• always contains the same ratio of its component atoms.

There are at least 118 elements in our known universe. They

can form compounds by bonding in millions of different
combinations - far too many to discuss here.

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~
\)

~O)~~
0) ~
&)J th ~

0)
6JJ
~ \) 0)
{;)J C1c9
80J B t1 8
Atoms of an Molecules of an Molecules of a Mixture of elements
element element compound and a compound

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A water molecule representation

(oxygen and hydrogen)

Chemical symbol H20

The white, grey, and red spheres represent atoms of

hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, respectively.

Oxygen (02)

Water (H20)

•••
Carbon dioxide (C02)
Ethanol glycol ((CH20H)2)
Aspirin (CgHs04)

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Module 3.1 k':'.iectr n rfheory
Example
The compound with the formula H202also consists of hydrogen
atoms and oxygen atoms. The formula tells us that one
molecule of this substance is made up of two atoms of
hydrogen and two atoms of oxygen. Is H202 the same as
water?

No. Do not confuse H202 with H20. H202 is a compound called

hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is similar to water in
that it is a clear, colourless liquid at room temperature (25°C)
though more viscous, it is different in many ways. The following
properties of hydrogen peroxide may convince you that it is not
the same as water.

• Hydrogen peroxide has a boiling point of 150°C and it is

a very effective bleach for clothes and hair.
• Concentrated hydrogen peroxide is so reactive that it is
used as a component in rocket fuel.
• Hydrogen peroxide is extremely corrosive.
• We can drink water, but hydrogen peroxide is very
hazardous and harmful.

Even though they are made up of exactly the same elements,

the two compounds are very different and should never be
confused with one another.

The purpose of the comparison of hydrogen peroxide and water

above was to show you that the atoms in a given compound
are always combined in a fixed ratio. In all water molecules in
the universe, there will always be one O atom and two H atoms
bonded together.

--
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Module 3.1 Eiectron Theory
Conductors, semiconductor
s and non-conductor
s

Conductors (insulators)
In a conductor, electric current can flow freely, in an insulator
it cannot. Metals such as copper typify conductors, while most
non-metallic solids are said to be good insulators, having
extremely high resistance to the flow of electrical charge
through them.

'Conductor' implies that the outer electrons of the atoms are

loosely bound and free to move through the material. Most
atoms hold on to their electrons tightly and are insulators. In
copper, the valence electrons are essentially free and strongly
repel each other. Any external influence which moves one of
them will cause a repulsion of other electrons which
propagates, similar to a cascade of dominos, through the
conductor.

Simply stated, most metals are good electrical conductors,

most non-metals are not. Metals are also generally good heat
conductors while non-metals are not.

Insulators
Most solid materials are classified as insulators because they
offer very large resistance to the flow of electric current. Metals
are classified as conductors because their outer electrons are
not tightly bound, but in most materials, even the outermost
electrons are so tightly bound that there is essentially zero
electron flow through them with ordinary voltages. Some
materials are particularly good insulators and can be
characterised by their high resistivities

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Plastic insulator

Copper conductor

An electrical wire has both a conductor

material and an insulating material

Ceramic insulators are commonly used in electrical pylons

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Module 3.1 ~iectron C:Jheory
Semiconductors
Solid materials are classified by the way the atoms are Conductors and Non-Conductors I Chemistry for All I The Fuse
arranged within the solid. Materials in which atoms are placed School
at random are called amorphous. Materials in which atoms are https://youtu. be/U8IFo 7 ykHu U
placed in a highly ordered structure are called crystalline.

Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with

distinct electrical characteristics. They are of high resistance -
higher than typical resistance materials, but still of much lower
resistance than insulators.

Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases,

which is a behaviour opposite to that of a metal.

Pure semiconductors have only a small number of free

electrons available and pass a limited amount of electrical
current. In general, their valence electrons are tightly bound
within their crystal (lattice) structure.

Semiconductors are extremely important in modern electronics

because they can be used to control the amount of current in
an electrical system. Their conducting properties may be
altered in useful ways by the deliberate, controlled introduction
of impurities (called 'doping') into the crystal structure, which
lowers its resistance but also permits the creation of
semiconductor junctions between differently-doped regions of
the extrinsic semiconductor crystal.

Although some pure elements and many compounds display

semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds
of gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices. All
these elements have four electrons in their outer shell
(tetravalent).

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Module 3.1 i:ieciror1 Yheory

Semiconductor crystal materials and

light emitting diodes (LEDs), in
which semiconductor materials are
used in their construction and
operation

Each atom in a silicon lattice has its valence

electrons tightly bound within the lattice structure.
Doping with impurities can create specific
amounts of holes and free electrons, thus
controlling the conductivity

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Module 3.1 _J~ectron Theory (9 ..
.

Summary
Atomic Electronsper shell
No. Element K l M N O P Q

Helium 2 32 Germanium 2 8 18 4
3 Lithium 2 1 33 Arsenic 2 8 18 5
4 Beryllium 2 2 34 Selenium 2 8 18 6
5 !Boron D2 3 35 l Bromine 2 8 18 7
6 Carbon 4 36 Krypton 2 8 18 8
7
8
!Nitrogen
Oxygen
I 2
2
5
6
37
38
[§'ubidium
Strontium
2
2
8
8
I 18
18
8
8
I 1
2
9 Fluorine 2 7 39 Yttrium 2 8 T 18 9 2
10 Neon 2 8 40 Zirconium 2 8 18 10 2
11 Sodium 2 8 41 Niobium I 2 8 18 12
12 Magnesium 2 8 2 42 Molybdenum 2 8 18 13
13 lAluminium 2 fa l3 43 Technetium 2 8 [181 14
14 Silicon 2 8 4 44 Ruthenium 2 8 18 15
15
16
__] Phosphorus
Sulphur
2
2 8
al 5
6
45
46
Rhodium
Palladium
[ 2
2
8
8
I r 18
18
16
18
1
17 Chlorine 2 18 7 47 I Silver I 2 8 l 18 18] 1
Argon 2 8 8 48 Cadmium 2 8 18 18 2
118
19
20
TPotassium
Calcium
2
2
8 [a
8 8
[11
2
49
50
Indium
Tin
1 2
2
8
8
I 18
18
18J_
18
3
4
21 Scandium 2 8 l 9 I 2 51 Antimony 12
2
8
8
I 18
18
18
18
5
6
22 Titanium 2 8 10 2 52 Tellurium
23 Vanadium 2 8 11 2 53 Iodine [2 l 8 18 7
24 Chromium 2 8 13 1 54 Xenon 2 8 18 18 8
25 ! Manganese 2 8 13l 12 55 1caesium 2 8 I 18 8 8
26 Iron 2 8 14 2 56 Barium 2 8 18 8 8 2
27 Cobalt 2 8 15 2 57 Lanthanum 2 8
8
I 18
18
8
19
9
9
2
2
28 Nickel 2 8 16 2 58 Cerium 2
29 Copper 2 ] 8 [18 59 Praseodymium 2 8 18 20 9 2
30 Zinc 2 8 18 2 60 Neodymium 2 8 18 21 9 2

Electrons per shell

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Module 3.1 ~iectron Ylheory

62 Samarium 8 23 2 Francium 8 8 32 1
63 Europium 2 8 18 24 9 2 Radium 2 8 8 32 18 8 2
64 Gadolinium 2 8 18 25 9 2 Actinium 2 8 18 32 18 9 2
65 Terbium 2 8 18 26 9 2 Thorium 2 8 18 32 19 9 2
66 Dysprosium 2 8 18 27 9 2 Proaclinium 2 8 18 32 20 9 2
67 Holmium 2 8 18 28 9 2 Uranium 2 8 18 32 21 9 2
68 Erbium 2 8 18 29 9 2 Neptunium 2 8 18 32 22 9 2
69 Thulium 2 8 18 30 9 2 Plutonium 2 8 18 32 23 9 2
70 Ytterbium 2 8 18 31 9 2 Americium 2 8 18 32 24 9 2
71
72
Lutetium
Halnium
2
2
8
8
18
18
32
32
I 9
10
2
2
Curium
Berkelium
2
2
8
8
8
8
32
32
25
26
9
9
2
2
73
74
Tantalum r 2 8 18 32 11 2 98 Californium 2 8 8 32 27 9 2
Tungsten 2 8 18 32 12 2 99 Einsteinium 2 8 8 32 28 9 2
75 Rhenium 2 8 18 32 13 2 100 Fermium 2 8 8 32 29 9 2
76 Osmium 2 8 18 32 14 2 101 Mendelevium 2 8 18 32 30 9 2
77
78
Iridium
Platinum
I 2
2
8
8 8
8 32
32
15
16
2
2
102
103
Nobelium
Lawrencium
2
2
8
8
18
18
32
32
31
32
9 2
9 2
79 Gold 2 8 8 32 18
80 Mercury 2 8 8 32 18 2
81 Thallium 2 8 8 32 l 18 3
82 Lead 2 8 8 32 18 4
83 Bismuth 2 8 8 3il 18 5
84 Polonium 2 8 8 32 18 6
85 Asa tine 2 8 8 32~ 7

Electrons per shell

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