BFC 32002 Hydrology

Chapter 3. Evaporation, Transpiration & Infiltration

by
Mohd Ariff Ahmad Nazri
Ph.D, P.Tech, MIET
Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, the students should be able to :
• simulate the rate of evaporated and transpired water over time in
modeling conceptual.
• define the infiltration process and estimate the infiltration rate.

2
Introduction
Evapotranspiration (ET)
is the sum of
evaporation and plant
transpiration from the
earth's land surface to
atmosphere. (3)

Transpiration is
the process
where plants
absorb water
through the Infiltration is the
roots and then process by which
give off water precipitation or
vapour through water soaks into
pores in their subsurface soils
leaves. (2) and moves into
rocks through
cracks and pore
spaces (4)

Evaporation is the process by which water is

transformed from the liquid phase to vapour
phase (transferred from the land and water
masses of the earth toBFC32002_Ch3/ZARINA'S
the atmosphere) (1) 3
Meteorology Factors Affect the Evaporation
• Sun Radiation - sun light as the heat energy and cloud will be the barrier
of evaporation
• Wind - saturated vapor level in atmosphere will be changed into dry air by
wind blow
• Relative humidity- if the relative humidity is up, so then the potential of
air to absorb water is lower so then the evaporation is lower as well.
• Temperature- if the temperature of air and soil is high, so then the
process of evaporation is faster.

4
Estimating Evaporation
The methods :
1. the use of Pans
2. the Water Budget
Analytical
3. the Energy Budget Methods
4. Mass-Transfer

• instrumentation for energy budget and mass transfer methods is quite

expensive and the cost to maintain observations is substantial.
• the water budget method and use of evaporation pans are more common.
• the pan method is the least expensive and will frequently provide good
estimates of annual evaporation.

5
1. Water Budget Calculations
Water budget method, approximation with Storage Equation
Approach.

6
Example 3.1
The drainage area of the Sembrong River in Johore Malaysia, is 11,839 km2. If the
mean annual runoff is determined to be 144.4 m3/s and the average annual rainfall
is 1.08 m, estimate the ET losses for the area. How does this compare with the lake
evaporation of 1 m/year measured at Muar River.
Solution:
Assuming that G = 0 and ΔS = 0, ET = P- R

Runoff is converted from m3/s to m/year as follows:

R = [ 144.4 x 86,400 x 365]/[11,839 x 106] = 0.38 m

Therefore, ET = 1.08 – 0.38 = 0.7 m < 1 m/year

* The ET losses over the drainage basin are less than the measured lake ET
losses at Muar River.
7
2. Energy Budget Method
• This method uses all resources & thermal energy losses, while evaporation as the only
wanted variable.
• The energy budget method illustrate an application of the continuity equation to compute
the evaporation from oceans and lakes.
• The accuracy of estimates of evaporation depends on the reliability and preciseness of
measurement data.
• The energy budget equation:

BFC32002_Ch3/ZARINA'S 8
3. Mass Transfer Techniques
• Based on the concept of the turbulent transfer of water vapor to atmosphere.
• Three techniques applied :-
• Dalton’s equation

• Meyer’s equation

9
3. Mass Transfer Techniques
• Dunne equation

10
BFC32002_Ch3/ZARINA'S 11
Example 3.2
Using the Meyer and Dunne equations, find the daily evaporation rate for a lake given that
the mean value for air temperature was 87oF, the mean value for water temperature was
63oF, the average wind speed was 10 mph, and the relative humidity was 20%. Refer to
Table 3.1 for vapor pressure values.

Solution:

RH 0.26 in.Hg x 25.4mm/in. x 1

mb/0.75 mmHg = 8.8 milibar
Solution:
4. Use of evaporation pan
Evaporation Pan is made to simulate evaporation condition of free water surface. The pan
can be applied as follows:
1. On the land surface, there are two pans are
promoted:
• US Weather Bureau Class A Pan.
• GGI – 3000 Pan from Soviet Union.
2. In the land surface, Colorado Sunken Pan is the
only type can be proposed.
3. Floating on the water, this kind pan is floated on
the water, some installations are needed to prevent
water sprinkling enter the pan. It is to simulate the
real condition; however the reading has different
value with the evaporation of big water body like
lake and reservoir.

BFC32002_Ch3/ZARINA'S 14
15
16
Estimating Transpiration

3.3)

3.4)
Example 3.5
Determine the monthly consumptive use of an alfalfa crop
grown in southern California for the month of July if the
average monthly temperature is 72oF, the average value of
daytime hours in percentage of the year is 9.88, and the mean
montly consumptive use coefficient for alfalfa is 0.85.

Solution:
Using equation:
ktp
u=
100
= 0.85 x 72 x 9.88/100
= 6.05 in of water.
Example 3.5
Determine the seasonal consumptive use of a tomato
crop grown in New Jersey if the mean monthly
temperature for May, June, July and August are 61.6,
70.3, 75.1 and 73.4 o F, respectively and the percent
daylight hours for the given months are 10.02,
10.8,10.22 and 9.54 as percent of the year, respectively.
Solution:
Consumptive use coefficient is 0.65 to 0.70 ( tomatoes & 4
months). Since New Jersey is a humid area Ks = 0.65.
Evapotranspiration (ET)
Two concept:
1. Potential Evapotranspiration , Etp measure of the ability of
the atmosphere to remove water from the surface through the
processes of evaporation and transpiration assuming no
control on water supply
2. Actual Evapotranspiration, ETa is the quantity of water that
is actually removed from a surface due to the processes of
evaporation and transpiration.
Basically, there are three major approaches :
a. Theoretical, based on physics of the process.
b. Analytical (logical), based on energy or water
budgets.
c. Empirical (observation)
Estimating Evapotranspiration
(a) The Thornhwaite Method
• defines potential evaporation as “the water loss which will
occur if at no time there is a deficiency of water in the
soil for use of vegetation.” — assuming soil storage is
not depleted.
• An equation for estimating evapotranspiration potential
Estimating Evapotranspiration
(b) The Penman Method
• a method to combine the mass transport and energy
budget theories, & one of the more reliable
approaches to estimating ET rates using climatic data.
BFC32002_Ch3/ZARINA'S
Figure 3.7 : Relation between temperature
and saturated vapor pressure

Figure 3.8 : Temperature versus ∆

relation for use with the Penman
equation
 Example 3.6
Using the Penman method, estimate ET, given the following data:
temperature at water surface = 22oC, temperature of air = 33oC,
relative humidity = 45%, wind velocity = 1.5 mph (36 mi/day).
The month is June at latitude 33o north, r is given as 0.07 and n/D
is to be found 0.70.
Solution:
Example 3.7
Estimate the monthly potential evapotranspiration
for June. The mean monthly temperatures are shown
in the table below. The average relative humidity is
50%. The wind speed is 130 mi/day. Assume that
n/D = 70%, γ = 0.27, and r = 25% at 50O latitude.
Solution:

BFC32002_Ch3/ZARINA'S
Test 1 2018/19
Given the following data are temperature at water surface = 20oC,
temperature of air = 32oC, relative humidity = 45% and wind velocity = 3
mph. The month is June at latitude 30o North, r is 0.08 and n/D is 0.73.
Estimate ET by using Penman method.

(10 marks)
 Infiltration
• the flow of water into the ground through the
soil surface and the process can be easily
understood through a simple analogy.

• this analogy can be simplified in two important

aspects, which are:
• maximum rate at which the ground can
absorb water is called as the infiltration rate.
• volume of water that ground can hold is
known as the field capacity.
Infiltration Capacity

f0 = initial infiltration capacity,

cm/hr or mm/hr
fc = final constant infiltration
capacity, cm/h or mm/h

BFC32002_Ch3/ZARINA'S
Factors Affecting Infiltration
Three main factors:
(a) Characterictics of Soil
• texture, structure, permeability, under drainage and type of soil.
• a soil with a good underneath drainage would obviously have a
higher infiltration capacity. dry soil can absorb more water than
one whose has full pore.
• land use has a significant influence on fc , for instance, a forest
soil which is rich with organic matter will have much higher
value of constant infiltration rate that the similar types of soil
in an urban area where is subjected to compaction.
Factors Affecting Infiltration
Three main factors:
(b) Soil Surface
• At the soil surface, the impact of raindrops causes the fines in
the soils to be displaced and these in turn can clog the pore
spaces in the upper layers. This is an important factor affecting
the infiltration capacity.
• Thus a surface covered by grass and other vegetation which
can reduce this process has a pronounced influence on the
value of fc.
• Viessman and Lewis (2003) stated that infiltration rate for
bare-soil is 2.5 mm/h - 25 mm/h.
Factors Affecting Infiltration
Three main factors:
(c) Fluid Characteristics
• Water infiltrating into the soil will have many impurities, both
in solution and suspension.
• The turbidity of water, especially the clay and colloid content
is an important factor as suspended particles block the fines
pores in the soil and reduce its infiltration capacity.
• The temperature of the water is also a factor in the sense that
it affects the viscosity of the water which in turn affects the
infiltration rate.
• Besides that, contamination of the water by dissolved salts
also affects the soil structure and then the infiltration rate.
Infiltration Measurement
• Infiltration characteristics of soil can be obtained by
conducting controlled experiment on small areas.
• The experiment set-up is called an infiltrometer, which
are flooding type infiltrometer and rainfall simulator.
Infiltration Measurement
(a) Flooding Type Infiltrometer
• consist a metal cylinder and open at both ends (30
cm dia & 60 cm long), planted into the ground to a
depth of 50 cm.

• water is poured to a depth of 5 cm and pointer is set to mark the water

level.
• add water to keep the water level at the tip of the pointer as infiltration
proceeds, and may take 2 to 3 hours till reach uniform rate.
• experiments are continued is obtained, surface of the soils is usually
protected by a perforated disk to prevent formation of turbidity and its
settling on the soil surface.
• Disadvantage of simple ring: infiltered water spreads at the outlet from the
tube, and can’t be figured as area in which infiltration takes place.
Infiltration Measurement
(a) Flooding Type Infiltrometer
• double ring is used to overcome problem of area.
• the rings are inserted in to the ground and water is
maintained on the soil surface to a common fixed level.

• the outer ring provides a water jacket to the infiltering water of the inner ring
and hence, prevents the spreading out of the water from the inner tube.
• the measurement of water volume is done in the inner ring only.
• main disadvantages of flooding type infiltrometer are:
1. The raindrop effect is not simulated.
2. The driving of the tube or rings disturbs the soil structure.
3. The results of the infiltrometer depend to some extent on their size with the
larger meters give less rates than the smaller ones and this is due to the
border effect.
Infiltration Measurement
(b) Rainfall Simulator
• this instrument give low values than flooding type
infiltrometers, due to the rainfall effect and turbidity
of the surface soil

• consist a small plot of land (about 2 m x 4 m size), series of nozzles and

measures apparatus.
• the nozzles produce raindrops fall a height of 2 m and capable in producing
various intensities of rainfall.
• Using the water budget equation involves volume of rainfall, infiltration and
runoff, infiltration rate and its variation with time can be calculated.
• If the rainfall intensities is higher than the infiltration rate, infiltration
capacity values are obtained.
 Infiltration Methods
(a) Horton Model

The temporal variation

in infiltration rate is
applicable when the
water is continuously
ponded above the soil
column.
BFC32002_Ch3/ZARINA'S
Infiltration Methods
(a) Horton Model

In cases where water is not continuously ponded

above the soil column, the potential infiltration fp
can be expressed in terms of the cumulative
infiltration, F by implicit relationship
Example 3.7
A catchment soil has Horton infiltration parameters: fo = 100
mm/h, fc = 20 mm/h and k = 2 min-1. What rainfall rate
would result in ponding from beginning of the storm? If this
rainfall rate is maintained for 40 minutes, describe the
infiltration as a function of time during the storm.
Solution:
The potential infiltration rate varies between a maximum of 100
mm/h (fo) and minimum of 20 mm/h (fc). Any storm in which the
rainfall rate exceeds 100 mm/hr during the entire storm will cause
ponding from the beginning of the storm. Under these
circumstance, the infiltration rate, f as a function of time is given
as equation as
Example 3.8
An initial infiltration was recorded as 5.5 cm/hr during 10 hours of rainfall.
Given that fc and k is 0.4 cm/hr and 0.32 respectively, determine;
a) Infiltration at 5 hours.
b) Total infiltration within first 8 hours.
c) Total infiltration between 5 and 10 hours from rainfall begin.

Solution:
fo = 5.5 cm/hr, fc = 0.4 cm/hr dan k = 0.32 h-1
a) Infiltration at 5 hours.
f = fc +( fo − fc )e( − kt )

f 5 = 0.4 + (5.5 − 0.4 )e −0.32(5) = 1.43cm / hr

Solution:
b) Total infiltration within the first 8 hours.

c) Total infiltration between 5 and 10 hours from rainfall begin.

F =  (f t )dt
( f − fc )
F = [fc t + o ( 1 − e( −kt ) )] 10 5
K
5. 1 5. 1

F = ( 0. 4 )( 10 ) +
 
( 1 − e −0. 32 x 10 ) − (0. 4() 5 ) + (1 − e −0.32 x 5 )
 0. 32   0. 32 
F = 4. 56cm
Infiltration Methods
(b) Green-Ampt Model

The Green – Ampt model sometimes called the

delta function model is today one of the most realistic
models of infiltration available to the engineer in
designing a storm water management systems.
Infiltration Index
• if the rainfall intensity is larger than Φ the
difference between rainfall and infiltration
in an interval of time represents the runoff
volume as shown as in figure.

• the amount of rainfall in excess of the index is called rainfall

excess.
• the Φ Index thus accounts for the total abstraction and
enables runoff magnitudes to be estimated for a given
rainfall hyetograph
Example 3.9
A storm with 10 cm rainfall produced a direct runoff of 5.8 cm. Table below
shows the time distribution of the storm, estimate the Φ index.

Time (hour) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rainfall (cm/h) 0.4 0.9 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.0 0.5

Solution:
Total rainfall, P = 0.4 (1) + 0.9 (1) + 1.5 (1) + 2.3 (1) + 1.8 (1) + 1.6 (1)
+ 1(1) + 0.5 (1) = 10 cm
Total runoff, R = 5.8 cm
Assume te is 8 hours,
P - R 10 − 5.8
Index  = = = 0.525cm/h
te 8
But this value of Φ makes the rainfall of the first hour and eight hour
ineffective as their magnitude is less than 0.525 cm/h. The value of te is
need to modified.
Then, assume te is 6 hours.
Total rainfall, P = 10 - 0.4 – 0.5 = 9.1 cm
Then,
P - R 9.1 − 5.8
Index  = = = 0.55cm/h
te 6

This value of Φ is satisfactory and by calculating the rainfall

excess
Time
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(hour)
Rainfall
0 0.35 0.95 1.75 1.25 1.05 0.45 0
excess (cm)

Total rainfall excess = 5.8 cm = total runoff

.
Example 3.10
The rainfall intensity in the 50 hectar of catchment area is
given below. If volume of surface runoff is 30000 m3, estimate
Φ index for the catchment area and sketch the circumstances
in form of hyetograph.
Time Rainfall intensity
(hour) (mm/hour)
Solution: 1 5
2 10
Runoff, R = (3x104)/(0.5x1000x1000) = 60 mm 3 38
4 25
Total rainfall = (5+10+38+25+13+5)(1) = 96 mm 5 13
6 5
7 0
Then,
P - R 96 − 60
Index  = = = 6mm/h
te 6
But this value of Φ makes the rainfall of the first hour and six hour ineffective as
their magnitude is less than 6 mm/h.
 Then, te = 4 hours
P - R 96 − (5 + 5) − 60
Index  = = = 6.5mm/h
te 4
Sketch in form of hyetograph
: Rainfall Intensity versus Time
Rainfall Intensity (mm/h)
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10 ø = 6.5 mm/hj
8
6 ø = 6 mm/h
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hours (h)