CHAPTER 5

&
CHAPTER 6
REPORTERS: ►ALTO◄ ►BERDUL◄ ►JALMASCO◄ ►RODELAS◄
 CHAPTER 5:
EVAPORATION AND

TRANSPIRATION

REPORTERS: ►BERDUL◄ ►RODELAS◄ ►JALMASCO◄

 CONTENTS OF THIS CHAPTER
CHAPTER 5: EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION

5.1. Evaporation
5.2. Estimating Evaporation
5.3. Evaporation Control
5.4. Transpiration
5.5. Transpiration Control
5.6. Evapotranspiration
5.7. Estimating Evapotranspiration
 Define evaporation and
transpiration.

Describe methods for

estimating these major
PROLOGUE hydrologic abstractions.
The purpose of this chapter is to:

Illustrate the application

of ET models.
 5.1

EVAPORATION
5.1. EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the process by which
water is transferred from the land and
water masses of the earth to the
atmosphere.

Defined as net rate of vapor transfer in

hydrologic practice.

Particularly significant over large bodies

of water such as lakes, reservoirs, and
ocean.
5.1. EVAPORATION
Evaporation from a particular surface is
directly related to the opportunity for
evaporation (availability of water) provided by
the surface.

For Open Bodies of

For Soils
Water

Evaporation Opportunity is Evaporation Opportunity is

100% 100% to 0
5.1. EVAPORATION
Factors Affecting the Rate Evaporation
Air Temperature
Water Temperature
Relative humidity
Wind Velocity
Exposed Surface Area
 5.2
ESTIMATING
EVAPORATION
5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
The choice of method used to determine evaporation depends on the required accuracy
of results and type of instruments available.

Water Budget
Energy Budget
Mass Transfer Techniques
Use of Evaporation Pans

Instrumentation for Energy Budget and Mass Transfer Techniques is quiet expensive. For
this reason, the use of water budget and evaporation pans are most common.

 5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION

Water Budget Method
The water budget method for determining
evaporation is a very simple procedure, but it
seldom produces reliable results.

Reservoir (lake, pool) evaporation can be

computed using this equation:

All the terms are in volume units for a time

assume T (Transpiration is Zero) and Rg - I = period of interest.
Os, then,
5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Energy Budget Method
This method, like the water budget approach, involves solving an equation that
lists all the sources and sinks of thermal energy and leaves evaporation as the only
unknown.
Employed to compute the evaporation from oceans and lakes.

It cannot be used readily without many data that are not normally available, and
so it is a specialist approach.
5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Energy Budget Method
5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Energy Budget Method
5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Energy Budget Method
To determine the depth of water evaporated per unit time, the following
expression may be used:
where:
 5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Energy Budget Method Solution: Table: Latent Heat Factor,
product of water density and latent
Example: On 24 January 2013, in the Upper
heat
Brushy Creek watershed, the energy used over the
day from the National Land Data Assimilation
System, is 52 W/m2. The average air temperature
through the day is 17°C. Compute the
corresponding evaporated water depth using the
energy balance method.
Given: Formula:
Qe = 52 W/m2
Temperature = 17°C
5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Energy Budget Method
Solution:
Interpolation: Value of

Evaporated
water depth per
unit time
5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Mass Transfer Techniques
Mass Transfer equations are based primarily on the concept of turbulent
transfer of water vapor from an evaporating surface to the atmosphere.
A commonly used empirical equation has been developed by Meyer. This
equation takes the form:
 5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Mass Transfer Techniques
Another mass transfer equation used to
estimate the rate of evaporation is
developed by Dunne.

where: u2 = wind velocity

Note: C = 0.36 for ordinary lake
Rh = relative humidity
 5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Mass Transfer Techniques
Example:

By Interpolation: :

Values of :
 5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Mass Transfer Techniques
Solution: Using Meyer's equation: Solution: Using Dunne's equation: After
converting wind speed to metric units,

E = 0.23 in./day E = 0.524 cm/day

= 0.21 in./day
5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Use of Evaporation Pans
Most widely used method in finding reservoir evaporation.
The standard National Weather Bureau Pan Class A, is
currently the most popular.
 5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Use of Evaporation Pans
Floating Pans
Land Pan - installed in the vicinity of lake or reservoir.
Sunken Pan - sunk in the ground 5-15 cm depth and the water level is
maintained almost at the ground level.

The pan has a stilling well, vernier point gauge, a thermometer with clip and
may be covered with a wire screen.

Pan coefficient = Lake evaporation/Pan evaporation

(varies between 0.35-0.85 and average of 0.75)
 5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Use of Evaporation Pans
Principles of evaporation pan:
The pan is filled with a known quantity of water.
The water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period of time (usually 24
hours).
After 24 hours, the remaining quantity of water is measured.
The amount of evaporation per time unit is calculated, it is the pan
evaporation, E pan.
The E pan is multiplied by a pan coefficient, K pan, to obtain the ETo (evapo-
transpiration)
 5.2 ESTIMATING EVAPORATION
Use of Evaporation Pans
Formula: ETo = K pan x E pan
where: ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration
K pan = pan coefficient
E pan = pan evaporation

Example: Water depth on pan in day = 50 mm, Rainfall (during 24 hours) = 0 mm

Water depth on pan in day 2 = 44mm (after 24 hours), K pan = 0.75

Solution: ETo = K pan x E pan

E pan = 50 mm - 44 mm = 6 mm/day
ETo = 0.75 x 6 mm/day = 4.5 mm/day
 5.3

EVAPORATION
CONTROL
 5.3 EVAPORATION CONTROL
Evaporation may be reduced from open waters by:
1. storing water in covered reservoirs
2. making increased use of underground storage
3. controlling aquatic growth
4. building storage reservoir with minimal surface area
5. the use of chemicals
6. conveying in closed conduits rather than open channels
The use of Chemicals - research shown that certain type of organic compounds such as
hexadecanol and octadecanol from monomolecular films are effective as evaporation
inhibitors.
 5.4

TRANSPIRATION
 TRANSPIRATION
A process by which water is
evaporated from the airspaces in
plant leaves.
STOMATAL
TRANSPIRATION
Water absorbed by plants are
mostly transmitted through the
plant itself and escapes through
pores in the leaf system.
 SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT
Saturated soils can sometimes adversely
affect plant life. As long as soil moisture
lies between the limits of wilting point and
field capacity, transpiration is not
materially affected.

WATER VAPOR
Diffusion of water vapor from plant

FACTORS AFFECTING

leaves to the atmosphere is proportional

to the vapor pressure gradient at the
leaf-atmosphere interface.
TRANSPIRATION
PLANT TYPE
Various species and types of plant often
display considerably various demands
on soil moisture.
LYSIMETER
a measuring device which can be
used to measure the amount of
actual evapotranspiration which is
released by plants (usually crops
or trees).
 EXAMPLE 5.2
Determine the monthly consumptive use of an
alfalfa crop grown on southern California for the
month of July if the average monthly temperature
is 72 degrees F, average daytime hours in
percentage of the year is 9.88, and the mean
monthly consumptive use coefficient for alfalfa is
0.85.
 SOLUTION

EXAMPLE 5.2
Determine the monthly consumptive use of an
alfalfa crop grown on southern California for the
month of July if the average monthly temperature
is 72 degrees F, average daytime hours in
percentage of the year is 9.88, and the mean
monthly consumptive use coefficient for alfalfa is
0.85. = 6.05 in. of water
 SOLUTION

B = (61.6 x 10.02/100) + (70.3 x 10.08/100) +

(75.1 x 10.22/100) + (73.4 x 9.54/100)
B = 27.9
EXAMPLE 5.3 U = kB
Determine the seasonal consumptive use of a U = 0.65 x 27.9
tomato crop grown in New Jersey if the mean
monthly temperatures for May, June, July and
August are 61.6, 70.3, 75.1, and 73.4 degrees F,
respectively, and the percent daylight hours for
the given months are 10.02, 10.08, 10.22 and
9.54 as percent of the year, respectively. = 18.1 in. of water for the four-month
growing season.
 5.5

TRANSPIRATION
CONTROL
Methods of control
include the following:
Use of chemicals to inhibit water

consumption
Harvesting of plants
Improved irrigation practices
Actual removal or destruction of

certain vegetative types

PHREATOPHYTES
a plant with a deep root system that draws
its water supply from near the water table.
transpire enormous quantities of water each
year without providing any particular
apparent benefit.

200,000 acre-ft water

Amount of estimated water saved in a

critically water-short region of the United

States with the help of 43,000 acres of

planted Salt Cedar along the Pecos River.

 5.6
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
5.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
- is the process by which water is transferred from
the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the
soil and other surfaces and by transpiration from
plants.
 5.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
3 major methods on determining evapotranspiration:
Theoretical (based on physics of the process)

Analytical (based on energy or water budgets)

Empirical
5.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Thornthwaite-Holzman equation
 5.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Thornthwaite-Holzman equation
 5.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

"The water loss which will occur if at no time there is

a deficiency of water in the soil for the use of
vegetation."
-Thornthwaite
 5.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Equation developed by the Agricultural Research Service (ARS)
5.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
5.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
 5.7
ESTIMATING
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
5.7 ESTIMATING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is an important
component in the hydrologic budget of
vegetated areas, but it is a difficult
quantity to measure because of its
dependence on phytological variables.
number and types of plants
soil moisture and soil type
season
temperature, and
average annual precipitation
5.7 ESTIMATING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

If the precipitation and net runoff for an area are known, and estimates

of groundwater flow and storage can be made, rough estimates of ET can

be had using the basic hydrologic equation, Eq. 1.1.

5.7 ESTIMATING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

THE PENMAN
METHOD
This widely used method is
one of the more reliable
approaches to estimating
ET rates using climatic
data.
5.7 ESTIMATING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
THE PENMAN
METHOD
r : 0.05 - 0.12
ea : Table A.2
Δ : Fig. 5.8
R : Table 5.6
B : Table 5.7
 SOLUTION

EXAMPLE 5.4
Using the Penman Method, Eqs. 5.27 to 5.29,
estimate ET, given the following data:
Temp. @ water surface = 20 ℃
Temp. of air = 30 ℃
Relative humidity = 40%
Wind Velocity = 2 mph (48 mi/day)
The month is June at latitude 30 degrees
North
r = 0.07
S = 0.75
 SOLUTION

EXAMPLE 5.4
Using the Penman Method, Eqs. 5.27 to 5.29,
estimate ET, given the following data:
Temp. @ water surface = 20 ℃
Temp. of air = 30 ℃
Relative humidity = 40%
Wind Velocity = 2 mph (48 mi/day)
The month is June at latitude 30 degrees
North
r = 0.07
S = 0.75
 SOLUTION

EXAMPLE 5.4
Using the Penman Method, Eqs. 5.27 to 5.29,
estimate ET, given the following data:
Temp. @ water surface = 20 ℃
Temp. of air = 30 ℃
Relative humidity = 40%
Wind Velocity = 2 mph (48 mi/day)
The month is June at latitude 30 degrees
North
r = 0.07
S = 0.75
 SOLUTION

EXAMPLE 5.4
Using the Penman Method, Eqs. 5.27 to 5.29,
estimate ET, given the following data:
Temp. @ water surface = 20 ℃
Temp. of air = 30 ℃
Relative humidity = 40%
Wind Velocity = 2 mph (48 mi/day)
The month is June at latitude 30 degrees
North
r = 0.07
S = 0.75
 SOLUTION

EXAMPLE 5.4
Using the Penman Method, Eqs. 5.27 to 5.29,
estimate ET, given the following data:
Temp. @ water surface = 20 ℃
Temp. of air = 30 ℃
Relative humidity = 40%
Wind Velocity = 2 mph (48 mi/day)
The month is June at latitude 30 degrees
North
r = 0.07
S = 0.75
5.7 ESTIMATING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Evapotranspiration is an
important process in the water
cycle because it is responsible
for 15% of the atmosphere's
water vapor. Without that input
of water vapor, clouds couldn't
form and precipitation would
never fall.
CHAPTER 6:
STREAMFLOW

REPORTERS: ►JALMASCO◄ ►ALTO◄

 Introduce the concepts

of Streamflow.

Describe the characteristics

of Hydrograph.
PROLOGUE
The purpose of this chapter is to:

Present approaches to

measuring streamflow.
 CONTENTS OF THIS CHAPTER
CHAPTER 6: STREAMFLOW

6.1: Drainage basin effects

6.2: Hydrograph
6.3: Units of measurement for streamflow
6.4: Measuring and recording streamflow
6.5: Measurement of depth and cross-sectional area
6.6: Measurement of velocity
6.7: Relating point velocity to cross-sectional flow velocity
6:8: The Slope-area Method for determining discharge
 STREAMFLOW
Streamflow is the flow of water
in streams, rivers, and other
Channels.
Streamflow is generated by
precipitation during storm events
and by groundwater entering
surface channels.
 6.1
DRAINAGE BASIN
EFFECT
 6.1 DRAINAGE BASIN EFFECT
Drainage basin - land area where
precipitation runs off into streams, rivers,
lakes, and reservoirs.

The quality and quantity of streamflow

generated in a drainage basin are affected by
the basin's
Physical
Vegetative
Climatic features
 6.1 DRAINAGE BASIN EFFECT
It is important for the hydrologist to have a
good understanding of the soils, rocks,
plants, topography, land-use patterns, and
other basin characteristics that influence
the sequence of events separating
precipitation and runoff.
It should be pointed out, however, that
while natural basin features are very
important elements in the runoff process,
land-use features created by humans (e.g.,
housing developments, parking lots,
agricultural patterns) may, in some cases,
be the dominant ones.
 6.2
HYDROGRAPH
 6.2 HYDROGRAPH

Hydrograph - is a graph or plot

that shows the rate of water flow
in relation to time, given a specific
point or cross section.
This continuous graph displays
the properties of streamflow with
respect to time.
 6.2 HYDROGRAPH

A hydrograph has four

component elements:

ve
Direct surface runoff

cur
sion
Interflow reces

ion
trat
Groundwater or base flow

cen
Channel precipitation

con
 6.3
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

FOR STREAMFLOW
6.3 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT FOR STREAMFLOW
Two Types of units are used in
measuring water flowing in streams:
Units of Discharge
Discharge or rate of flow - is the
volume of water that passes a
particular reference point in a unit
of time.
Units of Volume
Basic Units Used:
Dimension: foot (ft) and meter (m)
Time: second (s)
Commonly used Units of Discharge
Measurement are:
Cubic feet per second ( ft3/s)
Cubic meters per second ( m3/s )
Others:
Second-foot per square mile
(sec-ft/mi 2 ) - average rate of
discharge from a drainage basin
or defined area
Million gallons per day (mgd) -
for water supply calculations
6.3 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT FOR STREAMFLOW
Units of Volume:
Cubic foot ft 3
Cubic meter m3
Liter L
Gallon gal
Acre-foot - for irrigation practice in ac⋅ft
the Western United States
 6.4
MEASURING AND

RECORDING

STREAMFLOW
 Rating Curve - is a graph of
MEASURING AND discharge versus stage for a given
point on a stream where the stream
RECORDING discharge is measured across the
STREAMFLOW stream channel with a flow meter.

The streamflow rate may be

determined using gauging devices or
they may be determined by using
formulas, tables, and rating curves
from the information recorded at
gauging sites.
 FLUMES

Flumes are used to measure flow rate (discharge) in open channels.

They typically have widths from a few cm to 15 m or so. The water
depth in the approach section of flumes typically can be between a
few cm and about 2 m.
 WEIR

Weirs are used in conjunction with locks, to render a river navigable

and to provide even flow for navigation. A weir allows a simple
method of measuring the rate of fluid flow in small- to medium-sized
streams, or in industrial discharge locations.
 6.5
MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH

AND CROSS-SECTIONAL

AREA

Instruments for measuring Depth/ Areas
Getting depth of flow and
cross-sectional areas are
needed to compute discharge.
Depth measurements may be
taken using weighted
sounding lines, calibrated
rods, and ultrasonic sounding
devices
Cross-sectional areas at
stream sections can be
determined using ordinary
surveying techniques
combined with sounds or
other depth measurements
that are taken below the water
level at the time of the survey.
6.5 MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH AND CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
 6.6
MEASUREMENT OF

VELOCITY
 Velocity can be calculated
with the given cross-sectional
areas and discharges.

Point flow velocities can be

determined using pitot-tube,
dynamometer, and current
meter.

Various chemical and

electrical methods are also
employed in determining
velocities. Commonly used
chemical methods include salt
velocity, salt dilution' and the
detection of radioactive
Instruments for measuring velocities tracers.
 6.7
RELATING POINT VELOCITY

TO CROSS-SECTIONAL FLOW

VELOCITY
6.7 RELATING POINT VELOCITY TO CROSS-SECTIONAL FLOW VELOCITY

The illustration is given with the depth and velocity at the specific points
and width is also given [from point to next point (segment)], these are
the steps how to compute the discharge (flow):
Compute the cross-sectional areas for each segments.
Compute the average velocities between two points.
Compute the discharges from each segments (Q=AV)
Compute the summation of discharges.
6.7 RELATING POINT VELOCITY TO CROSS-SECTIONAL FLOW VELOCITY

Sample Problem: Calculate the discharge at the section given in fig.

6.4.
TABLE 1 TABLE 2
6.7 RELATING POINT VELOCITY TO CROSS-SECTIONAL FLOW VELOCITY

4.2 ft. 3.3 ft. 4.8 ft. 5.2 ft. 3.7 ft. 5.1 ft. 5.9 ft.

0 ft.
0 ft.

4 ft.
4.7 ft.
5 ft.
7.2 ft. 7.4 ft. 7.1 ft.
6.7 RELATING POINT VELOCITY TO CROSS-SECTIONAL FLOW VELOCITY

Compute the area from point to next point:

6.7 RELATING POINT VELOCITY TO CROSS-SECTIONAL FLOW VELOCITY

Compute the mean of velocity from point to next point:

6.7 RELATING POINT VELOCITY TO CROSS-SECTIONAL FLOW VELOCITY

To compute the flow (discharge)

each segments, multiply the
cross-sectional area and its
estimated mean velocity.
After getting the flow of each
segments, compute the
summation of flows to get the
total estimated discharge.
 6.8
THE SLOPE-AREA METHOD

FOR DETERMINING

DISCHARGE
6.8 THE SLOPE-AREA METHOD FOR DETERMINING DISCHARGE
Manning's Equation: the formula shown below will use if the velocity or
other information needed is unknown due to difficult situation.

(ft.)
(%)
k=unit conversion factor (1.49=english unit, 1=metric unit)
The Manning's roughness coefficient (n) may range bet. 0.03 and 0.15.
To get the hydraulic radius (R), the formula is area over wetted
perimeter. (R=A/P)
 SAMPLE PROBLEM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xjz6Y8wuGSY
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the T, b, h, and A.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the R.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the y.
THANKS!