CHAPTER - 3

CROPWATER REQUIRMENT
 3)    CROP-WATER REQUIREMENT

3.1   Reference Evapotranspiration
3.2   Crop Water Requirements/Consumptive Use
3.3   Irrigation Efficiency and Irrigation Frequency
3.1   Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo)
ET rate from a reference vegetative surface, actively
growing, not short of water
Measure of evaporative demand under current climate
conditions
 ETo is the rate of evapotranspiration from a large area,
covered by green grass, 8 to 15 cm tall, which grows
actively, completely shades the ground and which is not
short of water
The reference surface is a hypothetical grass reference
crop with specific characteristics.
 Cont…
The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters.
ETo expresses the evaporative demand of the
atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year
and does not consider crop , management practice and
soil factors.
 Estimation of reference crop ETO
Of the many methods available, the commonly used
ones are two:
i. Experimental methods, using the experimentation
data from evaporation pan.
ii. Theoretical methods using empirical formulae, that
take into account, climatic parameters.
1.Experimental method

Estimation of ETo can be made using the formula

ETo = Kpan x Epan
Where :
- ETO is the reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day,
- Kpan is a coefficient called pan coefficient and E pan is the
evaporation in mm/day from the pan.
The factor Kpan varies with the position of the equipment (say,
whether placed in a fallow area or a cropped area), humidity
and wind speed.
Generally, the details are supplied by the manufacturers of the
pan.
 Kpan varies between 0.35 and 0.85, with an average value of
0.7.
Class A standard pan
 Cont….
It may be noticed that finding out ETC would involve the
following expression
ETC = Kcrop x ETo
= Kc x Epan x Kpan
If instead, Kcrop x Kpan is taken as a single factor, say K,
then ETC may directly be found from Epan as under:
ETC = K x Epan,
Where : K may be called the crop factor
2.Theoretical methods
The important methods that have been proposed over the
years take into account, various climatic parameters.
Of these, only the following would be discussed, as they are
the most commonly used.
2.1 Blanney-Criddle formula:
This formula gives an estimate of the mean monthly values
of ETO , which is stated as
ETO = p ( 0.46 Tmean + 8.13)
Where:
- p is the mean daily percentage of annual day time hours and
has been estimated according to latitude;
- Tmean is the mean monthly temperature in degrees
Centigrade and may be taken as (Tmax + Tmin) for a particular
month. 2
One may evaluate ETC for each month of the growing
season, from which the total water need for the full growing
season of the crop may be found out.
2. Penman-Monteith method:
The FAO Penman-Monteith method is now recommended
as the sole standard method for the definition and
calculation of the reference crop evapotranspiration.
It has been found to be a method with a strong likelihood
of correctly predicting ETo in a wide range of locations and
climates.
The method provides values that are more consistent with
actual crop water use worldwide.
In addition , the method has provisions for calculating ETo
in cases where some of the climatic data are missing.
 Cont….
This method suggests that the value of ETO may be evaluated by
the following formula:

Where :
 Cont……
The crop water need (ET crop)
The crop water need (ETcrop) is defined as the depth (or
amount) of water needed to meet the water loss through
evapotranspiration. The crop water need can be calculated
using the following formula.
ETcrop = ETo * Kc
Where:
Etcrop = Crop water need (mm/unit time)
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/unit time)
[Influence of climate]
Kc= Crop factor [Influence of crop type and growth stage]
3.2   Crop Water Requirements/Consumptive Use
Crop water requirements of a crop means the total quantity
and the way in which a crop requires water ,from the time it
is sown to the time it is harvested.
Different crops will have different water requirements, and
the same crop may have different water requirements at
different places of the same country ;
depending up on the variations in :-
 Climates ,
 Type of soils ,
 Methods of cultivation ,and
 Useful rain falls, etc.
Factors affecting water requirements of crops
1.Pedological factors
 These factors pertain to soil and land
I. Type of soil, its texture ,structure and the water holding
capacity
II. Sub-soil water table
III. Slope of the ground
IV. Drainage conditions
2. Climatic factors
3. Cultivation factors
4. Socio-Economic factors
Duty and Delta of a crop
1. Delta : each crop requires a certain amount of water after a
certain fixed interval of time , throughout its period of growth.
The depth of water required every time , generally varies
from 5 to 10 cm depending upon the type of the crop ,
climate and soil.
The time interval between two such consecutive watering is
called the frequency of irrigation , or rotation period.
 Cont….
The total quantity of water required by the crop for its full
growth (maturity) may be expressed in hectars – meter
( Acre – ft ) or in Mm3 (million cubic –ft) or simply as
depth to which water would stand on the irrigated area , if
the total quantity supplied were to stand above the surface
without percolation or evaporation .
This total depth of water ( in cm ) required by a crop to
come to maturity is called its delta (Δ).
 Cont….
Example : If rice requires about 10cm depth of water at an
average interval of about 10 days , and the crop period for rice
is 120 days , find out the delta for rice.
Solution: Water s required at an interval of 10 days for a
period of 120 days.
 It evidently means that 120 no. of watering's required , and
each time , 10 cm depth of water is required.
 Therefore , total depth of water required
Δ= 12 x 10cm = 120 cm
Hence Δ for rice = 120 cm.
 Cont…..

2. Duty of water
The term duty means the area of land that can be irrigated
with unit volume of irrigation water.
Quantitatively, duty is defined as the area of land
expressed in hectares that can be irrigated with unit
discharge, that is, 1 cumec flowing throughout the base
period, expressed in days.
Thus, duty gives the relationship between the volume of
water and area of the crop which it matures.

Base period or base /B/ - It the period in days during

which flow is continued for a particular crop.
 Relation between duty and delta
Let there be a crop of base period B days.
Let one cumec of water be applied to this crop on the field for
B days.
Now , the volume of water applied to this crop during B days
v = (1x60x60x24xB)m3
v = 86 400 B (cubic meter)
By definition of duty (D), one cubic meters supplied for B days
matures D hectares of land.
This quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 10 4 D
sq.m of area
 Cont…..

Total depth of water applied on this land

= volume / area
D = 86,400B/
D = 8.64B/D meters
By definition ,this total depth of water is called delta
(Δ)
Δ= 8.64B/D meters
Or Δ=864B/D cm
Where , Δ is in cm , B is in days : and
D is duty in hectares /cumec
 Cont…..

Example : Find the delta for a crop when its duty is 864
ha/cumec on the field , the base period of this crop is 120 days.
Solution: Δ(cm) = 864B/D
Where : B is in days and D is in hectares /cumec
B = 120 days and D = 864ha/cumec
Δ = 864 x 120 /864
= 120 cm

Duty of water varies from one place to another , and increase

as one moves downstream from the head of the main canal
towards the head of the branches or water - courses.
The duty at the head of eater courses ( i.e. at the outlet point of
the minor ) , is quite important ; and is called the outlet
discharge factor.
Layout of a canal system
Factors Which Affecting Duty of Water
1. Type of crop
2. Climate and season
3. Useful rainfall
4. Type of soil
5. Efficiency of cultivation method
Importance of duty : it helps us in designing an efficient
canal irrigation system.
Methods of Improving Duty
If the factors affecting duty may be made less effective ,
duty of water may be improved.
Thus ,methods of improving duty are:
Suitable and efficient method of applying water to the
crop should be used.
Canals should be lined to reduce seepage loss .
Water should be conveyed quickly to reduce evaporation
loss.
Idle length of the canal should be reduced.
Construction parallel canals to run side by side , F.S.L. is
reduced to minimize the losses.
 Cont……
Proper ploughed and leveled crop land improves duty.
The source of supply should provide good quality of
water.
Crop rotation , if practiced , improves duty.
Volumetric assessment of water with water tax compels
the farmers for economic use of water which improves
duty.
The farmers must be trained to apply correct quantity of
water at right time.
Maintenance of irrigation project from headwork's to the
end of canal by the administrative should be adequate.
Example

An area irrigated by a distributary is 220 ha out of which

150 ha is jowar (kharif) and 70 ha sugarcane , if delta for
jowar is 45 cm and that of sugarcane is 180 cm, average
transit losses during kharif are 20%;calculate the duty of
each crop at the head of distributary.(B = 120 days for
Jowar , B = 360 d sugarcane)
 Cont…..
Duty = 8.64B/Δ
Where ,
D = duty in Ha/Cumec
Δ = Delta in m
B = Base period in days
1/Jowar
Area under Jowar 150 Ha ; Δ = 45 cm = 0.45m
Duty = 8.64B/Δ = 8.64 x 120/0.45
= 2304ha/Cumec
 Cont……
Consider transit losses duty = 2304*80/100
= 1843.2ha/cumec
Sugarcane , perenninal crop = 360 days
Area under sugarcane 70ha Δ = 180cm
Duty = 360*8.64/1.8 = 1728ha/cumec
Considering 40% losses
Duty = 1728*60/100 = 1036.8ha/cumec
Exercise
.
3.2 Consumptive use or evapotranspiration
Consumptive use for a particular crop may be defined as the total
amount of water used by the plant in transpiration (building of
plant tissues , etc.) and evaporation from adjacent soils or from
plant leaves , in any specified time.
The values of consumptive use(Cu) may be different for different
crops , and may be d/t for the same crops at different times and
places.
Values of monthly consumptive use over the entire crop period ,
are then used to determine the irrigation requirement of a crop.
 Effective rainfall ( Re)
It is only the rain water retained in the root zone can be used by the
plants.
It is the difference between the total rainfall and the losses (Runoff,
evaporation and deep percolation).
It depends on the climate, soil texture, soil structure and depth of the
root zone.
The following formula was developed by FAO based on analysis carried
out for different arid and sub-humid climates and is more suitable for
Ethiopia.
Pe = 0.6 Pdep - 10 for Pdep < 70 mm.
Pe = 0.8 Pdep - 24 for Pdep > 70 mm.
Where:
Pe = Monthly effective rainfall (mm)
Pdep = Monthly dependable rainfall (mm) 
 Dependable rainfall is defined as a rainfall with a probability of
exceedance (P) of 80%.
Consumptive irrigation requirement(CIR)
It the amount of irrigation water required in order to meet
the evapotranspiration needs of the crop during its full
growth.
Its therefore ,nothing but the consumptive use it self , but
exclusive of effective precipitation , stored soil moisture ,
or ground water.
When the last two are ignored , we can write
C.I.R. = Cu - Re
Net irrigation requirement ( NIR)
It the amount of irrigation water required in order to
meet the evapotranspiration need of the crop as well as
other needs such as leaching.
N.I.R = Cu – Re + water lost as percolation in
satisfying other needs such as leaching
Example
The following table gives the values of consumptive uses
and effective rainfall for the periods shown against them,
for crop. The period of growth is from 16 th Oct. to 2nd
Feb., I.e..(110days). Determine the net irrigation
requirement of this crop , assuming that water is not
required for any other purpose except that of fulfilling the
evapotranspiration needs of the crop.
 Solution
Dates Cu (mm) Re(mm) NIR = Cu - Re
Oct 16-31 37 30.8 6.2
Nov 1 - 30 84.2 20.4 63.8
Dec 1- 31 154.9 6.7 148.2
Jan 1 - 31 188.1 2.4 185.7
Feb 1 - 2 13.3 1.0 12.3
416.2mm or
Σ = 41.62cm
Factors affecting consumptive use

1. Evaporation 11. Irrigation practices and

2. Humidity method of irrigation
3. Temperature 12. Nature of leaves of plants
4. Growing season 13. Day-time hours
5. Cropping pattern 14. Intensity of sunlight
6. Precipitation 15. Length of growing
7. Depth of water applied in season
one watering 16. Stage of growth
8. Wind velocity 17. Amount of foliage
9. Soil and topography
10. Water table
Estimation of consumptive use
There are various methods have been developed in order
to estimate evapotranspiration ( consumptive use) , but the
most simple and commonly used methods are :
i. Blaney – Criddle method
ii. Hargreaves pan evaporation method
iii. Penman method
iv. Thronthwaite method
v. Lowry – Johnson method
1.Blaney – Criddle method
He developed a simple empirical formula for the determination
of the consumptive use from the temperature and day time
hours.
The monthly consumptive use factors(f) is :
f = T(p/100)
Where: -T is the mean monthly temperature(degree faranite)
- p is the monthly percentage of the day time hours
It can be expressed :
f = p/40(1.8T+32)
Where: T is the mean monthly temperature in degree Celsius.
The consumptive use of water for crops varies directly with the
monthly consumptive use factor f if ample water supply is
available.
 Cont….
Cu = kf = ((k*p)/40)*(1.8T+32)
Where: k - the monthly consumptive use coefficient
Cu - the monthly consumptive use of water (in cm).
Cu of water for the entire crop season is called the seasonal
consumptive use.
It is equal to the sum of the monthly Cu for the entire crop season.
Cu = ∑Cu = ∑ ((k*p)/40)*(1.8T+32)
If the monthly consumptive use coefficient k is constant for the
entire crop period,
Cu = k(∑(p/40)*(1.8T+32)
Cu for the entire crop season :
Cu = KF
Where K - the seasonal consumptive use coefficient , and
F - the sum of the monthly consumptive use factors for the
entire crop season.
 Limitation of the formula

Blaney - Criddle formula is approximate since it does not take

in to consideration a number of important factors such as
humidity ,wind velocity and altitude of the place,
Nevertheless, the formula is quite popular because it is quite
simple.
Example

Wheat's is to be grown at a certain place , the useful

climatological conditions of which are tabulated below .
determine the evapotranspiration and consumptive
irrigation requirement of wheat crop. Also determine the
field irrigation requirement if the water application
efficiency is 80%. Make use of Blaney – Criddle equation
and a crop factor equal to 0.8.
 Solution
Month Monthly Monthly % of Useful rainfall f=p/40(1.8t +
temp.in oC day time hr.of in cm. averaged 32)
averaged over the year over the last 5
the last 5 years computed from years
(t) the sunshine (Re)
tables
(p)
Nov 18 7.2 1.7 11.6
Dec 15 7.15 1.42 10.5
Jan 13.5 7.3 3.01 10.3
Feb 14.5 7.1 2.25 10.3
Σ = 8.38cm Σ=42.7cm
 Hargreaves pan evaporation method
Hargreaves related the consumptive use to class A pan
evaporation (Ep) as follows
Cu = Kc * Ep
Where : Cu - The consumptive use ,
K - The consumptive use coefficient and
Ep - The pan evaporation.
Alternatively , the value of Ep can be determined indirectly
from the climatic data if the actual measurements are not
available.
The value of K are different for various crops.
Even for the same crops , the value of k depends up on the age
of the crop expressed as a percentage of the total crop period.
 Cont……

For example: If a crop has a total crop period of 120

days , the age of the crop at 24 days after sawing will be
20%. It has been found that the maximum value of k for
a crop usually occurs when the age of the crop is about
50 %.
 Cont…

Pan evaporation from climatic data

The pan evaporation (Ep) can be determined from the climatic
data of the place by the Christiansen formula,
Ep = 0.459RCtCwChCsCe
Where: R is the extra –terrestrial radiation in the same units as Ep
(generally , cm)
Ct = 0.393 + 0.02796T+0.0001189T2
- T - the mean temperature (oc)
- Ct - coefficient for temperature
- Cw - coefficient of for wind velocity
Cw = 0.708+0.0034V-0.0000038V2
- V - the wind velocity (km/day) at 0.5m above ground .
 Cont….
Ch = 1.250-0.0087H+0.75*10-4H2 – 0.85*10-8H4
Where: Ch - coefficient for relative humidity
H - mean relative humidity (%) at noon or average relative
humidity for 11 and 18 hours ,
Cs = 0.542+0.008S-0.78*10-4S2 +0.62*10-6S3
Where: Cs - coefficient for percent of possible sunshine
S - the mean sun shine percentage
Ce - coefficient for elevation = 0.970+0.00984E
E - the elevation of point expressed in hundreds of meters.
3. Penman method
This method is more recently been introduced for
determining the Cu of different areas or different segments
of a basin , depending upon the type of vegetation covering
each sub basin.
The advantage with this equation lies in the fact that the
different specified values of coefficient of reflection
(albedo),a factor used in this equation , are available for d/t
types of areas ,
W/c can be used in penman’s equation to compute
consumptive use (i.e. potential evapotranspiration PAT)
values for d/t segments of command area.
Cont…..
Cont….
Cont…..
3.3   Irrigation Efficiency and Irrigation Frequency

Irrigation efficiencies
Efficiency is the ratio of the water output to the water
input, and usually expressed as percentage.
Inputs minus output is nothing but losses ,and hence ,if
losses are more ,output is less and ,therefore ,efficiency is
less.
Efficiency is inversely proportional to losses.
Water is lost in irrigation during various processes and ,
therefore, there are different kinds of irrigation efficiencies.
1. Water Conveyance efficiency ( ɳc)
 It is used to measure the efficiency of water conveyance
system associated with the canal network, water courses and
field channels.
 It is also applicable where the water is conveyed in channels
from the well to the individual fields.
 Water Conveyance efficiency is expressed as follows:
Wf
c  *100
Wd
Where: ɳc = water conveyance efficiency, %;
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot
(At the field supply channel);
Wd = Water diverted from the source.
 2. Water application Efficiency (ɳa)
 After the water reaches the field supply channel , it is important
to apply the water as efficiently as possible.
 A measure of how efficiently this is done is the water
application efficiency.
 It is expressed as follows:

Ws
a  *100
Wf
Where ɳa = application efficiency , %
Ws = water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot
(field supply channel)
 ɳa below 100 % are due to seepage and deep percolation
looses.
3. Water storage efficiency (ɳs)
 It is useful in evaluating how completely the water needed
prior to irrigation has been stored in the root zone during
irrigation.
 It is expressed as follows:
Ws
s  *100
Wn

Where: ɳs = Water storage efficiency , %

Ws = Water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wn = Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation
 ɳs becomes important when water supplies are limited &
salt problems exist.
 4. Field canal efficiency (ɳb)
 This ratio between water received at the field inlet and that
received at the inlet of the block of fields.
 It is expressed as:

Wp
b  *100
Wf

Where: ɳf = Field canal efficiency

Wp = water received at the field inlet
Wf = water delivered to the field channel
 5. Water Distribution Efficiency (ɳd)
 The effectiveness of irrigation may also be measure by its
water distribution efficiency (ɳd) , which is defined below:
 This shows how uniformly water is applied to the field along
the irrigation run.
o In sandy soils, there is over irrigation at upper reaches of the
run,
o In clayey soils, there is over- irrigation at the lower reaches
of the run.
 It is expressed as:
 Cont……

The water distribution efficiency represents the extent

to which the water has penetrated to a uniform
depth , throughout the field.
When the water has penetrated uniformly throughout
the field , the deviation from the mean depth is zero
and water distribution efficiency is 1.0.
 Example
The depths of penetrations along the length of a border strip at
points 30m apart were probed. Their observed values are
2.0 ,1.9,1.8,1.6 and 1.5 meters. Compute the water distribution
efficiency.
Solution : The observed depths at five stations are 2.0,1.9,1.8,1.6
and 1.5m respectively.
Mean depth = D = 2+1.9+1.8+1.6+1.5 = 8.8/5 = 1.76m
5
Values of deviations from the mean are
= (2-1.76),(1.9-1.76),(1.8-1.76),(1.6-1.76),(1.5-1.76)
= 0.24,0.14,0.04,-0.16 &-0.26
 The absolute values of these deviations from the mean , are :
= 0.24 , 0.14 , 0.04 , 0.16 and 0.26.
 Cont…

Mean = d = 0.24 + 0.14 + 0.04 + 0.16+ 0.26

5
= 0.84/5
= 0.168m
The water distribution efficiency
= (1- d/D) = ( 1 - 0.168/1.76) = 1- 0.095 = 0.905
6. Water Use Efficiency
 This shows the yield of the crop per unit volume of water
used.
 It may be expressed in Kg/ha.cm or q/ha.cm
A. Crop water use efficiency is the ratio of the crop yield (Y)
to the amount of water consumptively used by the crop.
 It is expressed as: Y
w 
CU
B. Field water use efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (y)
to the total water requirement of crops including Cu losses and
other needs.
 It is expressed as:
Y
t 
WR
Example
A stream of 130 l/s was diverted from a canal and 100 l/s were
delivered to the field. An area of 1.6ha was irrigated in 8hr.
The effective depth of root zone was 1.7m. The runoff loss in
the field was 420 cu.m. the depth of water penetration varied
linearly from 1.7m at the head end of the field to 1.1 m at the
tail end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is
20cm per meter depth of soil. It is required to determine the
water conveyance efficiency ,water application efficiency ,
water storage efficiency , and water distribution efficiency.
Irrigation was started at a moisture extraction level of 50% of
the available moisture.
.
Cont……