Waste Stabilization Ponds

Process Description
• Waste Stabilization Pon d s (WSPs) are large, shallow
artificial man-made lagoons/basins in which raw sewage
is treated entirely by natural processes involving both
algae and bacteria.
• The rate of treatment in WSP is slower th an in
conventional wastewater treatment, and so hydraulic
retention times are longer and measured in days rather
than in hours.
• They are the most cost-effective, reliable and easily•
operated methods for treating domestic and industrial
wastewater.
Cont ...
• Waste stabilization ponds are very effective in the
removal of faecal coliform bacteria.
• The temperature and duration of sunlight in tropical
countries offer an excellent opportunity for high
efficiency and satisfactory performance for this type of
water-cleaning system.
Cont ...

o Before treatment in the WSPs, the wastewater first

subjected to preliminary treatment such as:
o Screening and
o Grit removal

Grit c h a m b e r ---

(to m

Screening
 Types of Waste Stabilization Ponds and
Their Specific Uses

• WSP systems comprise a single strin g of anaerobic,

facultative and matu ration ponds ( depending on the
effluent quality required) in series, or several such series
in parallel.
• In essence, anaerobic and facultative ponds are designed
for removal of BOD, and maturation ponds for pathogen
removal.
• In most cases, only anaerobic and facultative ponds will
be needed for BOD removal when the effluent is to be
used for restricted crop irrigation and fish pond
fertilization.
L- \ - _- _- _- _- _- _-
~

_ f
1
anaerobi
c

\:.
=========: _;=
2facultative f 3 aerobic
maturation
-_- _ - _- _ • ~
 Cont ...

• Maturation ponds are only required when the effluent is to

be used for unresrticted irrigation, thereby having to
comply with the WHO guideline of> 1000 faecal coliform
bacteria/100ml.
• The WSP does not require mechanical mixing, needing
only sunlight to supply most of its oxygenation.
• Its performance may be measured in terms of its removal
of BOD and faecal coliform bacteria.
 Treatment Mechanism and Basic Design Principles

1. Anaerobic ponds
• Anaerobic ponds are commonly 2 - Sm deep and receive
wastewater with high organic loads (in the range of 100 to 350 g
BOD/m 3 / day)
• They normally do not contain dissolved oxygen or algae.
• BOD removal is achieved by sedimentation of solids, and
subsequent anaerobic digestion in the resulting sludge.
• The process of anaerobic digestion is more inten se at
temperatures above 15C.
• A properly-designed anaerobic pond will achieve about a 40%
removal of BOD at 10C, and more than 60% at 20C.
• The anaerobic bacteria are usually sensitive to pH <6.2.
• A shorter retention time of 1 - 5 days is commonly used.
Cont ...
Complex organic matter. proteins, carbohydtates, lipids

hydrolysis
Amino acids, sugars and fatty acids
.a. a c i d o g e n e s i s

Volatile Fatty Acids: propionic

acid, butyric acid. Alcohols
u >
aCe[Oen€SlS
Acetic acid Hydrogen
- > methanlOeSlS
Methane
Anaerobic degradation of complex
organic matter
Cont ...
2. Facultative Treatment Ponds (FPs)
• Facultative Treatment Ponds are the simplest of all WSPs and
consist of large shallow ponds (depth of 1 to 2m) with an
aerobic zone close to the surface and a deeper, anaerobic zone.
• There are two types of facultative ponds:
- primary facultative ponds that receive raw wastewater (after
grit removal), and
- secondary facultative ponds receiving settled
usually from the anaerobic pond. wastewater
• In primary facultative ponds, the functions of anaerobic and
secondary facultative ponds are combined.
• This type of pond is designed generally for the treatm ent of
only slightly polluted wastewater and in sensitive locations
where anaerobic ponds' odour would be unacceptable.
 Cont ...
• FPs are designed for BOD removal on the basis of low surface
loading and can treat WW in the BOD range of 100 to 400
kg/ha/day at temperatures above 20°C.
• The facultative ponds are covered by algae.
• The algae grow using the sunlight and they produce oxygen in
excess to their ow n requirements, which they tran sfer to the
water.
• It is this excess of oxygen that is used by bacteria to further break
down the organic matter via aerobic digestion (oxidation).
• Peak algae activity also results in a pH rise to above 9 since
carbonate and bicarbonate ions react/dissociate to provide more
carbon dioxide for the algae, leaving an excess of hydroxyl ions.
Cont ...

• As a complete process, the facultative pond serves to:

- Further treat wastewater through sedimentation and aerobic
oxidation of organic material
- Reduce odour
- Reduce some disease-causing microorganisms if pH raises
- Store residues as bottom sludge
• FPs can result in the removal of 80 to 95% of the BOD,
which means an overall removal in the order of 95% over
the two ponds (AP and FP).
• Total nitrogen removal in WSP systems can reach 80% or
more, and ammonia removal can be as high as 95%.
• The HRT for a facultative pond lies between 5 to 30 days
 BOO l o s t
as as

soluble
fer mentation
products
BOO d es tr o y e d

sludge layer

BOD removal mechanisms in a facultative

pond

ll,
~

rl " '
Mutualistic relationship between the
algae and the bacteria in facultative
and m aturation pon ds co,
a aaa.A
wastewater Boo9rt,vew ceis
 3. Aerobic/ Maturation Ponds (MPs)
• Maturation are essentially designed for pathogen removal
and retaining suspended stabilised solids.
• The size and number of maturation ponds depends on the
required bacteriological quality of the final effluent.
• The principal mechanisms for faecal bacterial removal in
facultative and maturation ponds are HRT, temperature,
high pH(> 9), and high light intensity.
• Faecal bacteria and other path ogen s die off due to the
high tern erature high pH or radiation of the sun leadin g
to solar isin fection .
• Some microorganisms such as protozoan cysts an d
helminth eggs are also removed by sedimentation.
• Maturation ponds are shallower (1 to 1.5m), with 1m
being optimal.
• The recommended hydraulic retention time is 15 to 20
days
Cont ...

Comparison of the treatment performance of different

waste stabilization ponds
i i ] BOD NIT] Pathogen TEI] HRT
lAnaerobic Pond 50 to 85% 1 to 5 days
Facultative Pond 80 to 95% 5 to 30 days
Maturation Pond 60 to 80% 90% 15 to 20
days
Maturation pond Fae tative pond Anaerobic pond
2
I
\
aero r
;~====='~\jR
2came
=I 3aerobic mwatoo ,£

inle 1 outlet
t anaerobic
E
u
I

E
r
N

2 fa cu ltative

I!
inle 0, 0, 0, 0, oxygen supply through surface outlet
t ! l ! contact

.
E..

.E
....
3 aerobic maturation

•
I

u--
3 inle 0, 0 o, 0 oxygen supply through surface outlet
t
11 ! ! ! ! contact

I
Figure : Typical scheme of a waste stabilization system
Kality waste stabilization pond
 Advantages of WSP

• Can be built and repaired with locally available

materials
• No external energy required for operation
• Low in construction and very low operating costs
• High reduction in pathogens
• Can treat high-strength wastewater to high quality
effluent
• Generally reliable and well-functioning
• Effluent can be reused in aquaculture or for irrigation in
agricu lture
 Disadvantages of WSP
• Requires large open land surfaces far away from homes
and public spaces
• May promote breeding of insects in the pond (e.g. flies,
mosquitoes)
• De-sludging (normally every few years) an d correct
disposal of the sludge needs to be guaranteed
• Anaerobic ponds can cause bad odours if poorly designed
• Not always appropriate for colder climates.
Physical and Process Design
1. Physical Design of WSP

i. Pond Location
• O dour release from an aerobic ponds is most unlikely to be a
problem in a well-designed an d properly maintained system.
• Ponds should be located at least 200m (p referably 500m)
downwind from the community they serve and away from any
likely area of future expansion.

• Ponds should not be Located within 2 km of airports.

• The length of the pond lies in the direction of the prevailing
wind direction.
- To facilitate wind-induced mixing of the pond surface layers
Cont ...

ii. Pond Configurations

• Configurations can includes either
- s e r. es or
- parallel operations
• The advantages of series operation is improved treatment
because of reduced short circuiting and
• The advantages of parallel configuration is that the loading
can be distributed more uniformly over a large area.
Raw
wastewater

v
A ~

-
F
I· w
Final
efflue
nt
Cont ...
iii. Inlet and Outlet Structures
• The inlet to anaerobic and primary facultative ponds should
disch arge well below the liquid level so as to minimize short•
circu itin g and thus reduce the quantity of scum.
• Inlets to secondary facultative and maturation ponds should
also discharge below the liquid level, preferably at mid-depth
in order to reduce the possibility of short-circuiting.
• The outlet of all ponds should be protected against the
discharge of scum by the provision of a scum guard.
• In anaerobic and maturation ponds, where algal banding is
irrelevant, the take-off should be nearer the surface.
Recirculation

• If the incoming raw wastewater is septic, it may be necessary to

achieve odour control by recirculation up to 50% of the final
effluent.

• This should be pumped back and mixed with the raw

wastewater immediately after preliminary treatment (i.e. before
the wastewater enters the first pond).

• The final effluent acts to oxygenate the septic wastewater, and it

may help to increase BOD removal.
 2. Process Design of WSP

1. Effluent Quality Requirements

• The general WHO gu id elin e standards for the discharge of
treated wastewaters into inland surface waters are given in the
Environmental Protection Rules
• The most important effluent limits for WSP design are as
follows:
Parameter Effluent limit
BOD 30 mg/l
Suspended solids 100 mg/1
Total N 100 mg
Total ammonia N/1
50 mg N/1
Free ammonia
5 mg N/1
Sulphide
2mg/l
pH
5.5 -9.0
 Cont ...

2. Design Parameters
• The most important parameters for WSP design are:
- temperature
- net evaporation
- Flow
-BOD
- Loading and Retention Time
• Faecal coli-form and helminthes egg numbers are also important

if the final effluent is to be used in agriculture or aquaculture.

Cont ...
i. Temperature and Net Evaporation
• The usual design tem perature is the mean air tem peratu re

in the coolest m onth (or qu arter).

• Another design temperature commonly used is the air
temperature in the coolest period of the irrigation season.

• Net evaporation has to be taken into account in the design

of facultative and m atu ration ponds, but not in that of
anaerobic ponds, as these generally have a scum layer
which effective prevents significant evaporation.
 Cont ...
ii. Flow
• must be estimated very carefully, since the size of the
ponds, and hence their cost, is directly proportional to the
flow.

• A suitable design value is 80 percent of the in-house water

consumption, and this can be readily determined from
records of water meter readings

• If these do not exist, the actual average 24-hour wastewater

flow from outfall drains can be measured.
Cont ...
iii. BOD
• If the wastewater exists, its BOD may be measured using
24-hour flow-weighted composite samples.
• If it does not, it may be estimated from the following
equation
; _1000B
l
q

• Where L,= wastewater BOD, mg/l

B = BOD contribution, g/c/d
q = wastewater flow, 1/c/d
• Values of B vary between 30 and 70 g/c/d
• For Ethiopia, B = 45 g per capita per day
 Cont ...
iv. Faecal Coliforms
• Faecal coliform numbers are important if the pond effluent is
to be used for unrestricted crop irrigation or for fish pond
fertilization grab samples of the wastewater may be used to
measure the faecal coliform concentration

• The usual range is 107 - 108 faecal coliforms per 100m l, and
a suitable design value is 5x107 per 100m l.
 Cont ...
v. Helminth Eggs
• Helminth egg numbers are also important when pond effluents

are used for crop irrigation or fishpond fertilization.

• If the wastewater exists, composite samples may be used to
count the number of human intestinal nematodes eggs.

• The usual range is 100 - 1000 eggs per liter

Cont ...
vi. Loading and Retention Time
• Any pond treatment system requires steady effluent flow to
encourage the rapid and continuous growth of bacteria
• it is essential that the daily loading into the ponds should be kept
to the design standards of the pond system.
• A very large load may flush out important bacteria, eventually
leading to system failure.
• Variation in loads will alter the retention time.
• Any attempt to extend the time that effluent remains within the
pond system w ill increase the amount of disease-causing
microorganism die-off.
Operation and maintenance of WSPs
o WSP start-up
• Before commissioning a WSP system , any vegetation growing in

the empty ponds must be rem oved .

• If freshwater isn't available, then the facultative pond can be
filled with raw wastewater and allowed to rest in batch mode for
3 - 4 weeks to allow the microbial populations to develop.
 Routine Maintenance
o The main routine maintenance activities are:
- Removal of screenings and grit from the preliminary
treatment units
- Periodically cutting the grass on the pond embankments
- Removal of scum and floating macrophytes from the
su rface
of facultative ponds and maturation ponds.
-
Removal of any material blocking the pond inlets and outlets
-
Repair of any damage to the embankments caused by rod en ts
or rabbits (or other burrowing animals)
-
Repair of any damage to fences and gates.
Desludging and Sludge Disposal

• Anaerobic ponds required desludged when they are one

third full of sludge (by volume).
• This occurred every n years where n is given by

• Where v = volume of anaerobic pond, m 3

p = population served
s = sludge accumulation rate, m/capita year
Design of Anaerobic Ponds
Design
• Designed without risk of odour & nuisance on the basis
of volumetric BOD loading (, g/m/d), which is given by:
z_ti0
V

• Where Li= influent BOD, mg/l

Q = flow, m 3/d
V = anaerobic pond volume, m 3
• The permissible design value , increases with temperature (T)
• (Mara and Pearson, 1986 and Mara et 1997) recommend the
al., design values given in table below .
• Volumetric loading rate \ , : linear increase (Arthur 1983)
• At12c. A. = 0.1kg
I /
At 30c. A.V 0.4kg BOD
BOD m'day = m'day
to maintain anaerobic to avoid odour release
conditions
Cont ...
• Table: Volumetric loading (g/m/d)

Temperature (C) Volumetric loading (g/md) BOD removal(%)

< 10 100 40

10 - 20 20T - 100 2T+20

20 - 25 l0T + 100 2T+20

> 25 350 70

Source: Mara and Pearson, 1986 and Mara et al., 1997

Cont ...

• The mean hydraulic retention time in the pond (0, d) is

determined from:

0=RT -'
Q
• Retention times in anaerobic ponds < 1 day should not
be used.
• If the above equation gives a value of0< 1 day, a value
of 1 day should be used and the corresponding value
of V recalculated from the above equation.
Design of Facultative Ponds
Design
• Design: based on surface loading rate ks (BOD/ha/day)

2_lLiQ A, - a w e s o n a a a .
A,
Arthur (1983): AS == (20 * T) - 60
Arceivala: 2 s = 375--(6.25L )
McGarry and Pescod: 2s = 60(1.099)
Mara:
2ls =350(1.107-0.002T)'35

• Retention time ( 0, d) ,
_
0.
',D
Where D = pond dep th, m (u su ally 1.5
m)
Q,,= mean flow, m/d
Cont ...
• The mean flow is the mean of the influent and effluent flows
(Q , and Q , ), the latter being the former less net evap oration
and seep age. Thus, the above equation becom es:
0, 4,D

,(0+0.
•
•
If seepage is negligible, Q. is given by:
Q.=Q,-0.0014,e
• Where e = net evaporation rate, mm/day.
24,0
0 f = = - - - - - -
(20, -0.0014,e)

• A minimum value of 0, of 5 days sh ou ld be adopted for

temperatures below 20c, and 4 days for temperatures above
20e.
Design of Maturation Ponds
Design
i. Faecal Coliform Removal
• The method of Mara's (1974) is generally used to design
a
• pond series for
This assumes faecal
that coliform
faecal removal.
coliform removal can be modeled by
first order kinetics in a completely mixed reactor.
• The resulting equation for a single pond is thus:
N,= N, (I + k, HRT)
Where N,= number of FC per 100 ml of effluent
N, = number of FC per 100 ml of influent
k,= first order rate constant for FC removal, d
HRT = hydraulic retention time, d
 Cont ...
• For a series of an aerobic,
facultative and m aturation pon d s,
the above equation becomes:
N = N,
" (+k , H R T » ( +k ,
Where: HRT~.
( +k , H R T , » » . ) "
N,= number of feacal coliform per 100 ml effluent
N,= number of feacal coliform per 100 ml influent
k,= first order temperature dependent rate (day')
n = number of maturation ponds (each pond the same
hydraulic retention rate (HRT)
• Aurthur: A series of n maturation ponds with total HRT of 5
• days d
WHO: 1 maturation pond of 5 d or several maturation ponds of 3
• Arthur: k, = 2.6(1.19)3
• WHO, 1987: k, = 2.0(1.07)3
 Cont ...
ii. Helminth Egg Removal
• Analysis of egg removal data from ponds (Ayres et al.1992)
has yielded the following relationship which is equally
valid for anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds:
R = 100 [1- 0.14exp (-0.380)]
Where R = percentage egg removal
8 = retention time, d
Cont ...
iii. Nutrient Removal
• Pano and Middlebrooks (1982) present equations for
ammonical nitrogen (N H ,' and NH ,") removal in
in dividu al
• facultative and maturation ponds.
Their equation for temperatures below 20C is:
c, =/ + [(A/0)(0.0038 + 0.000134T)exp ((1.041 + 0.044T)(pH - 6.6))])

• And for temperatures above 20C:

C.= C
·]soso-[,smst-«oi}
• Where:
C,=ammonia cal nitrogen concentration in pond effluent, mg N/I
C, = ammonia cal nitrogen concentration in pond influent, mg N/I
A=pond area,m
Q= influent flow rate,m /d
 Hydraulic Balance

• To maintain the liquid level in the ponds, the inflow must

be at least greater than net evaporation and seep age at all
tim es. Thu s:
Q, > 0.001A (e + s)

Where Q,= inflow to first pond, m?/d

A = total area of pond series, m 2
e = net evaporation (i.e. evaporation less
rainfall), mm/d
s = seepage, mm/d
 Hydraulic Balance

• Seepage losses must be at least smaller than the inflow less net
evaporation so as to maintain the water level in the pond.
• The maxim u m permissible permeability of the soil layer
making up the pond base can be determined from
law: k_ d'Arcy's
Q AL
.
864004 Ah

Where k = maximum permissible permeability, m/s

Qs = maximum permissible seepage flow
(= Q, - 0.001Ae), m?'d
A= base area of pond, m 2
Al= depth of soil layer below pond base to aquifer or, m
Ah = hydraulic head (= pond depth + Al), m
 Hydraulic Balance

• The following interpretations may be placed on values

obtained for the in situ coefficient of permeability:
- k> 10° m/s: the soil is too permeable and the ponds must be
lined;
- k> 10m/s: some seepage may occur but not sufficiently to
prevent the ponds from filling;
- k<10°m/s: the ponds will seal naturally;
- k<10 m/s: there is no risk of groundwater contamination
- Ifk> 10m/s and the groundwater is used for potable supplies,
further detailed hydrogeological studies may be required)
Design Example on Waste Stabilization
Pond
Example
• Data:
• Site characteristics and conditions
• Town of 20,000 population
• Consumption of 1501/c/day and wastage of 85%
• No
• significant infiltration into sewer system Average
• BOD production of 45g BOD/c/day Measured
influent concentration of 4*10 8 FC/l00ml Clay
•
• bottom (hydraulic conductivity 10m/s)
Climate of the area (Latitude = + 16°S)
Maximum monthly temperature 33°c (September)
Minimum monthly temperature 27°c (June/July)
Total annual rainfall 1143mm
Maximum monthly rainfall 206mm (November)
Minimum monthly rainfall 15mm (August)
Example
• Requirements
• Sludge remove in anaerobic ponds only once every two years
• Design each pond with a freeboard of 0.5m
• The treated effluent must have a BOD con centration below 20mg/l an d
should be reusable for agricultural purposes (u se standards according to
WH O)
• Task:
• Design a conventional WSP system (anaerobic + facultative + m aturation
ponds).
• Provide for each pond the dimensions (L, W and 0 ), the volume,
su rface
• area and the residence time.
Calculate C,, and C from each pond.