BRIDGE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

By

ABEYOU ADANE TADDESSE

Bachelor of Engineering

Bahir Dar University

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

2007

Submitted to the Faculty of the

Graduate College of the
Oklahoma State University
in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
July, 2011
 BRIDGE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

Thesis Approved:

Dr. Robert N. Emerson

Thesis Adviser

Dr. M. Tyler Ley

Dr. Micheal Phil Lewis

Dr. Mark E. Payton

Dean of the Graduate College

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I ....................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 History of bridge inspection .................................................................................. 2
1.2 Types of bridge inspection .................................................................................... 4
1.3 Bridge inspection reporting system ....................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Pontis element condition ratings ..................................................................... 5

1.3.2 NBI bridge condition ratings .......................................................................... 6

1.3.3 Bridge sufficiency rating............................................................................... 10

1.3.4 Bridge deficiency status ................................................................................ 11

1.4 Bridge elements ................................................................................................... 12

1.5 Defects of bridge elements .................................................................................. 15
1.5.1 Timber bridge defects ................................................................................... 15

1.5.2 Concrete bridges defects ............................................................................... 17

1.5.3 Steel bridge defects ....................................................................................... 21

1.6 Objective .............................................................................................................. 23

CHAPTER II .................................................................................................................... 24
Visual inspection and physical examination ............................................................. 24
2.1 Visual inspection ................................................................................................. 24
2.1.1 Equipment ..................................................................................................... 25

2.2.2 Personnel ....................................................................................................... 26

2.2.3 Advantages of visual inspection ................................................................... 26

2.2.4 Limitations of visual inspection .................................................................... 27

2.2.5 Reliability of visual inspection ..................................................................... 27

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 2.2 Sounding techniques ............................................................................................ 28
2.2.1 Hammer sounding ......................................................................................... 28

2.2.2 Chain Dragging ............................................................................................. 28

2.2.3 Advantages and Limitations of sounding techniques ................................... 29

CHAPTER III .................................................................................................................. 30

Advanced Destructive Techniques............................................................................. 30
3.1 Advanced destructive testing for Timber bridges................................................ 30
3.1.1 Drilling and Coring ....................................................................................... 30

3.1.2 Probing .......................................................................................................... 31

3.1.4 Moisture meter .............................................................................................. 31

3.1.3 Shigometer .................................................................................................... 31

3.2 Advanced destructive testing for Concrete bridges ............................................. 32

3.2.1 Core sampling ............................................................................................... 32

3.2.2 Test for carbonation ...................................................................................... 33

3.2.3 Chloride test .................................................................................................. 34

3.2.4 Moisture content ........................................................................................... 35

3.2.5 Strength test .................................................................................................. 35

3.2.6 Endoscopy ..................................................................................................... 36

3.2 Advanced destructive inspection techniques for steel bridges ............................ 36

CHAPTER IV................................................................................................................. 38
Advanced Nondestructive Techniques ...................................................................... 38
4.1 Ultrasonic inspection ........................................................................................... 39
4.1.1How does it work? ......................................................................................... 39

4.1.2 Equipment ..................................................................................................... 41

4.1.3 Personnel ....................................................................................................... 44

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 4.1.4 Advantages of Ultrasonic testing (Nondestructive hand book, 2007) .......... 45

4.1.5 Disadvantage of ultrasonic inspection .......................................................... 46

4.1.6 Appropriateness of ultrasonic inspection ...................................................... 46

4.1.7 Availability and cost of equipment ............................................................... 47

4.2 Spectral analysis/ Stress wave ............................................................................. 48

4.2.1 How does it work? ........................................................................................ 48

4.2.2 Advantages and limitations of Stress wave method ..................................... 49

4.2.3 Appropriateness of stress wave method ........................................................ 49

4.3 Impact Echo ......................................................................................................... 49

4.3.1 How does it work? ........................................................................................ 50

4.3.2 Equipment ..................................................................................................... 51

4.3.3 Advantages of Impact echo technique .......................................................... 51

4.3.4 Disadvantages of impact echo method ......................................................... 52

4.3.5 Appropriateness of impact echo technique ................................................... 52

4.4 Rebound Hammer Test ........................................................................................ 52

4.4.1 How does it work? ........................................................................................ 53

4.4.2 Equipment ..................................................................................................... 53

4.4.3 Advantages of Rebound hammer .................................................................. 54

4.4.4 Limitations of Rebound hammer .................................................................. 54

4.4.5 Appropriateness of the technique.................................................................. 54

4.9 Windsor probe test ............................................................................................... 55

4.9.1 Equipment? ................................................................................................... 55

4.5 Ground Penetrating Radar ................................................................................... 56

4.5.1 How does it work? ........................................................................................ 56

4.5.2 Equipment ..................................................................................................... 57

4.5.3 Advantages of Ground Penetrating Radar .................................................... 57

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 4.5.4 Limitations of Ground Penetrating Radar ..................................................... 56

4.5.5 Appropriateness of the technique.................................................................. 58

4.6 Infrared Thermography........................................................................................ 58

4.6.1 How does it work? ........................................................................................ 59

4.6.2 Equipment ..................................................................................................... 59

4.6.3 Advantages of Infrared Thermography ......................................................... 60

4.6.4 Limitations of Infrared Thermography ......................................................... 60

4.6.4 Appropriateness of Infrared Thermography ................................................. 60

4.7 Acoustic Emission ............................................................................................... 61

4.7.1 How does it work? ........................................................................................ 61

4.7.2 Apparatus ...................................................................................................... 62

4.7.3 Advantages of Acoustic Emission method ................................................... 62

4.7.4 Disadvantages of Acoustic Emission method ............................................... 63

4.7.5 Appropriateness of Acoustic Emission method ............................................ 63

4.8 Eddy Current testing ............................................................................................ 63

4.8.1 Advantages of Eddy current.......................................................................... 64

4.8.2 Limitations of Eddy current testing .............................................................. 64

4.8.3 Appropriateness of the technique.................................................................. 65

4.9 Liquid penetrant testing ....................................................................................... 65

4.9.1 How does it work? ........................................................................................ 65

4.9.2 Advantages of dye penetrant method ............................................................ 66

4.9.3 Limitations of dye penetrant method ............................................................ 66

CHAPTER V .................................................................................................................. 71
Summary ...................................................................................................................... 71

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References.………………………………………………………………………………71
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………78

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table 1.1 Crack width guidelines.......................................................................................... 7

Table 4.1 Training and experience for ultrasonic testing personnel…………………………..47

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

Figure 4.1.1 Ultrasonic inspection setup ………………………….…………………………… 43

Figure 4.1.2 Ultrasonic transducers and coupling materials…………………………………..44

Figure 4.1.3 Schematic of a pulse velocity apparatus…………………………………………46

Figure 4.2 Sonic stress wave timer…………………………………………………………….51

Figure 4.3 Impact echo test unit………………………………………………………………..52

Figure 4.4.1 Rebound hammer………………………………………………………………….55

Figure 4.4.2 Components of a Rebound hammer………………………………………………..56

Figure 4.5 Windsor probe test kit …………………………………………………………...…55

Figure 4.8 Acoustic Emission Schematic ……………………………….…………………….62

Figure 4.9 Hand held Eddy Current instrument…………………………………………………..64

Figure 4.10 Detection of crack using dye penetrant ………………………………………….66

Figure 4.11 Summary of bridge inspection techniques……………………………………..……69

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 CHAPTER I

Introduction

Most of nearly 580,000 bridges in the United States highway system were built in 1930’s during

the depression year and in 1960’s (Hadavi, 1998); as a result these bridges may need replacement

or major repair. According to American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) report card on 2009,

26 % of nation’s bridges are either structurally deficient or functionally obsolete and a $ 17

billion annual investment is needed to substantially improve current bridge conditions.

Oklahoma rates second next to Pennsylvania in the nation in the percentage of bridges that are

structurally deficient. According to Transportation for America report which is released March

2011, as of 2010 Oklahoma has 23,680 bridges and 22% of these bridges were identified as

structurally deficient and without substantial bridge replacement this number will be double in

2030. Since highway management is limited by available resources such as personnel, equipment,

and funds, it is difficult and economically impossible to maintain and replace all bridges at the

same time. Therefore any method which can extend the life of these bridges and use resources in

an efficient manner will be useful in assuring public safety and saving resources for Oklahoma

State. This paper is one part of a project whose objectives are to develop a comprehensive

compilation of methods for evaluating, repairing and retrofitting bridges, develop a short course

and educational module on evaluation and repair techniques for Oklahoma department of

transportation and develop educational modules for repair and retrofitting of reinforced concrete,

steel and timber bridges for adoption in university level concrete, steel and timber design courses.

1
The interaction of different tasks which are performed by different individuals in preparing the

final project is shown in fig. 1. In this paper, a comprehensive literature review is performed to

identify and assess different evaluation techniques which will be used as an input for the project.

The evaluation techniques discuss different kinds of partially destructive, nondestructive and

visual inspection techniques, which are used for inspection of concrete, steel and timber bridges.

Abeyou John

1.1 History of bridge inspection

In 1967, there was a sudden collapse of the Silver Bridge, a pin-connected link suspension bridge

over the Ohio River at Point Pleasant, West Virginia, with loss of 46 lives (Hartle etal.19 91).

This was the most horrific bridge failure in terms of life loss in the United States (Jack Roberts

and etal.). Congressional hearing on the failure took place and the testimony showed that, all

2
parties including states, authorities, counties or municipalities, who are responsible for this

bridge, had no inspection programs in place. As a result, In 1968 Congress passed the Federal

Highway Act: US Code Title 23 Section 151 that set forth the requirement to establish National

Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS). The first National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) were

developed in 1971. This manual has been modified over the years in order to include other

aspects of bridge inspection which are not included in the previous manual. In 1983 Mianus River

Bridge, which is located in Connecticut failed and 3 people were killed (Jack Roberts and etal.).

This bridge failed due to the failure of Fracture critical members. As a result, attention was given

to fracture critical members and in 1986 the federal highway added a new supplement called

Inspection of Fracture Critical Bridge Members to the existing manual. The collapse of New

York’s Schoharie Creek Bridge in April 1987 resulted in modifications of the manual to include

underwater inspection of bridges to NBIS in 1988. The manual is revised different times and in

2002, Manual 90 was revised and updated and it is named Bridge Inspection’s Reference Manual

(BIRM). This manual includes all of Manual 90 and culvert inspection and Fracture Critical

Members from manual 70.The national bridge inspection standards established policy regarding

inspection procedures, frequency of inspection, qualification of personnel, inspection reports and

maintenance of bridge inventory. According to NBIS all bridges over 6.1 m (20 ft) in length were

to be inspected at regular interval not more than 2 years. Based on past inspection records,

bridges with known deficiencies are inspected more often and the two-year interval can be

increased or depth of inspection decreased for certain bridges when a request by the state

agencies to the FHWA is granted.

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1.2 Types of bridge inspection

According to the AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges there are five types of

bridge inspections:

1. Initial Inspection--After the completion of a new bridge structure, this inspection will be

done in order to collect all structure inventory data and to determine the baseline

structural conditions and to identify current or potential problems.

2. Routine Inspection—It is performed on a regular interval of time (usually every 2

years), based on the requirements prescribed by the NBIS, to determine the physical and

functional condition of the bridge and to identify changes since the last inspection.

3. Damage Inspection—it is performed when Damages occur due to environmental or

human actions and its primary goal is to identify the need for further action.

4. In-Depth Inspection—this is a close up inspection which focuses on certain sections of

the bridge structure to investigate deficiencies not detected during Routine Inspection.

5. Special Inspection—this inspection is conducted to monitor a single known defect or

condition.

1.3 Bridge inspection reporting system

A bridge inspection includes examining the structure, detecting the defects on the structure,

reporting the result and evaluating the report. It is not only used for preventing failure of the

bridges, but also it provides information which is used for an efficient bridge management

system. During inspections, the need for immediate repair, maintenance actions, or replacements

of bridges can be detected or reported. Based on these reports, the administrator can further

define priorities and establish programs to apply available resources to the most critical bridges.

Therefore a good bridge reporting system is important in documenting bridge conditions, in

maintaining public safety, and in using resources efficiently. In the United States, Bridge

inspections are reported as condition ratings (Hearn, G. S and Hyung-seop, 1998).

4
The Oklahoma Department of Transportation currently uses two condition rating systems. These

are the NBI condition ratings and the PONTIS condition ratings.

1.3.1 Pontis element condition ratings

Pontis element condition ratings are used for rating bridge elements, and it was developed by the

American Society of State Highway Transportation officials and is discussed in the “AASHTO

guide for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) structural elements”. The data obtained from these

ratings are then fed into pontis.

Pontis is a bridge management software package developed under the contract by AASHTO

which relies on collected condition data and cost data for bridge elements (e.g., girders, piers,

railings). This data is analyzed to identify least-cost (optimal), long-term preservation and

improvement policies for a network of bridges.

The Oklahoma Pontis Bridge Inspection Manual includes approximately 120 elements and it

relies on the AASHTO commonly recognized (CoRe) in order to have consistence bridge

inspection. These elements are put into nine groups which are decks or slabs, superstructures,

substructures, culverts, Joints, bearings, approach slabs, railings, and smart flags. Smart flag

elements are indications of specific bridge deficiencies that are difficult to model due to their

irregular occurrences. Each element is assigned a number. Oklahoma uses the same numbering

system with AASHTO commonly recognized (CoRe) elements. The list of Oklahoma bridge

pontis elements with their assigned numbers are attached on the appendix part of this paper.

Pontis elements are rated as three state, four state, or five state condition rating scales based on

element and material type. Condition state one is the best and it decreases as it goes up. For

details on how any of these elements are rated, one can refer to Oklahoma’s Pontis Inspection

Manual.

The units used to quantify pontis elements are linear feet (LF), each (EA) elements and square

feet (SF). Linear feet elements show the total length of the element present on the bridge. Each

5
element shows the total quantity of elements present on the bridge. Square feet elements should

be considered or should be rated as one condition state.

1.3.2 NBI bridge condition ratings

Oklahoma Department of Transportation performs dual inspections. The first is an element

inspection which is discussed above, and the second one is the NBI condition ratings. The NBI

condition ratings describe the general condition of the bridge. The NBI condition rating is an

important part of the sufficiency rates and the bridge’s deficiency status, which is used in

determining funding and priority for bridge replacement and maintenance. In this system, there

are five structure inventory and appraisal (SI&A) items which receive overall condition ratings.

These are

• Deck (Item No. 58 )

• Superstructure (Item No. 59)

• Substructure (Item No. 60)

• Channel and channel protection (Item No. 61)

• Culverts (Item No. 62)

The 0 to 9 scale is used in rating these items, in which 9 is the best condition and the condition

would get worse as the number decreases, which is a reverse to pontis condition ratings.

The following general condition ratings should be used in evaluation of (Item No. 58) decks,

(Item No. 59) superstructure and (Item No. 60) substructure (FHWA, 1995).

Code Description

N NOT APPLICABLE

6
 9 EXCELLENT CONDITION

8 VERY GOOD CONDITION - no problems noted.

7 GOOD CONDITION - some minor problems.

6 SATISFACTORY CONDITION - structural elements show some minor

deterioration.

5 FAIR CONDITION - all primary structural elements are sound but may have minor

section loss, cracking, spalling, or scour.

4 POOR CONDITION - advanced section loss, deterioration, spalling, or scour.

3 SERIOUS CONDITION - loss of section, deterioration, spalling, or scour have

seriously affected primary structural components. Local failures are possible.

Fatigue cracks in steel or shear cracks in concrete may be present.

2 CRITICAL CONDITION - advanced deterioration of primary structural elements.

Fatigue cracks in steel or shear cracks in concrete may be present or scour may have

removed substructure support. Unless closely monitored, it may be necessary to

close the bridge until corrective action is taken.

1 “IMMINENT” FAILURE CONDITION - major deterioration or section loss

present in critical structural components, or obvious vertical or horizontal

movement affecting structure stability. Bridge is closed to traffic but corrective

action may put bridge back in light service.

0 FAILED CONDITION - out of service; beyond corrective action.

For detailed rating of each component, one can refer to the Oklahoma Bridge Inspection Manual.

Channel and channel protection (Item No. 61) include all the physical conditions related with

flow of water through the bridges such as stream stability and the condition of the channel, riprap,

slope protection, or stream control including devices. The following general bridge rating should

be used (FHWA, 1995).

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Code Description

N Not applicable. Use when bridge is not over a waterway (channel).

9 There are no noticeable or noteworthy deficiencies which affect the

condition of the channel.

8 Banks are protected or well vegetated. River control devices such as spur dikes and

embankment protections are not required or are in a stable condition.

7 Bank protection is in need of minor repairs. River control devices and embankment

protection has a little minor damage. Banks and/or channel have minor amounts of

drift.

6 Bank is beginning to slump. River control devices and embankment protection have

widespread minor damage. There is minor streambed movement evident.

Debris is restricting the channel slightly.

5 Bank protection is being eroded. River control devices and/or embankment have

major damage. Trees and brush restrict the channel.

4 Bank and embankment protection is severely undermined. River control devices

have severe damage. Large deposits of debris are in the channel.

3 Bank protection has failed. River control devices have been destroyed.

Streambed aggradation, degradation, or lateral movement has changed the

channel to now threaten the bridge and/or approach roadway.

2 The channel has changed to the extent the bridge is near a state of collapse.

1 Bridge closed because of channel failure. Corrective action may put bridge back in

light service.

0 Bridge closed because of channel failure. Replacement necessary.

8
Culvert (Item 62) includes evaluating the alignment, settlement, joints, structural condition,

scour and other elements related with culverts. The following general bridge rating should be

used (Coding Guide, 1995).

Code Description

N Not applicable. Use if structure is not a culvert.

9 No deficiencies.

8 No noticeable or noteworthy deficiencies which affect the condition of the culvert.

Insignificant scrape marks caused by drift.

7 Shrinkage cracks, light scaling, and insignificant spalling which does not expose

reinforcing steel. Insignificant damage caused by drift with no misalignment and

not requiring corrective action. Some minor scouring has occurred near curtain

walls, wingwalls, or pipes. Metal culverts have a smooth symmetrical curvature

with superficial corrosion and no pitting.

6 Deterioration or initial disintegration, minor chloride contamination, cracking with

some leaching, or spalls on concrete or masonry walls and slabs. Local minor

scouring at curtain walls, wingwalls, or pipes. Metal culverts have a smooth

curvature, non-symmetrical shape, significant corrosion or moderate pitting.

5 Moderate to major deterioration or disintegration, extensive cracking and leaching,

or spalls on concrete or masonry walls and slabs. Minor settlement or misalignment.

Noticeable scouring or erosion at curtain walls, wingwalls, or pipes. Metal culverts

have significant distortion and deflection in one section, significant corrosion or

deep pitting.

4 Large spalls, heavy scaling, wide cracks, considerable efflorescence, or opened

construction joint permitting loss of backfill. Considerable settlement or

misalignment. Considerable scouring or erosion at curtain walls, wingwalls, or

9
 pipes. Metal culverts have significant distortion and deflection throughout,

extensive corrosion or deep pitting.

3 Any condition described in Code 4 but which is excessive in scope.

Severe movement or differential settlement of the segments, or loss of fill.

Holes may exist in walls or slabs. Integral wingwalls nearly severed from culvert.

Severe scour or erosion at curtain walls, wingwalls, or pipes.

Metal culverts have extreme distortion and deflection in one section,

extensive corrosion, or deep pitting with scattered perforations.

2 Integral wingwalls collapsed severe settlement of roadway due to loss of fill.

Section of culvert may have failed and can no longer support embankment.

Complete undermining at curtain walls and pipes.

Corrective action required to maintain traffic. Metal culverts have extreme

distortion and deflection throughout with extensive perforations due to

corrosion.

1 Bridge closed. Corrective action may put bridge back in light service.

0 0 Bridge closed. Replacement necessary.

1.3.3 Bridge sufficiency rating

The sufficiency rating is a numerical value which is calculated by taking in to consideration four

factors (listed below) and it is used in determining the sufficiency of a bridge to remain in service.

The four factors which are used to calculate the sufficiency rating are

• Structural adequacy and safety (55% max”)

• Serviceability and functional obsolescence (30% max”)

• Essentiality for public use (15% max”)

• Special reduction (13% max”)

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The sufficiency rating is the summation of the above four factors. Details of sufficiency rating are

discussed in appendix H of Oklahoma bridge inspection manual and in Appendix B of the Coding

Guide.

1.3.4 Bridge deficiency status

A bridge is structurally deficient if it is inadequate to carry legal loads due to different reasons or

it has insufficient waterway opening. Such kind of structures may be closed to traffic or have a

load limit posted on it. Generally a bridge would be categorized as deficient bridge, if it has the

following ratings

1. A condition rating of 4 or less for

• Item 58 - Deck; or

• Item 59 - Superstructures; or

• Item 60 - Substructures; or

• Item 62 - Culvert and Retaining Walls. or

2. An appraisal rating of 2 or less for

• Item 67 - Structural Evaluation; or

• Item 71 - Waterway Adequacy.

A bridge will be considered as functionally obsolete if it has deck geometry, structural condition,

clearance or approach roadway alignment which does not meet current design standards or

current traffic demand. Generally a bridge would be categorized as functionally obsolete bridge,

if it has the following ratings

1. An appraisal rating of 3 or less for

• Item 68 - Deck Geometry; or

• Item 69 - Underclearances; or

• Item 72 - Approach Roadway Alignment. or

11
2. An appraisal rating of 3 for

• Item 67 - Structural Evaluation; or

• Item 71 - Waterway Adequacy.

1.4 Bridge elements

Generally bridge can be divided into two major components, which are superstructure and

substructure.

Superstructures consist of all the components above the supports or all elements which are

supported by abutments or piers. Elements of superstructures are deck, primary members,

secondary members and others. Super structures may be simple or complex structures. The

simplest structures like concrete slabs or laminated timber deck slabs transfer the load directly to

the piers and abutments. But in most cases such as beam or girder bridges the deck is supported

by longitudinal steel, timber, or concrete members called stringers or girders which transfer the

loads to piers and abutments. There are also more complex bridges such as trusses or plate

girders, these kinds of structures have the stringers which are supported by floor beams, and these

beams are supported by truss or plate girder which finally transfers the load to the piers and

abutments.

The Deck is part of the bridge which has direct contact with live and vehicle loads. The Deck can

be timber, concrete or steel. Steel decks are either open grid decks or orthotropic plate box

girders. The deck can either distribute the load to a system of beams or stringers which is most

common or it can be the main supporting member like a reinforced concrete slab or laminated

bridge. The deck can be covered with a wearing course which provides a riding surface for traffic.

In most cases the wearing course is a separate layer made up of bituminous material or it can be

poured with the structural slab to form a monolithic deck.

Primary Members include floor systems and main supporting member.

The floor system may be only composed of floor beams in between girders or it can have

12
longitudinal stringers which are supported by transverse floor beams. Stringers are longitudinal

load caring members which transfer load from the deck to floor beams. Floor beams are spanning

along the width of the bridge and are supported by main supporting members. The main

supporting elements transfer all loads from the floor beams to the piers and abutments. The main

supporting elements carry all the loads above the piers and abutments and failure of one of these

members can lead to the collapse of the structure. The main supporting elements can be steel,

timber, or concrete beams; timber, concrete or steel trusses; steel plate girders; arches or steel

cables. Steel primary members include rolled beams, plate girders, box girders, arches, trusses

and cable-stayed structures. Rolled beams are I-shaped steel beams or girders which come from

the hot-rolling mill as one unit composed of two flanges and a web. They are usually used for

short spans. Plate girders are built up sections which have similar shapes as rolled beams but in

this case they are not formed by hot rolling. Plate girders are built by connecting steel plates using

bolts, welds or rivets. Their sizes are usually larger than rolled beams and they are used for

intermediate span when rolled sections are not enough. Trusses are usually used for large spans.

Concrete primary members include concrete beam, prestressed concrete girder, concrete box

girder and more. Most common timber members include glued-laminated timber beams and

arches and timber trusses. Glued-laminated timber is formed by gluing together two or more

pieces of lumber with a thickness of no more than 2 in.

Secondary Members are elements which do not carry the load directly and are designed to prevent

cross-sectional deformation of the superstructure frame. The structure will not collapse directly if

one of these members fails. These are cross or x-bracings, lateral bracing, sway-portal bracing

and diaphragms. Diaphragms and cross bracings stabilize beams or girders and distribute loads

between them. Portals, cross frames, and sway bracings are used for trusses to reduce

unsupported length and holding members in vertical plane. Lateral bracings are placed at the

13
upper or lower chords (or flanges), or at both levels and transfer lateral loads (such as wind) to

the supports.

Other elements of the superstructure include bearings, expansion devices, sidewalls, railings,

parapets, curbs and deck joints.

Bearings are mechanical systems which transfer and distribute loads from superstructure to

substructure and allow superstructure movements without harmful overstresses. They can be

expansion bearings, which allow both rotation and translation or pinned bearings which only

allows rotation.

Expansion Joints are elements which help prevent damage of superstructure elements when

movement occurs due to changes in environmental conditions.

Substructures are structural elements which transfer the loads from the bridge span down to the

ground. The main elements of the substructure are piers, bents and abutments.

For single span structures the substructure consists of two abutments but for multi span structures

the substructure would consists of two abutments and one or more piers.

Abutments are the parts of the substructure which support the end of superstructure spans and

retain the approach embankment. It consists of spread or pile footings, a breast wall, a bridge seat,

a back wall, and wing walls. The bridge seat is the horizontal portion on which the bearings are

placed. The back wall prevents embankment soil from spilling to the bridge seat. Wing walls

prevent embankment soil around the abutment from spilling into the roadway or waterway.

Abutments can be constructed from plain concrete, reinforced concrete or stone masonry. Piers

are used to transfer loads from super structure to the foundation and provide intermediate support

between abutments. Elements of piers are footings, columns, and caps. Footings can be spread,

pile, or drilled shaft and their function is to transfer the load to the soil or rock. Columns transfer

vertical load and moment to the footing. Caps are beams which receive loads from superstructure

14
and distribute to the columns and in turn to the foundation. Bents are piers without footings and

consists of two or more piles or posts which are tied by the cap at the top. Piers and Bents can be

constructed from timber, steel, concrete, stones or a combination of materials.

1.5 Defects of bridge elements

1.5.1 Timber bridge defects

Common defects in timber bridges can occur due to biotic agents or non biotic agents. Biotic or

living agents which cause deterioration in timber are fungi, bacteria and insects. Non biotic agents

include chemical attack, damage due to fire, impact or collision, abrasion or mechanical wear,

overstress, loose connections, surface depression and weathering or warping. Biotic agents need

four things for survival. These are oxygen, moisture, suitable temperature and adequate food.

Luck of one of these things will preserve wood from decay (Michael A.R, 1992).

Fungi Decay

Decay is the major cause of timber bridge deterioration and it is normally due to decay fungi

(Hartle etal. 2006). There are many types of fungi but not all of them cause decay in timber.

Fungi which cause decay are Brown rot fungi, white rot fungi and soft rot fungi (Michael A.R,

1992). In order to fungi survive there must be a temperature between 75 °F to 85 °F, at least 20

percent of the volume of wood must be occupied by air, a moisture content of 20 percent or more

and there should be adequate food (Hartle etal. 2006). It is usually identified by the presence of

staining or discoloration, soft spots and signs of fungus growing on the surface. Areas which can

be attacked by fungus are fixings, splices, parts in contact with ground at the support points and

points on the deck where water and debris can accumulate. Shakes or splits in the wood can also

create good environment for decay by holding water.

15
Insect damage

Insects bore in to the wood and form tunnels for the purpose of food and shelter. Out of 26 insect

groups or orders, only some of them cause damage. Groups of insects which bring damage to the

timber are termites (Isoptera), beetles (coleoptera), and bees, wasps and ants (Michael A.R,

1992). Common types of insects which are included in the above groups are Termites, Powder-

post beetles or lyctus beetles, Carpenter ants, Caddis flies, Marine borers and more. Since the

damage is inside the wood, it is invisible .but some of the signs that can be visible are sagging,

crushing, and presence of small holes and accumulation of sawdust.

Mechanical damage

Mechanical damage is probably the most significant physical or non biotic agent of timber bridge

deterioration (Michael A.R, 1992). Mechanical damage includes impact or collision, abrasion or

mechanical wear, overstress, long-term exposure to vehicle overloads, foundation settlements,

and damage from debris or ice floes in the stream channel. Vehicle abrasion is the most common

mechanical damage. It produces worn surface and reduces effective wood section.

Chemical attack

Wood cannot be attacked by most chemicals or petroleum products, and it is also better than

many materials in resisting certain acids. But it can be damaged by animal wastes and can be

destroyed by strong alkalis and strong acids. Strong bases attack the hemicelluloses and lignin

and it is identified by a bleached white color on the surface. Strong acids attack the cellulose and

hemicelluloses, which results weight and strength losses. Strong acid attack is identified by its

dark color and has similar appearance to wood damaged by fire.

16
1.5.2 Concrete bridges defects

Common defects of concrete bridge materials are cracking, scaling, delamination, spalling,

efflorescence, honeycombs, pop-outs, wear, collision damage, abrasion, overload damage,

reinforcing steel corrosion and prestressed concrete deterioration.

Cracks

Cracks occur when tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of concrete. There are different

kinds of cracks. Cracks in concrete can usually be seen with naked eye and can be classified

based on different criteria. Based on width, cracks can be classified as hairline, medium, and wide

cracks via measurement with crack gauge. Hairline cracks are insignificant and cannot be

measured using simple means like gauges but it is advisable to document them. We can measure

medium and wide cracks and since they are significant, they should be recorded in the future and

monitored on the inspection report. Based on the structural nature of the crack, it can be classified

as structural and non structural. Usually it is not easy to distinguish whether it is structural or not

and it may require Structural engineering assessment to differentiate those cracks. Structural

cracks are caused by dead load and live load stresses and are usually wider than non structural

cracks. Structural cracks affect the load caring capacity of the structure and can lead to structural

failure. Since these cracks affect the bridges safety, immediate attention should be given.

Structural cracks are classified as flexure cracks and shear cracks. Flexural cracks are caused by

tensile stresses and they are observed on tension zones where flexural stress is high. This is

typically at the mid span on the bottom sides and at the ends on the top sides of continuous

structures. Shear cracks occur due to diagonal tensile forces and they appear on the webs of the

member near the support where shear stress is high and extends towards the center of the

member. Non structural cracks are results of internal stresses caused by dimension changes.

These cracks are usually small when we compare them to structural cracks and do not affect the

load caring capacity of the structure. However, care should be taken since they are wide enough

for passage of water and contaminants which can lead to serious problems. Non structural cracks

17
can be classified as temperature, shrinkage and mass concrete cracks. Temperature cracks are

results of thermal expansion and contraction of concrete. Shrinkage cracks are due to concrete

shrinkage during curing process. Mass concrete cracks are caused by temperature difference

between internal and external environmental conditions during the placement of concrete and for

a certain period from that time on.

Table 1.1 Crack width guidelines (source: Hartle etal. 2006).

Crack widths can be measured using crack comparater, and when greater accuracy is required

transducer, extensometer or strain gauges can be used for crack width measurement. Crack depth

can be measured either by pulse velocity method or by taking cores from concrete.

Scaling

This is the gradual loss of surface mortar and aggregate over an area. It is usually occur on

surfaces where there is a freeze and thaw action or surfaces which are exposed to environmental

change (wetting and drying) or concentrated solution of chloride deicers. Scaling can be classified

as light, medium, heavy and severe (Hartle etal. 2006).

• Light or minor scale - loss of surface mortar up to 6 mm (¼ inch) deep, with surface

exposure of coarse aggregates.

18
 • Medium or moderate scale - loss of surface mortar from 6 to 13 mm (¼ inch to ½ inch)

deep, with mortar loss between the coarse aggregates.

• Heavy scale - loss of surface mortar from 13 to 25 mm (½ inch to 1 inch) deep; coarse

aggregates are clearly exposed.

• Severe scale - loss of coarse aggregate particles, as well as surface mortar and the mortar

surrounding the aggregates; depth of the loss exceeds 25 mm (1 inch); reinforcing steel is

usually exposed

Delamination

Delamination is a separation of a layer of concrete at or near the level of the top or outer most

layer of reinforcing steel. The major cause of delamination is expansion or corrosion of

reinforcing steel due to chloride or salts intrusion. Rust can occupy about ten times the volume of

corroded steel (Ahmed Al-Ostaz, 2004). Delamination can also be caused by sever overstress in a

member (Hartle etal. 2006). As the process continues a separation between the delaminated

region and the structure occurs and this leaves a depression which is called spall.

Spalling

As the process of delamination continues a separation between the delaminated region and the

structure occurs and this leaves a depression which is called spall. Most spalls are caused by

corroding steel but overstress is also another cause especially if the spall is located near flexural

cracks or near high moment regions. When the concrete is overstressed it will break and this

fracture grows larger as the stress increases or due to other factors like freeze/thaw cycling or

debris intrusion. This process continues until the formation of spall.

Efflorescence

Efflorescence is a combination of calcium carbonate leached out of the cement paste and other

recrystalized carbonate and chloride compounds (Hartle etal. 2006). It is caused by crystallization

19
of soluble salts carried to the surface by moisture in the concrete. Efflorescence is a sign of

contaminated concrete and can be distinguished by dirty white surface deposits.

Pop outs

This is a shallow conical depression in concrete which is formed by unsatisfactory aggregates

which expand with the absorption of water.

Wear and Abrasion

Wear is the gradual removal of surface mortar due to friction and occurs to concrete surface, like

the bridge deck, when exposed to traffic. Abrasion is the result of external forces acting on the

surface of the concrete member and is similar to wear (Hartle etal. 2006).

Corrosion

Usually Portland-cement concrete mix provides good protection to embedded steel; this is

because of high alkalinity and high electrical resistivity of concrete. But this protection will

decrease as time goes on due to carbonation which is a result of reaction between carbon dioxide

and cement paste on concrete surface and intrusion of chlorides as a result of deicing salt. Deicing

salt is the most common cause of corrosion. When chlorides enter in to reinforced concrete

electrolytes are formed and these cause a difference in electric potential in reinforcing steel which

results corrosion of steel and deterioration of concrete. Corrosion has two effects on a structure.

These include a reduction of cross sectional area of steel and after corrosion occurs the corrosion

material (rust) can occupy 10 times the volume of corroded steel (Hartle etal. 2006). This leads

to cracking and finally spalling of the concrete. In reinforced concrete steel corrosion will become

evident before it affects the load caring capacity but for prestressing steel a slight reduction in

cross section can result a catastrophic failure. Corrosion can be noticed by surface discoloration

and rust stain when it is at early stage but later, spalling can be taken as a sign for corrosion.

Spalling and Cracks are results of corrosion.

Prestressed concrete deterioration

20
Prestressed concrete members deteriorate like ordinary concrete member but in

prestressed concrete cracks are more dangerous. Since prestressed concrete members

depend on the tensile strength of the tendons to support load, the loss of even a few

tendons may lead to the catastrophic failure of a bridge component. Since prestressed

concrete is subjected to high compression, no cracks should be visible (Minor etal. 1988).

Common defects associated with prestressed concrete are (Hartle etal. 2006).

• Structural cracks

• Exposed prestressing tendons

• Corrosion of tendons in the bond zone

• Loss of camber due to concrete creep

• Loss of camber due to lost prestress forces

1.5.3 Steel bridge defects

Deterioration of steel includes corrosion, fatigue, damage from overload, collision damage, and

heat damage and paint failures.

Corrosion

Corrosion in steel is electrochemical process which is the result of an electric potential difference

between two metals surrounded by electrolytes. Corrosion in steel bridges can be easily

recognized since it is shown on the surface easily and as a result it is much easier to inspect and

maintain than concrete bridges. Corrosion is the major cause of deterioration in steel bridges and

seriously affects the durability of steel bridges. As a result it should be thoroughly evaluated.

Although the mechanism of corrosion is the same there are different types of corrosion.

Uniform/Generalized corrosion - Generalized corrosion is the most common type of corrosion

and it can be defined as a well distributed and low level attack against the entire metal surface

21
with almost no localized penetration. It is the least damaging of all forms of corrosion and

comparatively it is simple to measure, predict and to control.

Pitting corrosion –Pitting corrosion is a localized, deep penetration of the metal surface with little

general corrosion in the surrounding area. This kind of corrosion is usually encountered when

there is a protection against uniform corrosion using passive surface coatings and a very small

area of passive surface is broken down. Since such kind of corrosion occurs in small areas it is

always difficult to detect.

Galvanized corrosion- Galvanized corrosion is an aggressive and localized form of corrosion

which is caused by an electrochemical reaction often found between two or more dissimilar

metals in an electrically conductive environment. Therefore in order for galvanized corrosion to

occur there should be to different kinds of metals connected with electrolytes. This kind of

corrosion usually occurs in the joints of different kinds of metals like welded, screw and riveted

joints (Jun Yuan, 2005). It is not easy to detect too.

Bacteriological corrosion - organisms found in swamps, bogs, heavy clay, stagnant waters, and

contaminated waters can contribute to corrosion of metals (Hartle etal. 2006).

Stress corrosion - takes place due to the combined action of tensile stress and a specific

environment. It is usually negligible in mild carbon steel bridges which are exposed normal

environments.

Fretted corrosion -this kind of corrosion occurs on closely fitted parts which are under vibration,

such as machinery and metal fittings, and can be identified by pitting and a red deposit of iron

oxide at the interface (Hartle etal. 2006).

22
Fatigue and Brittle fracture

These are usually caused by repetitive loadings over a long period of time, improper fabrication,

splicing, connecting and supporting details used in practice (Jun Yuan, 2005). Fatigue failure

occurs below yield stress. Temperature changes and wind load has also a negative impact on the

structure. Fatigue failure, fatigue damage and brittle fracture are distinguished by crack

formation. Major factors leading to the development of fatigue cracks are frequency of truck

traffic, age or load history of the bridge, magnitude of stress range, type of detail, quality of the

fabricated detail, material fracture toughness (base metal and weld metal), weld quality, ambient

temperature (Hartle etal. 2006).

1.6 Objective

The objective of this paper is to investigate current inspection techniques and strategies through

literature review. Identify the characteristics, science, practical application, appropriateness,

relative advantage and disadvantage of each inspection techniques. Develop a comprehensive

compilation of inspection techniques for the evaluation concrete, timber, and steel bridges.

23
 CHAPTER II

Visual inspection and physical examination

According to the national bridge inspection reference manual, bridge inspection techniques can

be categorized as visual inspection, physical examinations, advanced destructive techniques and

advanced nondestructive techniques.

2.1 Visual inspection

Visual inspection is the observation of a test object either directly with the eye or indirectly using

optical instruments for detection of surface defects and the objects conformance to set standards

(NDT handbook, 2010). It is the primary and most common technique which is carried out before

any other inspection techniques. It is used in detecting visible defects in timber, concrete and steel

bridges. In timber bridges it is used to inspect fungus decay, damage by parasites, excessive

deflection, checks, splits, shakes, and loose connections. In concrete bridges it is used in detecting

cracks, rust stains, spalling, delamination, pop out, efflorescence, collision damage, and others.

Common defects of steel bridges which can be detected by visual inspection include corrosion,

fatigue cracks, overload damage and others. Most of the current bridge inventory data consists of

component condition ratings based on visual inspection (Hara Takashi, 2005). Visual inspection

is the essential part of evaluation since the subsequent test procedures mainly depend on visual

inspection. It is the most cost effective method for assessing the structural condition (Ben Barr,

2006).

24
2.1.1 Equipment

Basic instruments which are used during visual inspection are

• Flash light

• Pocket knife, wire brush

• Screw drivers, pliers, hammer, torque wrench

• Measuring tape

• Straight edge, plump bob, spirit level

• Markers

• Caliper

• Chisel

• Binoculars

• Magnifying glass

• Inspection mirrors

• Feeler gauges

• Geologist’s pick

• Camera

In addition to the above instruments, visual inspection may sometimes accompanied by some

specialized equipment like video scopes and thermal imaging.

The inspector should describe the extent and intensity of damage, the frequency of occurrence of

damage, urgency for repair or detailed investigation and the effect of the damage on load caring

capacity of the structure. Many kinds of field tests can be carried out during visual inspection;

these include rebound hammer testing, hammer sounding, dye penetration, magnetic particle

testing and more. When these tests are insufficient, laboratory tests on samples (cores or dust) or

non destructive techniques are applied.

25
2.2.2 Personnel

The unit which takes responsibility for bridge inspection has at least three members.

The inspection program manager is responsible for the overall activity of bridge inspection unit.

Most highway bridges are inspected by teams of inspectors and the team usually has two

members (Fu, G. 2005). This team is led by the inspection team leader who is responsible for

field inspection activities and he is assisted by an inspector or assistant inspector.

According to FHWA specification requirements, which are described in the code of federal

regulations for the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS).The inspectors should have the

following minimum qualifications:

Inspection Program Manager

• be a registered professional engineer ; or

• be qualified to be a PE in the state in which the inspection is completed; or

• Have a minimum of 10 years of bridge inspection experience and have also completed a

training course based on the Bridge Inspector’s Training Manual.

Inspection Team Leader

• have the qualifications necessary to be the Inspection Program Manager; or

• have a minimum of five years of bridge inspection experience and have

• also completed a training course based on the Bridge Inspector’s Training Manual ; or

• Be certified at either the NICET Level III or IV for bridge inspection.

2.2.3 Advantages of visual inspection

• Economical

• Speed

• Sensitivity

26
 • Versatility

• Applicability to irregular shapes

• Field mobility

• Minimal training requirement

• Minimal equipment requirement

2.2.4 Limitations of visual inspection

• It depends mainly on the subjective evaluations made by bridge inspectors which in turn

rely on experience, engineering judgment and visual acuity of the inspector.

• Some damage may pass unnoticed or elements may be difficult to approach or hidden

from view like reinforcements and prestressing tendons.

• It is time consuming task which also require a significant amount of time for analyzing

and interpreting the collected data.

2.2.5 Reliability of visual inspection

Due to the above limitations and other shortcomings which can affect its reliability, the Federal

Highway Administration conducted an investigation to evaluate the reliability of visual

inspection. During this experiment representatives of state highway bridge inspectors completed

10 bridge inspections at the Federal Highway Association Nondestructive Evaluation Validation

Center. The 10 inspections consist of 7 routine inspections and 3 in depth inspections and bridge

inspectors consisted of 49 practicing state DOT bridge inspectors from 25 states (Graybeal, B. A.,

etal. 2002).

According to the results, generally it was found that for routine inspections, this study showed

that condition ratings are assigned with significant variability. Specifically 95% of the primary

element condition ratings assigned by the entire bridge inspector population will vary within

27
approximately two rating points from the average and only 68 % would vary within one point

(Graybeal, B. A., etal. 2002).

When we come to in depth inspection, bridge inspectors were found to be unlikely to correctly

detect and identify specific defects in which this inspection is sometimes prescribed. Specifically

inspectors are likely to identify general widespread defects which can be identified during a

routine inspection. Local defects like crack indications are not likely to be detected.

2.2 Sounding techniques

Sounding techniques include hammer sounding and chain dragging. They are physical

examinations which are used in detecting delaminated or overlay materials. And they are usually

executed during visual inspection.

2.2.1 Hammer sounding

Hammer sounding is a physical examination which is mostly used to detect existing

delaminations and imminent spall in concrete, but it can also be used to detect delaminations in

timber and loose fasteners in steel bridges. When concrete members are struck with a hammer,

delaminated regions produce dull or hallow sound as opposed to good concrete which produces a

sharp ringing sound.

Tapping on the outside of timber member, detects hollow sounds which is the indication of

internal decays. And it is also used as an indication for loose fasteners when it is applied to bolts

and rivets. Hammer sounding works well for vertical or horizontal surfaces. But it is not practical

for large surfaces of concrete like decks (Hartle etal. 2006). For large surfaces chain dragging is a

practical method.

2.2.2 Chain Dragging

Chain Dragging is also another sounding technique which is used to detect the integrity or

soundness of large horizontal concrete or timber surfaces. This can be done by dragging several

28
lengths of long heavy chain over a surface. Delaminated surface produces a sound which is

similar to hollow sound produced by hammer tapping. The areas with hollow sound are marked

and mapped for further investigation. Even though chain dragging is most common for inspection

of concrete bridge decks, it can also be used for other horizontal surfaces like timber decks.

2.2.3 Advantages and Limitations of sounding techniques

Advantages

• Simple

• Inexpensive

• Quick

Limitations

They are qualitative methods which depend on experience and hearing ability of the inspector.

29
 CHAPTER III

Advanced Destructive Techniques

Sometimes it is necessary to extract samples from a bridge so that laboratory or field tests can be

done. Advanced destructive techniques are usually done by taking material samples from bridge

elements and testing them in the laboratory for detecting defects, deterioration or for determining

material properties. It can also be done in the field by drilling in to the material. The size of the

sample depends on the type of test used. It is usually recommended to take samples from both

deteriorated and non deteriorated area so that comparison can be made (INDOT, 2010). As a

result destructive tests cause localized or minor damages that should be repaired after the test.

3.1 Advanced destructive testing for Timber bridges

Destructive techniques which are used for Timber bridge inspection includes; drilling and Coring,

Probing, Moisture content and Shigometer.

3.1.1 Drilling and Coring

Drilling and Coring are the most widely used techniques for evaluation of internal deterioration in

Timber bridges (Maeglin, R.R., 1979). They are similar and generally used for confirmation of

suspected areas of decay which are already identified by other techniques. Even when decay is

detected with other methods Drilling and coring are still used to further define the extent and

limits of the decay. Usually inspectors prefer using drilling for initial inspection until decay is

detected and then they apply coring for further investigation.

30
Drilling is usually done either electric power drill or hand-crank drill. A sudden decrease in

drilling resistance is a sign for decay or void but care should be taken not to be confused with

common wood defects such as knots.

Coring involves the removal of a core of wood and examining it for the presence of decay

pockets and depth of preservative.

3.1.2 Probing

Probing is a technique which uses tools like a knife or an awl for detection of decay near the

surface of wood. These tools are inserted into the wood surface and measure the soundness of the

surface or presence of decay. Lack of resistance to probe penetration typically indicates a sign of

decay. Two forms of probing are the pick test and a shell thickness indicator (Hartle etal. 2006).

3.1.4 Moisture meter

A moisture meter is a valuable instrument for evaluating moisture content in timber members.

The electrical property of wood changes as deterioration of wood continues. This change in

electrical property helps many tools including Moisture meters to detect the decay of wood.

Moisture is one of the main prerequisites for decay to occur; As a result assessing the moisture

content is an important process in decay detection. A moisture meter does not detect decay rather

it determines high moisture content. A wood with moisture content higher than 20% is suitable

for fungi to be active (Hartle etal. 2006).

3.1.3 Shigometer

A Shigometer uses an electrical pulse to measure changes in electrical resistance due to the

presence of decay. Resistance to pulsed current decreases in areas where there is decay. A hole is

drilled and a probe which is connected to shigometer is inserted in to the hole. When the probe

encounter with areas of decreased electrical resistance, the meter reading drops. Then these areas

31
are further detected using boring and coring techniques. Even though the Shigometer is effective

in detection of decay, care should be taken since it can also produce false or ambiguous results on

sound timber. As a result, drilling and coring should be done on suspected regions. A shigometer

should be used with moisture content above 30 % for this device to work (Robert.S and T.L,

2002).

3.2 Advanced destructive testing for Concrete bridges

Advanced destructive techniques for concrete bridges are used for evaluation of different

properties of concrete such as strength, permeability, chloride content, moisture content and

more. They are also applied for verification of other tests. Most of these tests are carried out by

taking a core sample and executing tests on the sample. Destructive tests and techniques which

are used for concrete members’ inspection include: Carbonation, concrete Permeability, concrete

Strength, Endoscopes, Moisture Content, Chloride Test, Petrographic Examination and

Reinforcing steel Strength.

3.2.1 Core sampling

Core sampling is the most widely used sampling technique in which a core of concrete is

extracted from an in situ structure for the evaluation of different properties of concrete. During

extraction care should be taken not to cut through reinforcement otherwise, judgment must be

made on whether the strength of the bridge is affected by the damage or not. The core hole should

be maintained with strong concrete grout and preferably, the diameters of cores should be three

times larger than the maximum aggregate size (Hartle etal. 2006). The extracted core is used for

many kinds of tests such as strength, porosity, permeability, density, carbonation, resistively,

moisture content, chloride analysis, mix proportions, water absorption, pulse velocity, gamma

radiography and an assessment of damage due to sulfate attack and other chemical reactions.

Standard test method for obtaining and testing drilled cores are covered on ASTM C42.

32
Keeping all the records of samples which are taken from a structure is very important in core

sampling. Some of the points which need to be recorded on sample core record sheets include

(A.F.Baker, 2000).

1. Diameter and length of cores and number of pieces extractyed( including steel)

2. Cracks which exist on the structure before the application of

3. the test and cracks caused by coring process.

4. An ‘up’ arrow marked on each piece of the core to show the direction of the core taken

with respect to the outer surface of the concrete.

5. An orientation arrow on the outer face of the core to show the position with respect to

any reference point (vertical datum or adjacent joint etc.).

6. A grid reference accurately locating the core on the structure

7. A scaled photograph of the core location after core extraction.

8. A sketch of the core to show how it can be assembled in the laboratory, together with

location of bars, cracks in the core hole etc.

3.2.2 Test for carbonation

Carbonation is the result of reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrated cement in the presence of

moisture. The reaction of those gases with alkaline constituents of concrete reduces the degree of

concrete alkalinity. Carbonation is not necessarily damaging by itself but when there is crack, it

will reach as far as steel and causes corrosion of the steel by reducing alkalinity of concrete near

the reinforcement (M. J.Ryall, 2010).

The depth of carbonation can be measured by spraying two percent solution of phenolphthalein

ethanol, which is a pH indicator, to a freshly exposed concrete surface (Ahmed .A, 2004). A

change in color occurs at a pH of approximately 10 and after the test, the uncarbonated concrete

color changes to magneta or pink color and the carbonated concrete remain colorless. The

33
phenolphthalein is a simple and cheap method which is used to determine depth of carbonation in

concrete.

3.2.3 Chloride test

The intrusion of chloride into concrete can cause corrosion of reinforcement which in turn results

cracking of concrete. The primary source of chloride ions are chloride bearing admixtures which

are used during construction, deicing salts, chloride contaminated constituents(water or

aggregate) used during construction, air-borne chlorides and direct exposure (Ali Akbar, 2006). A

chloride test determines the degree of chloride ion penetration at a certain level in the concrete

structure and it can be performed on any concrete component.

Corrosion of steel in concrete structures is mainly caused by chloride ions and it usually starts

when the amount of chloride ions reaches a concentration in the range of 0.025 to 0.033 percent

by weight of concrete (INDOT, 2010). Therefore in order to know the degree of exposure of the

structure to corrosion, determination of chloride ion distribution in the concrete is necessary. This

can be achieved through the development of chloride profiles which provides important

information about the rate of diffusion of chloride ions and their primary source. A chloride

profile shows the percent of chloride concentration versus depth below concrete surface. The

chloride content in concrete is typically determined through laboratory analysis of powdered

concrete samples. Powdered samples which are collected from field are typically taken by

drilling at different depths down to and beyond the level of the reinforcing steel. Extreme care

should be exercised to avoid inadvertent contamination of the samples. Alternatively, core

samples can be extracted and powdered samples can be obtained at different depths in the

laboratory.

In the laboratory, chloride ion content is determined using wet chemical analysis. Field test kits

are also developed for field tests. Laboratory testing is more accurate than field tests but it is time

34
consuming. On the other hand, the use of field test kits will not give as accurate results as

laboratory testing but it gives a rapid field results.

The detailed procedure for chloride sampling and testing is covered in the American Association

of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) publication T 260-84; “Sampling and

Testing for Chloride Ion in Concrete and Concrete Raw Materials,” and in the American Society

for Testing and Materials (ASTM) publication C114-00; “Standard Test methods for Chemical

Analysis of Hydraulic Cement.”

Limitations of Chloride ion test

• It is time consuming and requires access to the member

• Like any other destructive test, the test requires removal of portion of concrete member

and many samples cannot be taken from one location.

• For bridge decks, the bridge may need to be closed to traffic during the sampling process.

3.2.4 Moisture content

Moisture content in concrete is used as an indication for corrosion activity. This test can be done

either nuclear method or by oven dry a concrete sample taken from the bridge (Hartle etal. 2006).

3.2.5 Strength test

Since it is difficult to produce a cast cubic or cylindrical specimen from the bridge structure,

measuring the in-situ cube or cylinder strength is not easily possible. But this strength can be

estimated by other destructive and non destructive tests. Core test is the most commonly accepted

destructive test for estimating compressive strength in concrete bridges. Concrete cores are also

used for estimating indirect tensile strength of concrete which are splitting tensile and flexural

strength of in-place concrete. Standardized method for obtaining and testing specimens to

determine compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strength of in-situ concrete is covered on

ASTM C42/C42M.

35
3.2.6 Endoscopy

Endoscopy is a method which involves inserting endoscopes, which are viewing tubes, into holes

which are drilled in concrete bridge. Optical fiber glass can be used from an external source in

helping to view inside the hole. This is the most useful method for inspecting voids in the grout

and corrosion in steel in the cable ducts (Guidelines for bridge inspection, 1993).

3.2 Advanced destructive inspection techniques for steel bridges

These tests are destructive because they are executed by taking a piece of steel from the bridge.

These small pieces which are taken from steel member are called test coupons. Material coupons

are usually obtained by sawing, coring, or by collecting drill shavings. Flame cutting should not

be used since it changes material properties of both the sample and the remaining base

metal.since the properties of steel members vary over the cross-section, care should be taken and

consulting of the bridge engineer is necessary concerning where to take these pieces. After taking

the samples, the bridge should be repaired. Repairing steel bridges after taking the sample is more

complex than that of conceret and timber bridges. Care must be taken to reduce any residual

stresses or the creation of any fatigue-prone details when making a repair.

Destructive tests in steel are used in determining strength and different properties of steel. These

tests include (Hartle etal. 2006) Tensile strength test, Chemical analysis, Charpy impact test and

Brinell hardness test.

Generally advanced destructive tests are applicable when the other tests such as visual inspection,

sounding techniques does not give enough information on the extent of the defects. They are also

applicable for confirmation of defects which are already detected by other nondestructive

techniques or for determination of different properties of materials. Common destructive

techniques which are used to detect decay in timber bridge members are drilling and coring,

probing, and shigometer. Moisture meter detects moisture content in timber bridges. Core

36
sampling is the most common destructive technique for concrete. It is used for many kinds of

tests such as strength, porosity, permeability, density, carbonation, resistively, moisture content,

chloride analysis, mix proportions, water absorption, pulse velocity and more. Tensile strength

test, Chemical analysis, Charpy impact test and Brinell hardness test are destructive tests which

are used to determine strength and other properties of steel bridges. Concrete and timber repair

are relatively easy but steel repair is more complex. Taking steel samples require careful

execution and a bridge engineer should be consulted concerning where to take samples.

37
 CHAPTER IV

Advanced Nondestructive Techniques

According to American Society of Nondestructive Testing, ‘Nondestructive testing (NDT) has

been defined as comprising those methods used to test a part or material or system without

impairing its future usefulness”. They are used for detecting internal defects, for confirmation of

defects which are already detected by other methods, locating and determining the extent of

defects, and during fabrication of bridge materials nondestructive tests are also applicable for

quality control. There are many kinds of nondestructive techniques which have been applied for

testing different kinds of materials. Generally nondestructive techniques can be grouped into six

basic categories(ASNT, 2007). These are mechanical and optical, penetrating radiation,

electromagnetic and electronic, sonic and ultrasonic, infrared and thermal, and chemical and

analytical.

The most common nondestructive techniques which are used for bridge inspection are covered in

this paper. These are ultrasonic, stress wave, impact-echo, rebound hammer, ground penetrating

radar, infrared thermography, acoustic emission, eddy current and liquid penetrant testing.

38
4.1 Ultrasonic inspection

Ultrasonic inspection is a technique which uses high frequency sound waves in the range of 20

kHz to 25 MHz to evaluate internal condition of a material (Niket M. Telang, 2006). The term

ultrasound (adj. ultrasonic) means a sound wave with a frequency of above 20 kHz which is

above the upper limit of human hearings. It works based on the principle that the speed of

ultrasonic pulses travelling in a solid medium depends on its elastic property and density of the

material (M. J. Ryall, 2010). Even though Ultrasonic testing is usually known for thickness

evaluation, it can also be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements,

material characterization, and more (NDT resource center). It is currently applicable in many

fields like aerospace, automotive, medical, chemical, petro-chemical, engineering and offshore

industries. This technique is also very useful for civil engineering structures in flaw detection,

evaluation of defects, for quality control, in determining internal condition of the material and

more.

4.1.1How does it work?

Ultrasound waves which are also called stress waves are vibrations or mechanical waves. These

vibrations or Ultrasonic waves are usually generated by piezoelectric transducers which convert

electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice versa.

. Driven by the pulser, the transducer converts electrical energy in to mechanical wave or

ultrasonic energy. The mechanical wave is then induced and propagates through the specimen.

When the ultrasonic energy is encountered by discontinuity (defect) or far surface of the

member, it will be reflected back to the transducer. This is possible because an ultrasonic wave

travels with little loss through homogenous material. However, energy loss will occur when it is

encountered by discontinuity in elastic continuum (H. S. Khatak, 2002).

Finally the ultrasonic energy is converted back to electrical energy and amplified by the

39
receiver/Amplifier. Then the results will be displayed on The display unit.

The output of ultrasonic testing can be displayed in different kinds of formats such as A-scan, B-

scan, C-scan, P-scan and more. A-scan is the most commonly used format (Jack Blitz and Geoff

Simpson, 1996). In this format a signal with amplitude representing the intensity of the

reflection is shown on the Y-axis and the distance representing the arrival time of the reflection

is shown on the X-axis.

There are different kinds of ultrasonic testing classifications based on different considerations.

Depending on the application, it can be classified as automated ultrasonic testing (AUT) or

manual ultrasonic testing. In manual scanning, the inspection is conducted using an oscilloscope

where as in the case of automated inspection, this can be done using an instrumented scanner

that keeps track of probe position and automated signal detection (Matzkanin and etal, 2007).

Based on the method of measurement, ultrasonic testing can use either pulsed or continuous

waves to measure different parameters. The ultrasonic pulse technique is the simplest and most

commonly used technique. It includes ultrasonic pulse-echo, pulse-transmission and pulse-

resonance (Jack Blitz and Geoff Simpson, 1996). Ultrasonic Pulse –Echo method is when one

transducer transmits and receives the wave and it is the most common technique. It can be used

for flaw detection, thickness gauging, measurement of velocity and more. In the case of Pulse-

transmission, one transducer transmits and the other one receives. Pulse-Transmission is used

when pulse-echo is impractical or difficult to use such as for small defects which do not give

adequate reflection signal and for plates and sheets.

40
 10 lb. Weight

100 kHz Broadband

Transducer

Dry Couplant
Membrane
Wood Specimen

100 kHz Broadband

Transducer

Figure 4.1.1 Ultrasonic inspection setup

4.1.2 Equipment

Transducers

Ultrasonic transducer is the most important part of an ultrasonic test. It is a device which can

receive and transmit ultrasonic vibrations. Based on their application transducers can be divided

in to contact and immersion transducers.

Contact transducers are those which are placed in direct contact with the test specimen. Coupling

materials like water, grease is used for better transmission of ultrasonic waves in to the

specimen.

Immersion transducers have no contact with the test specimen. They are designed to operate in

liquid environment and they are water proof. The ultrasonic energy is transmitted in to the

specimen through a water path or a water environment.

Components of an ultrasonic transducer which is usually called Probes are an active element, a

41
backing and a wear plate.

The active element is the basic part of the transducer which converts electrical energy to

ultrasonic energy and vice versa. It is made up of piezoelectric materials. The most common

active elements which are used in ultrasonic testing are usually made from piezoelectric single

crystal such as Quartz (SiO2) and lithium sulfate or ferroelectric poly crystalline ceramic such as

Barium Titanate(BaTiO3) and Lead-Zirconate-Titanate(PZT). Most active elements of modern

transducers are made up of piezoelectric ceramic (NDT Resource center).

The backing is a high density material which controls the vibration of the transducer by

absorbing the energy radiated from the back face of the active transducer element. The

impedance of the backing is usually matched to the transducer in order to get a highly damped

transducer with best resolution.

The wear plate protects the transducer from the environment and also enhances the sound energy

penetrating into a specimen. Aluminum oxide and titanium oxide are common wear plate

materials for contact mode and epoxy resin is used for the immersion mode (Cartz L., 1995)

Figure 4.1.2 Ultrasonic transducers and coupling materials

42
Couplant

A coupling agent is a liquid or semi liquid which is placed between the transducer and the test

specimen to exclude air and to efficiently transfer the ultrasonic vibration in to the specimen.

Generally the couplant has the following purposes (Cartz L., 1995) :

• Exclude all air

• Fill all irregularities and provide smooth surface of contact

• Allow free movement of the probe

• Be easy to apply, easy to remove and harmless to the surface

• And it should be as thin as possible so that it will not change the direction of the

ultrasonic wave.

Typical coupling agents are water, silicone oil, glycerin, thick oil, grease, petroleum

jelly.

Other components of typical ultrasonic testing equipment include pulse generator,

Receiver/amplifier, a time measuring circuit, display unit, and reference bar(Andrew J.

Boyd, and etal, 2005)

43
 Figure 4.1.3 Schematic of a pulse velocity apparatus (ASTM C597-97 200)

4.1.3 Personnel

The quality of ultrasonic inspection is highly dependent on the skill and knowledge of the

inspector (Matzkanin and etal, 2008). As a result, qualification of the testing personnel plays an

important role in the testing process. The American Society of Nondestructive Testing(ASNT),

which has been a world leader in qualification and certification of Nondestructive testing, have

three major programs for the qualification and certification nondestructive

personnel(Nondestructive testing handbook, 2007). According to recommended practice

NO.SNT-TC-1A, which is one of those programs, the recommended training and experience for

ultrasonic testing personnel is given by:

44
 Level I Level II
a
High school graduate 40 h 40 h
b
Two years of college 30 h 40 h
c
Work experience 210 h 630 h
a) Or equivalent

b) Completion with a passing grade of at least two years of engineering or science study in a

university, college, or technical school.

c) Minimum work experience per level. Note: For level II certification, the experience shall consists

of time as level I or equivalent. If a person is being qualified directly to level II with no time at

level I, the required experience shall consists of the sum of the times required for level I and level

II and the required training shall consists of the sum of the hours required for level I and level II.

Table 4.1 Training and experience for ultrasonic testing personnel (NDT handbook, 2007)

4.1.4 Advantages of Ultrasonic testing (Nondestructive hand book, 2007)

• Superior penetrating power, up to few meters in many parts and up to 6 meters axially.

• High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.

• Greater accuracy in determining the position of internal flaws, estimating their size, and.

characterizing their orientation, shape and nature.

• Only one surface needs to be accessible.

45
 • Operation is electronic, which provides almost instantaneous indication of flaws, suitable

for immediate interpretation, automation, rapid scanning, in-line production monitoring,

and process control.

• Volumetric scanning ability to inspect from the front surface to the rear surface of a part.

• Nonhazardous operation.

• Portability.

• Provides a digital output that can be used by a computer to characterize defects and

material properties.

4.1.5 Disadvantage of ultrasonic inspection

• Manual operation requires careful operation by experienced technicians.

• Extensive technical knowledge is required for the proper development of inspection

procedures.

• Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, or not homogenous are difficult to

inspect.

• Discontinuities that are in a thin layer immediately below the surface are difficult to

inspect.

• Couplants are usually required to provide transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between

transducer and parts being inspected.

• Physical reference standards are needed, both for calibrating equipment and

characterizing flaws.

4.1.6 Appropriateness of ultrasonic inspection

For wood members ultrasonic testing is used in identifying different kinds of defects such as

knots, slope of grain, and decay. But it is usually applicable in manufacturing environment in

evaluating product quality, rather than in the field (Robert N. Emerson, and etal. 1999).

46
For steel members it is used in measuring thickness of the member, inspection of welds,

detecting porosity, voids, inclusions, corrosions, cracks, and other discontinuities (Hartle etal.

2006). Ultrasonic pulse-echo method the most reliable method for nondestructive testing of

metals and it is used for detecting cracks and other defects (Bergmeister k. and etal, 2003). For

hanger pins ultrasonic testing is also one of the most reliable techniques and has become the

primary technique to perform a detailed inspection of an in-service hanger pin (Graybeal B.A and

etal. 2000). According to FHWA HRT-04-124 report, automated ultrasonic testing (AUT) could

be used in place of radiography under certain conditions to inspect steel bridges during

fabrication to ensure weld quality.

Concrete structures are large in size and composed of inhomogeneous materials with great deal of

local material variation; as a result many NDT techniques which work well for homogenous

materials like steel cannot be applied for concrete (John S.popovics, 2005). Nevertheless, some

kinds of ultrasonic tests like ultrasonic pulse velocity method, have found application in concrete

structures. Ultrasonic pulse velocity technique uses two ultrasonic transducers to measure travel

time of pulses of ultrasonic longitudinal waves over a known path length. The time travel can be

converted in to velocity since the path length is known. Once the velocity is determined, it will be

compared with typical values given in different references and the condition of the concrete can

be known through comparison. It is effective in determining quality of concrete in relation to the

homogeneity of concrete, presence of voids, cracks, or other imperfections, changes in the

concrete, and the quality of concrete relating to strength (Ryall M.J, 2010). However, it is not

recommended for determination of strength unless previous correlations are performed (John

S.popovics, 2005).

4.1.7 Availability and cost of equipment

Different kinds of ultrasonic equipments are available on the market and their cost depends on its

unit’s sophistication. Equipment costs range between $10,000 for basic hand-held portable

47
ultrasonic testing equipment to $50,000 for complicated industrial production ultrasonic

inspection equipments (Matzkanin and etal, 2008).

4.2 Spectral analysis/ Stress wave

The stress wave method uses stress waves or sound waves which are produced from an impact

and they are used to detect properties or internal conditions of a material. Stress waves travel

through the material with the speed of sound and reflect from discontinuities such as external

surface, internal flaws, or joints between adjacent members (Robert N. Emerson and etal. 1998).

Stress wave method is also applicable in determining in-situ strength of wood members (Hartle

etal. 2006). This is because sound waves travel faster in sound members than in decayed

members. This method is very similar to ultrasonic method. The difference is the frequency, and

the source of the sound wave.

4.2.1 How does it work?

• A stress wave is induced in to the wood member by impacting it with an impact device

instrumented with an accelerometer that releases a start signal to a timer.

• The stress wave propagates through the members and reflected or scattered when it is

encountered with discontinuities.

• A second accelerometer, which is held in contact with the other side of the member,

detects the stress wave and sends a stop signal to the timer.

• The elapsed time is displayed on the timer in microseconds.

• The distance travelled by the wave is measured using a tape or calipers.

• The velocity is measured using the known distance and time of stress wave flight.

48
 Figure 4.2 Sonic stress wave timer (Hartle etal. 2006)

4.2.2 Advantages and limitations of Stress wave method

• It is especially useful for thick timber members which are difficult to detect using

hammer sounding.

• The limitation of this technique is that access to both sides of the specimen is required.

4.2.3 Appropriateness of stress wave method

This method is commonly used in determining modulus of elasticity for wood structural member

(Robert N. Emerson etal. 1998). It is also used to determine the in-situ strength of wood members

and to detect decay in wood members.

4.3 Impact Echo

The impact echo method is another kind of pulse-echo technique which uses a mechanical impact

to produce low frequency sound waves (around 2-20 KHZ) (Sansalone, Street 1995). These stress

waves travel through the material and will be reflected when they are encountered with

discontinuities like internal flaws and external surfaces. Applying a mechanical impact to

produce stress waves for detection of flaws has had the greatest success in the practical

49
application of stress waves (Carino, 2001). The impact echo method was developed and

researched at the national institute of standards and technology in 1980’s by Drs. Nicholas Carino

and Mary Sansalone (Dennis A. Sack, L. D. O., 1995). It is used for detection of flaws like

cracks, delaminations, voids, honeycombing and debonding in plain, reinforced and post-

tensioned concrete and it is also applicable for detection of cracks, voids and other defects in

masonry structures where the block units are bonded using mortar (Hartle etal. 2006).

4.3.1 How does it work?

The impact echo works similar to pulse velocity technique (Sohanghpurwala, A. A., 2006). The

main difference is that in the case of impact echo, low stress waves (less than 20 KHz) are

resulted from mechanical impact while ultrasonic technique uses piezoelectric transducers for

production of high stress waves (greater than 20 kHz). And unlike impact echo, the pulse velocity

method uses two transducers for sending and receiving stress waves. The mechanical impact is

produced by hitting the surface of a material to be examined with a small metal sphere. The stress

wave, which is produced by mechanical impact, travels through the material and will be reflected

by internal flaw or external surface. The reflected wave is received by a transducer which is

placed near to the spot where the mechanical impact is produced. The piezoelectric material in the

transducer converts the stress wave in to voltage and the resulting voltage-time signal. This signal

is then transferred to a computer and mathematically transformed in to a spectrum of amplitude

versus frequency. Finally both the waveform and spectrum plots are displayed on the screen.

Then the depth to the boundary will be determined, given that the velocity of the stress wave is

known, by measuring the time difference between the initial impact and the arrival of the

reflected wave at the transducer. By comparing the depth obtained from the above technique with

the actual depth, it can be determined whether there is a defect or not. But it is necessary to have

understanding of velocity of stress waves travelling through different materials. For example for

concrete structures, The velocity of stress waves are given in different references and as

50
mentioned before it depends on density and elastic property of the material. It is also possible to

calculate the velocity of the stress waves if the thickness of the boundary is given.

4.3.2 Equipment

• A small metal sphere with a diameter of less than 2in (Sohanghpurwala, A. A.,

2006) and weight of 0.09 Kg (0.2 lb) (Dennis A. Sack, L. D. O., 1995) for

production of mechanical impact.

• A transducer is also used for receiving the reflected waves.

• A computer based system analysis system to capture, process, and store or display

the waveforms of surface motion.

Figure 4.3 Impact echo test unit (INDOT, 2010)

4.3.3 Advantages of Impact echo technique

• It only needs access to one side of the element

• Defect depth can be calculated

• It is highly accurate (Yehia, 2007)

51
 • Unlike ultrasonic pulse velocity method, it is not affected by the presence of steel

reinforcement (Hartle etal. 2006).

• It is relatively rapid and requires minimal surface preparation.

4.3.4 Disadvantages of impact echo method

• In order to get an overall map of the defect, many points have to be tested. As a

result it is time consuming and expensive for large areas.

• Lanes must be closed to traffic while testing is being done

• Interpretation of the results need specialized program and training (Gucunski,

2006)

4.3.5 Appropriateness of impact echo technique

Impact echo is used for detection of flaws like cracks, delaminations, voids, honeycombing and

debonding in plain, reinforced and post-tensioned concrete and it is also applicable for detection

of cracks, voids and other defects in masonry structures where the block units are bonded using

mortar. Because of many variables that are encountered in the field, it is difficult to develop a

standard test procedure for flaw detection using impact echo method (Carino, 2001). The degree

of difficulty also changes depending on the size of cracks and type of structure. Thickness

measurements in plate-like concrete structures are simple. As a result in 1998, ASTM develops a

standard procedure for thickness measurement using impact echo test method. The procedures are

explained in ASTM C 1383.

4.4 Rebound Hammer Test

A rebound hammer also called a Schmidt hammer is used for testing surface hardness and it

works based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the

52
surface that it strikes. A spring loaded device hits the concrete surface and the compressive

strength of the material will be determined based on the response of the device. The rebound

hammer test gives qualitative result and relative strength values. It is used for comparisons of

concrete quality in different parts of a concrete bridge. The rebound hammer test is covered in

ASTM publication C805-97, “Standard Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened

Concrete.”

Figure 4.4.1 Rebound hammer (International atomic energy, 2002)

4.4.1 How does it work?

A rebound hammer made from a spring –controlled mass that slides on a plunger with in a tabular

housing. When the plunger is pushed by the spring controlled mass against the surface of the

concrete, the spring controlled mass rebounds. Since the degree of the rebound depends on the

hardness of the surface, the compressive strength will be determined based on the response. The

extent or degree of the rebound is designated on a linear scale attached to the device. A high

rebound number indicates a relatively higher strength value and vice versa.

4.4.2 Equipment

A rebound hammer weighs approximately 1.8 Kg and its main components include a plunger, a

spring loaded hammer and the housing. Each of the components of the rebound hammer is shown

in fig 4.3.2.

53
 Fig 4.4.2 components of a Rebound hammer (Indian railroad association, 2000)

4.4.3 Advantages of Rebound hammer

• It is easy to sue

• Portable

• Low-cost

• And it can quickly cover large areas

4.4.4 Limitations of Rebound hammer

• It only gives qualitative results

• The test measurement depends on many factors including size, age, aggregate type,

moisture content and concrete finish.

4.4.5 Appropriateness of the technique

Rebound hammer is used for concrete bridge members in determining the concrete quality

including its compressive strength and uniformity of concrete. It is also used in detection of

concrete characteristics over time. The compressive strength which is found using rebound

hammer test refers to the compressive strength of the surface of concrete and Care should be

taken not to extrapolate to the body of the concrete (Ryall M.J, 2010).

54
4.5 Windsor probe test

Windsor probe test is used to determine the uniformity and strength of concrete. The principle

behind this technique is that the penetration of the probe into the concrete is inversely

proportional to the compressive strength of concrete.

Windsor probe test is covered in the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

publication C803/C803M-97C1, “Standard Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened

Concrete.”

“The limitation of this technique is it gives qualitative result and it also damages the concrete at

the test location” (INDOT, 2010).

4.5.1 Equipment

• A power activated gun or driver

• Hardened alloy probe

• Loaded cartridge

• A measuring instrument such as depth gauge

Figure 4.5 Windsor probe test kit (INDOT, 2010)

55
4.6 Ground Penetrating Radar

Ground penetrating radar is a nondestructive method which is similar to ultrasonic pulse-echo or

impact echo method, except in this technique electromagnetic waves are used instead of sound

waves. The frequency of electromagnetic waves used range from 200 MHz to 2 GHz and for

bridge decks, using higher value is more suitable (Sohanghpurwala, A. A., 2006). In these

method electromagnetic waves will travel through the material to be tested and when they

encounter boundaries or interfaces between two materials with different dielectric constants,

some of the waves get reflected. This is because in principle electromagnetic waves are affected

by the dielectric property of the media they travel through (Colla & Brunside 1998). Civil

engineering materials with different values of dielectric constant include air = 1, concrete = 8-12

(based on material properties and proportions of constituents) and water = 81(Sohanghpurwala,

A. A., 2006). The amount of reflected energy will increase as the difference in dielectric constant

between the two materials increases. It is almost fully accepted as a method for inspecting bridge

decks, and is especially useful for identifying delamination between concrete and rebar (Hartle

etal. 2006). It has been applied for geological survey applications for many years but it is now

currently applied for nondestructive technique of bridge decks. Experimental results show that

there is a strong agreement between ground penetrating radar and other tests like visual inspection

and chain dragging and when it is compared with core samples it gives accurate result (Parillo

2009, Yehia 2008). Standard procedure for testing of concrete bridge deck using Ground

penetrating radar is covered in ASTM publication D6087-97(2001),”Standard Test Method for

Evaluating Asphalt-Covered Concrete Bridge Decks using Ground Penetrating Radar.”

4.6.1 How does it work?

Ground penetrating radar consists of control unit, radar antenna and display unit. The control unit

generates the pulse or electromagnetic wave and sends it to the antenna through a cable. The

56
antenna releases this pulse or energy to the material to be examined, then this energy travels

through the material and when it reaches interfaces of different materials (materials with different

dielectric constant) some of the energy will be reflected back to the antenna and the remaining

energy passes through the interface in to the second material. The antenna receives the reflected

wave and sends it back to the control unit for storage and processing. Finally the output will be

displayed on the display unit. The most common display of Ground penetrating radar is called a

trace which consists of signal versus amplitude.

Ground penetrating radar can be operated manually or it can be placed on a vehicle to make the

data collection quicker.

4.6.2 Equipment

Components of ground penetrating radar include the control unit, radar antenna and display unit.

The control unit generates and sends to the antenna and receives back some of the pulse which is

reflected through the antenna. It is used as a storage and processing unit.

The antenna sends signal to the material to be tested and receives back the reflected wave.

The display unit displays the processed data a graphical format.

4.6.3 Advantages of Ground Penetrating Radar

• It analyze a bridge deck quickly without having to contact the slab, as a result disruption

to traffic is minimal

• It is the only commercial available nondestructive method for inspection of concrete

bridge decks with asphalt overlays (IAEA, 2002)

4.6.4 Limitations of Ground Penetrating Radar

• Even though it is fast technique, still traffic lanes must be closed to collect data.

57
 • The data analysis may be subjective but computer programs are available to make it less

subjective

• It is dependent on experience of the expert operator especially in regard to concrete

inspection.

• It fails to locate small delamination areas like those with dimensions less than 0.3 m

wide.

• The other limitation is that some properties of materials which affect electromagnetic

behavior like conductivity, permittivity, magnetic permeability, and polarization, are not

well understood (Ryall M.J, 2010).

4.6.5 Appropriateness of the technique

Transmission of electromagnetic waves through concrete is not fully understood and there

are a lot of factors which affect the transmission and reflection of the signal. Currently,

ground penetrating radar is applicable in measuring slab thickness and locating embedded

metals such as steel reinforcing bars. Other applications such as detection of cracks,

delaminations, chloride in concrete, etc., are only qualitative comparisons (Sohanghpurwala,

A. A., 2006).

4.7 Infrared Thermography

Infrared thermography is a nondestructive technique which asses the material defects by

monitoring its reaction to thermal loading. It is currently applied on many structures and materials

ranging from carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) to teeth (Andrew etal. 2005). This

technique works based on the principle that internal material defects have different thermal

conductivity from the host material itself and this affects the heat flow within the material. This

change in heat flow creates a temperature difference between the defected and non defected

material. Infrared thermography can be applied in concrete bridge decks for detecting subsurface

58
voids, delaminations and other defects. In order to have heat flow through the material to be

tested, there must be a heat source. Since testing concrete bridge decks involves large areas, only

the sun can give us a low cost and uniform distribution of heat. A temperature difference between

the delaminated material and solid material is created during sunny or partially sunny days and it

is only dependant on the amount of sun not the surrounding air temperature. Usually this

inspection is made between March and November (INDOT, 2010).

For details on how to apply infrared thermography for bridge decks one can refer the American

Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) publication D4788-88; “Standard Test Methods for

Detecting Delaminations in Bridge Decks using Infrared Thermography.”

4.7.1 How does it work?

Infrared is a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum having waves with frequencies less

than red visible light. According to Planck’s law all objects emit infrared radiation but it is only

visible to human eye when the temperature is above 500°C (IAEA, 2002). Infrared thermography

uses an infrared camera to visualize thermal energy or infrared emissions which are invisible to

human eye and converts it to a visible image.

4.7.2 Equipment

The whole system has four major components; Infrared camera, Infrared scanning system, Data

acquisition and analysis equipment, and an image recording and retrieving device.

An infrared camera has a similar appearance to portable video camera. It has high resolution and

is also efficient in inspecting large areas of concrete quickly. The resulting data will be displayed

as pictures by differing grey tones in a black and white image or by different colors on a color

image.

An infrared scanning system is a real time microprocessor coupled to a display monitor.

59
A Data acquisition and analysis equipment is composed of an analogue to digital converter, a

computer with high resolution color monitor, and data storage and analysis software.

Image recording and retrieving devices are used for recording of both visual and thermal images.

4.7.3 Advantages of Infrared Thermography

• It is a quick method and cover large areas since it is carried on a vehicle which is driven

over the bridge deck.

• Minimal traffic disruption.

• It can be used in areas with high-traffic volumes and noise levels.

• Results are easy to interpret (Yehia, 2007).

• It provides good location accuracy but the spot should be checked using sounding and

cores

4.7.4 Limitations of Infrared Thermography

• It requires some environmental conditions that are necessary for this method to work.

• It provides only good location accuracy which does not give any information about depth

layer and other tests should be carried out for depth details.

• It is expensive for using for a small number of structures.

4.7.5 Appropriatness of the technique

Infrared thermography can be applied in concrete bridge decks for detecting subsurface voids,

delaminations and other defects.

60
4.8 Acoustic Emission

Structures or materials release mechanical energy when they are stressed. Acoustic Emissions are

stress waves or mechanical waves which are released by mechanical deformation of materials.

These deformations can be elastic or plastic deformations. But acoustic signals are only emitted

when the material undergoes plastic deformation (Kaiser & Karbhari, 2002). An applied stress is

necessary to cause acoustic emission. Although some of the sound waves or acoustic emissions,

which are generated in the material, can be audible, most of them are not in the range of human

hearing, and as a result transducers are often used to detect them. The acoustic emission method

is a nondestructive method which is used to detect stress waves or sound energy released by

mechanical deformation of materials. Unlike other nondestructive tests the sound energy does not

come from other external source instead it comes from the material itself. The technique detects

the dynamic processes related with the degradation of structural integrity and the emission can be

detected anywhere around the testing material. Sources of acoustic emission can be classified as

primary and secondary (pseudo) sources (Fu, G. 2005). Primary sources are those which are

released from within the material and they include initiation and growth of cracks, yielding,

impacts, failure of bonds and fracture of fibers. Secondary sources come from sound energy

sources which are external to the material and some of these include bolts, joint friction, and

traffic. As a result, it should be keept in mind that “guard” transducers are also used in

combination with listening transducers for isolation of bridge noises. Acoustic emission is

applicable in different kinds of materials including metal, timber, concrete, fiberglass, composites

and ceramic (INDOT, 2010).

4.8.1 How does it work?

An acoustic emission is released from plastically deformed material. One or more transducers are

used for detection of these sound waves or signals which is placed on the surface of material to be

tested. These signals are then received, amplified, processed electronically and then it will be

61
displayed on the display unit as a time trigger and the sound energy received on the x- and y-axis

respectively.

Figure 4.8 Acoustic Emission Schematic (ASTM.org)

4.8.2 Apparatus

Acoustic emission system has similar basic arrangements of instruments as an ultrasonic testing

system (Andrew etal. 2005).

Transducers are used for detection of acoustic emissions and a single transducer can be used if the

location of the defect is known or many transducers are used for detecting two or three

dimensional solids.

Receiver/Amplifier is an electric device that amplifies the weak acquired signal and sends the

signal to a time measuring circuit.

Other components of acoustic emission include signal processors, transient digitizers, a display

unit, calibration blocks and coupling agents (Andrew etal. 2005).

4.8.3 Advantages of Acoustic Emission method

• It is a dynamic method which detects events as they happen (Ji, 2008)

• The whole structure can be monitored from a few locations.

62
 • It can be done while the structure is in service

4.8.4 Disadvantages of Acoustic Emission method

• Emissions can have very weak signals energetically and sometimes are difficult to detect

due to background noise.

• After confirmation of the existence of defects, other nondestructive or partially

destructive tests may be necessary to determine the exact nature of the defect.

4.8.5 Appropriateness of Acoustic Emission method

Acoustic emission is used to monitor cracking, slip between concrete and steel reinforcement, and

failure of strands in concrete bridges. For steel bridges, it is used for detection of initiation and

propagation of fatigue cracks in fracture critical members, corrosion and weld defects.

4.9 Eddy Current testing

Eddy current testing is one of the nondestructive techniques which works based on the principle

of electromagnetism. An electromagnetic field is produced, when a current is flowing through a

wire. It becomes concentrated when the wire is wound in the form of a coil. When these kinds of

coils are placed near the surface of conductive material, an eddy current will be induced in the

material. Eddy currents are induced electrical currents which flow in a circular path (NDT

resource center). The induced current in the conductive material flows in the direction opposite

to the current in the coil. Material properties and included discontinuities such as cracks or voids

can be identified because they affect the phase and magnitude of the induced current which in

turn affects the phase and amplitude of the measured current (Brady and McBride, 1992).

63
 Figure 4.9 Hand held Eddy Current instrument (Hartle etal. 2006)

4.9.1 Advantages of Eddy current

• Mechanical contact is not required between the probe and the material to be tested

• The equipment is portable

• It is relatively low cost for most applications (Brady and McBride, 1992).

• requires minimal surface preparation

4.9.2 Limitations of Eddy current testing

• It only used for electrical conductive materials or metals

• The material should be accessible

• Depth of penetration is limited

64
4.9.3 Appropriateness of the technique

Since this technique is only used in electrically conducting materials, it will be applicable only for

steel bridges. It is used for detecting cracks and flaws and for determining dimensions and

variations of an element or member (Hartle etal. 2006).

4.10 Liquid penetrant testing

Liquid penetrant or Dye penetrant testing is a nondestructive testing method which is used to

detect the extent and size of surface flaws in steel members (Hartle etal. 2006). The two major

kinds of penetrants used during the test are visible dye penetrant and fluorescent penetrant

(INDOT, 2010). Visible dye penetrants are usually red and are applied for use with normal light.

Fluorescent pentrants have dyes which shines when viewed under black light in darken area.

4.10.1 How does it work?

First, the surface of the material to be tested should be cleaned and then the dye penetrant is

applied to the material. Due to capillary action, the dye is drawn in to the defects or openings.

After a few minutes, excess penetrants will be removed by cleaning using water. A developer is

applied on the surface which reduces the surface tension and draws the dye out of the

irregularities. This makes the defect visible by forming contrasting indication on the surface.

After the test is done, the penetrants should be cleaned off.

For details one can refer the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) publication E165-

95 “standard test method for liquid penetrant examination” or publication E1417-99 “standard

practice for liquid penetrant examination”.

65
 Figure 4.10 Detection of crack using dye penetrant (Hartle etal. 2006)

4.10.2 Advantages of dye penetrant method

• It is simple and require no special equipment

• Penetrant materials and associated equipments are relatively inexpensive

• It is one of the most sensitive nondestructive testing methods which can detect very small

discontinuities.

• Shape, size and other geometric factors of the material to be tested are not so important.

4.10.3 Limitations of dye penetrant method

• It does not detect the depth of the crack or any subsurface flaws. If more information is

required concerning flaw depth or width, other techniques like ultrasonic tests should be

done (Ryal M.J, 2010).

• Interpretation of the results require experienced personnel

• It is subjective which relies on skill and experience of the operator

66
• It only detects discontinuities which are open to the surface. As a result openings which

are filled with contaminants should be cleaned before testing.

67
Inspection techniques Type of
Material Type of defect or material property
and testing methods inspection
Concrete Steel Timber PDT NDT Concrete steel Timber
Visual inspection X X X X All external defects which can be visible by human eye
Sounding
Hammer sounding X X X X Delaminations Loosen fasteners Timber integrity
Chain dragging X X X Delaminations Timber integrity
Drilling and Coring X X Internal decay
decay near the
Probing X
surface
Moisture meter X Moisture content
Shigometer X Decay
Material properties
Core sampling X X
and defects
internal Voids and
Endoscopy X X
corrosion
Thickness, weld
Voids, cracks,
Decay, slope of inspection, crack,
homogeneity and
Ultrasonic X X X X grain, knots and corrosion, voids,
quality of
quality control inclusions and
concerete
more
Modulus of
Stress wave X X elasticity and in-
situ strength
Flaws like cracks,
Impact echo X X delaminations,
voids and more

68
Inspection techniques Type of
Material Type of defect or material property
and testing methods inspection

Concrete Steel Timber PDT NDT Concrete steel Timber

Compressive
strength and
Rebound hammer X X
uniformity of
concrete
Delamination,
locate defects and
Ground penetrating reinforcement
X X
radar bars, slab
thickness and
more
Delaminations
Infrared
X X and subsurface
Thermography
voids
Cracks, slip
Cracks, corrosion between concrete
Acoustic emission X X X X Embrittlement
and weld defects and
reinforcement,
Cracks, flaws and
Eddy current X X dimension of a
member
Liquid penetrant/Dye Size and extent of
X X
penetrant flaws

Figure 4.11 summary of bridge inspection techniques

69
 CHAPTER V

Summary

In the United States the results of bridge inspections are reported through condition ratings. The

Oklahoma Department of Transportation currently uses the NBI condition rating system and the

PONTIS condition rating system to report inspection results. The information which is used for

rating bridges is obtained mainly from visual inspection.

Visual inspection is the most basic, cost effective, and primary recommended bridge inspection

technique. As such it is widely used by many states in evaluating and ranking of bridge structures.

However, it has significant limitations in both accuracy and reliability since it only gives

subjective and qualitative information. This is mainly because the technique is entirely dependent

on the skill and experience of the inspector. This can be improved through training for the

inspectors in identifying different kinds of defects. It can also be improved by spending enough

time and commitment in measuring bridge elemnts and execution of different kinds of tests in the

field. Visual inspection also cannot be used to detect hidden situations such as internal defects

like delaminations in concrete decks, pin and hanger connections in steel bridges, and more.

Many kinds of simple field tests such as hammer sounding, chain dragging, rebound hammer and

more, are executed in assisting visual inspection but they still provide qualitative information.

Sometimes visual inspection or simple sounding tests are not enough to identify defects and

deterioration or they cannot provide information concerning location and extent of defects and

deterioration.

70
As a result visual inspection should be supplemented with more powerful tools and techniques

such as destructive and nondestructive techniques in order to get relatively accurate and

quantitative results. These techniques are used when the defect is hidden from the surface or

when there is a need for information concerning the extent of the damage. Destructive tests like

core sampling causes localized or minor damage which will be repaired after the test. They are

relatively less expensive for small structures which need a small number of samples. However, it

can give misleading results if small numbers of samples are taken for large structures.

Non destructive inspection techniques can be useful when other techniques only provide limited

information on structural condition. They can be applied for new structures for quality control

and for existing structures in locating and determining the extent of defects. Each nondestructive

technique has its own advantages and limitations depending on the application. Appropriate

techniques should be selected for specific defects and materials. An overview of bridge inspection

techniques with their appropriate application is given in figure 4.1. Using visual inspections

backed up with experimental results obtained from nondestructive inspection techniques will give

more information for effective structural evaluation. This can result in a more cost-effective

bridge inventory system which assures public safety while conserving resources.

Oklahoma Department of Transportation uses visual inspection as a main tool in rating bridge

components. Sounding techniques and destructive testing are also utilized in helping visual

inspection techniques. Nondestructive techniques are not commonly used by Oklahoma

Department of Transportation. This is because these techniques have relatively high cost of

equipment and need specialists or experts in executing the test and interpreting the data. Although

nondestructive techniques are not commonly used by Oklahoma bridge inspection personnel,

common nondestructive techniques were covered in this paper. This paper is one part of the

project and the techniques which were discussed will be used as an input for this project. The

objectives of the project are

71
 • Develop a comprehensive compilation of methods for evaluating, repairing and

retrofitting bridges.

• Develop a short course and educational module on evaluation and repair techniques for

Oklahoma department of transportation.

• Develop educational modules for repair and retrofitting of reinforced concrete, steel and

timber bridges for adoption in university level concrete, steel and timber design courses.

Therefore nondestructive techniques which are covered in this paper will be used as a reference in

short course development for ODOT. It helps all bridge inspectors and practicing engineers to be

familiar with available techniques so that they can recognize the limitations and advantages of

each technique, and recommend or utilize appropriate testing procedures.

Many nondestructive techniques have been developed and are employed in bridge inspection.

Only the most common nondestructive techniques are included in this paper. However the

audience should be aware that there also other currently available methods and new techniques

are constantly being developed. The appropriateness and usefulness of each inspection technique

depends on the type of material and their defect.

72
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 APPPENDICES

OKLAHOMA PONTIS BRIDGE INSPECTION ELEMENTS

78
79
 VITA

Abeyou Taddesse

Candidate for the Degree of

Master of Science

Thesis: BRIDGE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

Major Field: Civil Engineering

Biographical:

Education:

• Completed the requirements for Master of Science in Civil Engineering at

Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma-July, 2011.

• Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering, Bahir Dar, Amhara, Ethiopia. June 2007

Experience:

• Teaching Assistant Dr. Robert N. Emerson, OSU, August 2009-December 2010

• Research Assistant Dr. Robert N. Emerson, OSU, January 2010-May 2011

• Site Engineer, AHDA, Gondar, Amhara, Ethiopia, July 2007-January 2008

• Structural Engineer, Gondar municipality, Gondar, Amhara, Ethiopia,

January 2008-July 2009

Professional Memberships:

• Golden key International Honor Society

Name: Abeyou Taddesse Date of Degree: July, 2011

Institution: Oklahoma State University Location: Stillwater, Oklahoma

Title of Study: BRIDGE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

Pages in Study: 79 Candidate for the Degree of Master of Science

Major Field: Civil Engineering

Scope and Method of Study:

Oklahoma rates second next to Pennsylvania in the nation in the percentage of

bridges that are structurally deficient. Therefore any method which can extend the life of

these bridges and use resources in an efficient manner will be useful in assuring public

safety and saving resources for Oklahoma State.

The objective of this paper is to investigate current bridge inspection techniques and

strategies through literature review. Identify the characteristics, science, practical

application, appropriateness, relative advantage and disadvantage of each inspection

techniques. Develop a comprehensive compilation of inspection techniques for the

evaluation concrete, timber, and steel bridges.

This paper will be used as an input for development of educational modules and

short course development on evaluation and repair techniques for Oklahoma Department

of Transportation. It is also used develop educational modules for repair and retrofitting

of bridges for adoption in university level courses.

ADVISER’S APPROVAL: Dr. Robert N. Emerson