Wollo University, KIOT Technical Report Writing

CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
Activity: Discuss on the following questions in pair.

1. What is communication?
2. What are the major components of communication?
3. How do people communicate? Where and when?
4. List down some barriers of communication.

1.1. Communication and The communication process

Communication is the process of conveying information between two or more people.

The communication process is the steps we take in order to achieve a successful communication.
The ability to communicate effectively is an essential skill in today’s world. Communication is a
dynamic process and how you communicate can positively and negatively affect the relationships
people have in their work and life. Communication process consists of several components. Let's
take a look.

1.1.1. The Basic Elements of the Communication Process

For communication to succeed, both parties must be able to exchange information and understand
each other. If the flow of information is blocked for some reason or the parties cannot make
themselves understood, then communication fails.

The Sender
The communication process begins with the sender, who is also called the communicator or source.
The sender has some kind of information—a command, request, or idea —that he or she wants to
share with others. In order for that message to be received, the sender must first encode the
message in a form that can be understood and then transmit it.

Since the subject matter of communication is theoretical and intangible, its further passing requires
use of certain symbols such as words, actions or pictures etc. Conversion of subject matter into
these symbols is the process of encoding.

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The Receiver
The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter. In order to
comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the sender's
information and then decode or interpret it. In other words, it is the receiver who tries to
understand the message in the best possible manner in achieving the desired objectives. Thus, the
process of converting the symbols from the communicator to extract meaning for complete
understanding is called decoding.

The Message
The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver. It is
relayed between the parties. Put all three together and you have the communication process as its
most basic. This is the subject matter of the communication. This may be an opinion, attitude,
feelings, views, orders, or suggestions.

The Medium
Also called the channel, the medium is the means by which a message is transmitted. The person
who is interested in communicating has to choose the channel for sending the required information,
ideas etc. This information is transmitted to the receiver through certain channels which may be
either formal or informal. Text messages, for example, are transmitted through the medium of cell
phones.

Feedback
Feedback is the process of ensuring that the receiver has received the message and understood in
the same sense as sender meant it. The communication process reaches its final point when the
message has been successfully transmitted, received, and understood. The receiver, in turn,
responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as a written or
verbal response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response.

1.1.2. Barriers of Effective Communication

The communication process isn't always so simple or smooth, of course. The above mentioned
elements can affect how information is transmitted, received, and interpreted. Furthermore, the
following factors affect effective communication.

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a. Noise: This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being sent, received, or
understood.
b. Context: This is the setting and situation in which communication takes place. Like noise,
context can have an impact on the successful exchange of information. It may have a
physical, social, or cultural aspect to it.
c. Other factors
1. Judging/criticizing the other person you are talking to
2. Unable to pay attention to the person you are talking to
3. Using technical language
4. Giving unwanted advice
5. Avoiding the concerns of others

1.1.3. Effective Communication skills

Effective communication does not happen overnight, it is a skill that has to be cultivated and
nurtured. The following are some skills that can be practiced to build on or develop communication
skills.
- Active listening
- Non-verbal communication
- Asking questions
- Being clear
- Clarifying and summarizing
- Being Empathetic
- Providing feedback
- Develop[ing trust
- Being present

1.2. Technical Communication

People communicate in their spare time and in the professional area. They communicate either in
oral or in written form. If they communicate about technical topics, this process is called technical
communication. If they communicate in written form, they write or read “Technical Reports”. If
the Technical Report is communicated in oral form, it is a presentation to an audience.
Technical Report is a report about technical subjects. It is written in the “language of science and
technology” (special terms and phrases, display rules etc.)

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The ISO 5966 “Documentation-Presentation of scientific and technical reports” defines, that a
Scientific or Technical Report describes a research process or research and development results or
the current state-of-the-art in a certain field of science or technology.
Therefore all documents in the following list are Technical Reports, if they deal with a technical
subject:
 reports about laboratory experiments
 construction and design reports
 reports about testing and measurements
 various theses written at the end of study courses, doctorate theses
 articles or reports about research works in scientific journals
 Project reports etc.
In general, Technical Reports must comply with the following request:
 Technical Reports must have a high level of systematic order, inner logic, consistency etc.
 The Technical Report shall bring clarity to the reader! This means, the reader must
understand the topics described in the Technical Report in exactly the same manner as the
author has meant it without any feedback or answers from the author.
This can be checked as follows: imagine you are a reader who has basic technical knowledge, but
no detailed knowledge about the topic or project described in the Technical Report. This fictive
reader shall understand the Technical Report without any questions!

1.3. The skill of technical report writing

The skill of technical report writing depends on our prior knowledge of writing under different
circumstances, though it is difficult to deduce that we don’t need any more as learning is dynamic.
It is really possible to say that if you are currently employed or have your own job that demands
some writing, you will discover that the contents covered in this material have paramount
significance to immediate use.

As an employee, it is obvious that you come across various office duties and responsibilities like
project and researches. As new personnel (employee), these tasks may become new challenges for
you. This, in turn, demands your expertise in arranging documents since every career requires you
to be able to write clearly.

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1.3.1. Definition of the Term

A report may be defined as a formal document based on collection of facts, events and opinion and
usually expresses a summarized and interpretative value of information. It can be defined as
communication in which a person, who is assigned to the work of report making, gives information
to some individual or organization because it is his or her responsibility to do so. The word ‘report’
is derived from the Latin word – ‘reportare’ – means to bring back.

Communicating results is a crucial aspect of doing research and accomplishing job-related tasks.
Through such communication other people can learn about and benefit from the findings. Often
such communication includes a written document known as a Technical Report.
 The term “technical” refers to specific knowledge of specific area of study.
 This is to mean that the term “technical” refers knowledge which is not widespread or
worldwide, but more to the territory of experts and specialists.
 Whenever you try to write or say anything about your field of specialization, you are
engaged in technical communications.
 Technical communication is the delivery of technical information to specific audiences.
 The information should be of their needs, level of understanding and background or
experience.
 All in all, technical writing can be defined as writing about a technical subject to convey
specific information to a specific audience for specific purpose (Markel, 1988).
 Much of what we read every day is a technical writing. Textbooks, the manual for TVs or
tape recorders, cattery cookbooks, etc. are among these.
 Technical reports are factual. The words and graphic aids of the report are meant to be
practical, i.e. to communicate a body of factual information that will help an audience
understands a subject or carryout a task. For example, a manual for an automobile describes
how to operate and maintain that particular car.

From the perspective of its purposes, a technical report is a document in which a given problem is
examined for the purpose of conveying information and findings, putting forward ideas, and/or
making recommendations.

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A good report is easy to be acquainted with an issue raised as a subject because of the following
reasons:
 its title is precise and informative,
 its layout and format are well organized, and
 the binding is easy to handle and opens flat to reveal both text and diagrams.
Reading a well written report is pleasurable as:
 the style is accurate, fluent and concise, with headings to indicate the content of each
section,
 the inclusion of factual information, and
 the diagrams, which include non-verbal material such as tables and graphs, are well
presented and clearly labeled.
People may probably wonder about the what of technical writing and what of not technical writing.
The field of technical communications, as discussed above, is a fully professional field. But, for
many people, confusion comes in differentiating technical writing from other aspects of writing
such as essay, theme, journal and narrative fictions.

1.3.2. What is Not Technical Report Writing?

Technical writing is different from an essay because essay is an outlet for the writer who wants to
work through attitudes based on an area of interest to express certain belief. Essays are not as rigid
as technical report to reflect one’s own personal opinions, biases and prejudices, and to do so in an
entertaining way. An essay is internally generated to persuade others. But report is a kind of writing
which presents factual information which is free from the influence of the writer’s own personal
attitude or opinion.

Technical report writing is also different from writing themes as themes are more of academicals.
Technical report is also different from narrative fictions since fiction focuses on one’s imagination.
In addition, fiction reflects drama around one’s life.

1.3.3. The Role of Technical Writing in Working Fields

In this real world, the activities of modern working organizations are dependent on written
communication. Practically, every action taken in these organizations is documented in written (whether
on paper or in computer’s memory) form. The average company has dozens of different forms to be

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filled out for routine activities, ranging from purchasing office supplies to taking inventory. For
example, if you need some materials to be bought, you can purchase them after an office manager signs
a simple form. But expenditure over a specified amount requires a brief report showing that the purpose
is necessary and that the supplier you want to buy from is offering a better deal (in terms of price,
quality, service…) than the other competitors.

Similarly, when an engineer wants to survey the functionality of certain machine, he/she has to write up
a detailed memo or report when he/she returns which describes the purpose of the trip, analyses any
problem that arose and offers suggestions that would make future surveys more successful.
Besides the in-house writing, every organization need, in fact must, to communicate with other
organizations and the public for different purposes. Letter is the basic format for this purpose. Inquiry
letters, sales letters, good will letters, and claims and adjustment letters are just some of these types of
daily correspondence. And if a company performs contract work for other companies, then proposals,
progress reports and completion reports are called again. The world of every business and profession is
a world of communication.

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CHAPTER TWO
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF WRITING TECHNICAL REPORTS
Written and spoken English are two different aspects of language because in writing, we must be
precise than we are in conversation. Writing is unidirectional process that audiences cannot stop us
to ask for clarification of complex concepts nor can they understand by body language, tone of our
voice etc.

For instance, when a notice is posted on a departmental notice board advising students interested in
enrolling in a popular course to sign up on a waiting list, the department’s writing situation also
conforms to the two-part model: Audience - Students interested in enrolling in the course, and
Purpose - To advice signing up on the waiting list

2.1 Audience of Technical Report

The term audience can be easily defined as reader. This audience may be specific individuals (often
easily identified by name or position) or a group with common interests. In both cases, your
audiences read your document for specific purpose. This demands you to write a report to be read
by anyone who might be interested.

You audiences may vary in their degree of expertise and experience in the specific subject matter of
the report. They may be experts in your field or in other field; they may be managers at various
levels, fellow employers, engineers or technicians who are new or experienced. So, knowing the
reader is the most important thing that you need to underline. You need to ask yourself who will
read your document.

At the same time, some reports have to be written for a varied readership, for instance technical
managers and financial managers. The approach, the technical level and the style of the writing
should depend on the identity of the reader. A short, emailed report to a colleague will be less
formal than a report to the managing director of another company. Diagrammatic material must be
clearly produced.

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Analyzing your audience

You may write to varied audiences some of whom you will know almost nothing about and some of
whom will have very limited technical knowledge of your field. In addition, these audiences might
read the report for different purposes and agenda.

You might be writing a report for your supervisor, who is likely to distribute it-but you don’t know
to whom. Despite difficulties, however, you can often analyze an audience accurately. First, try to
determine whether one person or several will be reading. Having the knowledge of the profile of the
audiences is very helpful because it forces you to be as specific as possible.

Asking the following questions yourself to identify your readers:

1. What is the person’s job title?
2. What are the person’s chief responsibilities on the job?
3. What is the person’s educational background?
4. What is the person’s work experience?
5. What will the person do with the document: file it; skim it, read only a portion of it, study it
carefully, modify it and submit it to another reader, attempt to implement its
recommendations?

Failure to pitch the level correctly will also inevitably result in failure to communicate your ideas
effectively since the reader will either be swamped with complexity, or bored with blandness!

2.2. Purposes of Technical Report

Purpose in any technical report refers the objectives of a report. Under this section the writer
identifies exactly what information it covers, states to whom it is written and hints why it should be
produced. It is very important to make clear these purposes to the audience long before the process
of writing begins. Whatever the subject of the report is, its exact specification must be identified
and adhered to. If you put down the objectives before the start of writing the report, it will help you
to be guided until the last stage of production.

Non-technical and technical materials are produced for different purposes and usually under very
different motivating circumstances. Technical writing serves a very functional and practical reading
need and it is usually the product of dogged determination, investigation, and documentation.

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Therefore, our target should be geared at what the reader will learn because our readers want to
know why they should read a document, especially a technical one. They want to get information,
to follow instruction, to fill information for further reference. Therefore, to answer their question
and focus, you should state the purpose early in the document.

Out of the many purposes of reports the main ones include:

- To give information about the organization's activities, progress plans and problems
- To record events for future reference in decision making
- To recommend specific action
- To justify and persuade readers about the need for action in controversial situations.
- To present facts to the management to help decide the direction the business should
choose.
In general, the purpose of technical writing is to get a job done efficiently and accurately. It often
achieves that purpose in one or more of the following ways:
a. It informs: technical writing tells so that tasks can be performed and decision can be made.
For instance, how to administer first aid, what went wrong with an assembly line, how to
operate equipment, what happened at a construction site.
b. It analyses: technical writing diagnoses data. For example, why a system does not work,
how a process can be improved, why an environment is changing, what the advantages are
of maintaining, changing or selling a business.
c. It persuades: technical writing influences direction and decisions by showing how a
company or city can save money, what changes are necessary to improve a situation, what
can be done to counteract or take advantage of certain trends or practices.

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CHAPTER THREE
PROCESS OF WRITING TECHNICAL REPORT
Writing technical report involves and explains what is done, why it was done, what has been
discovered and what is the significance of the findings. And again, it should clearly state and
explain what novel comes out of your work, and how it relates to prior knowledge.

3.1. Planning the Technical Report

There is a remarkably strong and comprehensible relationship between good planning and good
writing. Technical Reports shall be written so that they reach your readers. This requires a high
level of systematic order, logic and clarity. These understandability aspects must already be taken
into account, when you plan the necessary work steps. This is the only way to perform all work
steps accurately. As a result, all facts about the described items or processes and the thoughts of the
writer of a Technical Report become clear for the reader without any questions and without doubt.

In technical study courses a systematic approach is used to solve tasks and larger projects. Tasks are
solved in the sequence planning, realization and checking. This approved approach should be
applied in a similar way when creating Technical Reports. Here the necessary work steps can be
grouped in the phases planning, creation and finishing (with check-ups). However, before
describing the single measures in the planning process look at the general overview of all required
work steps to create a Technical Report.
A. Required work steps to create Technical Reports - General overview
 Accept and analyze the task
 Check or create the title
 Design a 4-point-structure
 Design a 10-point structure
 Search, read and cite literature Work steps
 Elaborate the text (on a computer) to be performed
 Create or select figures and tables partly parallel
 Develop the detailed structure or overlapping
 Perform the final check
 Print copy originals or create PDF file
 Copy and bind the report

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 Distribute the report to the defined recipients

Effective and well-organized technical reports are the results of a plan that encompasses certain
elemental tasks:
a. selecting an appropriate and specific topic,
b. identifying clear objectives for writing,
c. targeting the specific audience and identifying their needs,
d. determining the kind of report that will best meet the objectives and the needs of your audience.

a. Selecting an Appropriate Subject Matter: in the process of writing technical report the first
and crucial step is selecting a viable and practical topic. It is obvious that any writing without a
topic seem like a boat without a anchor because it is the topic that determines the readers will
decide whether to read or not the report. If the topic is a subject matter that concerns them, they
will be encouraged to read unless won’t. So a technical report writer should focus on the
specific aspect of a subject matter so that it is manageable.

There are so many techniques of doing this, but the following are some of them:
I. Space (Locale): this refers to the number of pages in technical reports. They have limited
numbers of pages. Topics which are worldwide basis cannot be adequately treated in technical
reports. A topic of technical writing should focus on specific subject matter to address specific
audiences for the sake of achieving specific purpose. So technical report writing highly deals
with a highly specialized locale.
• For example: Parks  National Parks Semien Mountains National ParksThe Present
Condition of the Endemic Species of Semien Mountains National Park
• In many cases the task can already be used as the title of the Technical Report. Here are
some examples of such tasks:
- Design of a drilling rig
- Outline of a sprayer shredding rig
- Analysis of component combinations for sales optimization
- Equipment of a meeting room with radio technology
II. Using Specific Terminologies: this can be done by moving from

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 General terms to specific one

 Unmodified to modified
 Unknown to known
 Abstract to concrete
Example: Printed materials BookTextbooks Technical Report Writing
III. Gain all requirements of the title
The following Checklist shows again all requirements of the title of the Technical Report as a
conclusion.
 The title must be clear, true, honest, short and accurate,
 it must contain the main topics or main keywords,
 it must create interest and curiosity,
 it must have a good speech melody and eventually an additional subtitle.
 it must not create undesired associations or wrong expectations.
The following list of work steps summarizes the process to find a good title for your Technical
Report:
 write down the task
 write down the keywords which characterize the report
 combine the keywords to a title
 find new titles by varying the usage of these keywords
 read possible titles aloud to optimize the speech melody
 select the “best” title

Exercise: Think of a topic for a technical report. Write down the main keywords which
characterize your Technical Report, connect these keywords to a title, create several title variants by
using different keywords and select the “best” title.

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

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b. Identifying Clear Objectives for Writing: the other step in writing a technical report is having
a clear reason of preparing the report normally what we call “objective”. This keeps the writer
to move forward in a solid direction. The statement that states the purpose of the report known
as the controlling sentence or thesis directs the writer to the destiny intended to arrive on. The
introduction of each technical report should clearly identify its thesis and an organizational plan
for developing the thesis. But this statement should be structured in a complete declarative
sentence as well as clear, specific and concise.
In writing objectives, the very important reminder is the use of behavioral terms. It is highly
advisable to use these terms because they show specific result. Some examples of such terms are:
 To convince….
 To compare….
 To verify….
 To evaluate….
 To identify….
Examples:
Topic: Machine Operator Training Programs in Kombolcha Textile Factory
Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of machine operator training efforts in
manufacturing companies
c. Targeting the Specific Audience and Identifying Their Needs: this stresses on who will read
your document and what they need? Knowledge of the reader helps the writer to approach
accordingly. If any writer knows his/her readers, the next step becomes “bed of rose”.
3.2. Organization
After the title and the objectives have been created, the next step is to design the structure. The
structure is the “backbone” of the Technical Report. However, one of the major difficulties in
writing with a large document is the rather burdensome task of addressing a full pad of blank paper.
Additionally, the task of achieving good structure from the start is compounded by the countless of
thoughts which one fit in, in an attempt to sort out the logical progression of the document. If a
writer fails in addressing this endeavor, the result will be a change in structure at later stages, which
are the most costly of revisions. The key thing is, therefore, achieving both good structure (from
the start) and decomposing the initially large problem into bite-sized chunks.

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Logical structure refers the natural unfolding flow of an idea as the reader progresses through the
document. This is achieved by going from the general to the specific, with the background material
preceding the technical expose, which should lead logically to the conclusions.

We have to know that there are many who read the report from beginning to end and use it. This
will be true if the length of the report is as certainly short as needed. Ten pages or so in length is the
favorable length in technical reports. The observed pattern is that report users look at the beginning,
then at the end, and then at any section in the middle which particularly interests them. This creates
problems for the report writer as he/she cannot assume that a reader who arrives at a particular point
in the report has necessarily read all that went before.
To overcome the problems on the side of the reader, a writer should make each section clearly
identifiable. As users often want to know the content of one or two sections only, they must see
where each section begins and ends, and which sub-section is connected to which the major section.
In other words, headings must be linked in form and layout to a notation system which is logical
and easy to use.

Headings within the organization of the report must, as has been said, be as specific as possible in
order to be useful.
Look at the following pattern:
1. MAIN HEADING
1.1 Lesser Heading
1.1.1 Small Heading (and this will be maintained throughout the report)
2. MAIN HEADING
2.1 Lesser Heading
2.1.1 Small Heading
Though any report writer is free to organize his/her report in any way he/she thinks fit the purpose
of the report, the commonly recommended standard outline is the following:

 Beginning information, such as title, table of contents, abstract and introduction;

 Body-results and discussions, and
 Endings such as conclusions, recommendations and attachments.

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3.3. Writing
Reports vary in content and in formality and also, of course, may have to follow the outline which
is standardized in company templates. Nevertheless, there are widely accepted sections, all of which
would appear in a long and very formal report: they must be adapted or amalgamated as the writer
thinks appropriate for the reader’s needs.

Most technical reports will not need such a detailed breakdown of contents as they are technical,
but it is often helpful for writers to keep the scheme in mind in arranging the information, even if
they know they will not use the headings in full as these sections form the framework of the report.

Headings within the organization of the report must, as has been said, be as specific as possible in
order to be useful. The logical linking of headings is shown by notation, most commonly decimal
notation.

This system eases the process of producing logically organized report and to be guided to keep the
smooth flow of information in the report. And the very fact that it is widespread means that readers
are probably familiar with it. As far as possible, headings should match numbering in importance,
so that the visual impact of major headings is correlated with the major notation. Lower down the
‘hierarchy’, this correlation may break down, but it should certainly be followed for first and
second level headings. As far as possible, the heading numbered 1.1.1 should be equal in
importance to heading 3.1.1. and so on. Major or first level headings or chapters should start on a
new page. A new chapter always starts on a new page.

Though any report writer is free to use any style of writing the report in the way that he/she thinks
fit the purpose of the report as writing style is probably the most individual aspect of a report, there
are useful guidelines which aid the readability, professionalism, objectiveness and impact of a
report. Your audiences may be constant skeptics and need to be constantly re-assured that your
work is pragmatic. Each idea presented should be justifiable and established with some rationale or
motivation for its undertaking.

It is true that if preparation has been thorough, the writing will be less of a burden because some
important questions will already have been answered. If the objectives of the report have been
clarified, the writer will know the appropriate level of technical language and the correct tone for

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the readership. The style will be formal because reports are formal documents. Certainly material
which goes outside the writer’s own company must always conform to a high standard of stylistic
propriety or courtesy.

The most useful guidelines of a quality technical report are:

1. Accuracy in terms of mechanics (spelling, punctuation, capitalization), grammar, sentence
type and variety, paragraphing. This increases the plausibility of your information. This
requires recording your facts carefully. It refers the objectivity of the report. Write to express
not to impress.
2. Clarity: carefully direct your readers' attention throughout the report. Many successful writers
do this by using the three classic principles of presentation:
 Tell readers what you plan to tell them (Introduction),
 Then tell them (main text), and finally,
 Tell them what you told them (Summary of Results or Conclusions).
 State your purpose or objective clearly and follow it with a concise description of the
procedure you will use in presenting the subsequent discussion. Then proceed with your
presentation, making certain that it is consistent in every respect with your plan. Finally
summarize your conclusions and recommendations.
 The written report must convey single meaning. Avoid jargons, sarcasm, slang and clichés.
 Readers should understand it easily and quickly.
 Clear communication should appear
 Examine the report with the readers’ eyes.

3. Comprehensiveness
 A technical report must provide all the information that the readers need.
 Helps the readers to apply the information effectively, efficiently and safely.
 It will be reliable official record of a company.
4. Accessibility
 The writer should make all the necessary parts/sections of the document available using
well-detailed table of contents and using informative headings and subheadings.

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 A technical report should be documented and filed safely so that anyone who is interested
can access it.
5. Brevity
 Avoid drawing dozens of explanations on same point.
 Use short and precise sentences. For example say “Presently” than “At this present moment
in time.”
 It is not common for a technical report to exceed 20 pages.
 Focus on the quality and its conciseness than the length.
 Avoid long and complicated terms if shorter and more familiar ones are available.
 Use active voice over passive voice.
 It may seem that brevity or conciseness stands against clarity and comprehensiveness. And
also it is true that if a technical writing to be absolutely clear, the writer must explain and
describe every aspect of the subject in great detail. Here there seems there is a conflict
between brevity and comprehensiveness as report quality is often inversely related to report
length but the solution to this conflict is to balance the claims of clarity, conciseness, and
comprehensiveness. It doesn’t mean that the report should be condensed at the expense of
the understanding of the targeted audience. The document must be just long enough to be
clear-given the audience, purpose and subject-but not a bulky and awkward just to keep our
readers not to be irritated. Enough information should be given to enable them to understand
clearly what is being described and why by including the necessary components. It is
erroneous to assume that the readers will remember all details of a previous report or have
even read it. Therefore, all details needed should be included to understand the current
report. Generally, the report should be brief and comprehensible.

6. Continuity
The story discussed in a particular report should include logically and interestingly organized information.
This requires continuity between successive sentences, paragraphs, and sections and even between the
written text and the figures and/or tables. In order to keep the smooth flow of information in the report, the
use of transitional words, phrases, sentences, or even paragraphs play a vital role. The presentation of
information requires being logical, simple, and systematic. Introducing sentences or paragraphs using
phrases such as ‘At the same time’, ‘On the other hand’, or ‘Bearing this in mind’, for example, keeps the

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smooth flow of information and helps to catch the attention of the readers to the supplementary information
which follows. Therefore, the language used should be, as writers feel, not merely formal, but ostentatious.
7. Modest writing
As stated earlier, technical reports are formal in their nature. Formal writing refers simply writing in full, for
example, writing “it is” rather than “it’s”, avoiding slang or colloquial expressions, but using words
correctly.
It is worth taking that extra time to ensure that your document is professional and is free from
grammatical and spelling mistakes.

Checking the report before its submission is great in keeping the validity of data, to assess the amount of
explanation given and the logical flow of information. Most often, immediate checking is useless. Rushing in
the checking stage and process will not bring success in correcting and overcoming errors and mistakes.
Leaving the report for longer time after the completion of the final draft will improve the checking greatly.
Leaving it for a week and returning back to checking and checking line by line is helpful.

The other one is the technique we apply to arrange the presentation of the information in the report.

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CHAPTER FIVE
TYPES OF TECHNICAL REPORTS
1.1. Classifications of Report
Reports can be classified as follows:
1. Formal and Informal Repots
2. Routine and special Reports
3. Oral and written reports
4. Informational and Analytical Reports
Formal Report
 A formal report is prepared in a prescribed form.
 It is lengthy reports with length of hundred
pages.
 Annual Reports, reports of companies, project
reports and thesis are examples of formal
reports.
Routine Report
 Routine reports are prepared and presented at
regular intervals.
 They may be submitted annually, semi-annually,
quarterly, monthly, weekly and daily.
 Sales and production report, cost report are
examples.
Oral Report
 It is presentation of data in the form of face to
face to communication
 Reports of accidents, sales production, joining
are example of oral reports.
Informational Reports
 It is presentation of data/information without any
analysis or interpretation or recommendations.
 Conference report, seminar report and trip report
are example.
1.2. Types of Reports
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Technical Report Writing
Informal Report
 An informal report is generally in the form of a
person to person communication.
 It is brief report of a specific business.
 Laboratory reports, daily production reports,
trip reports are informal reports.
Special Report
 Special reports is prepared and presented to
convey special information related to an
individual, occasion or problem.
 Enquiry report, research reports, thesis,
dissertation are special reports.
Written Report
 It is presentation of data/information in written
form.
 They can be kept as permanent record / can be
edited, reviewed and stored.
Analytical Reports
 It is presentation of data/information with
analysis or interpretation or recommendations.
 Project reports, Feasibility reports, market
research report are examples.
 Wollo University, KIOT Technical Report Writing

There are four types of formats to write technical reports.

1. Printed Format
2. Letter Format
3. Memo Format
4. Manuscript Format

(1) Printed Format: It is written in the prescribed form by the organization. All one need to do is to
fill in the blanks in this printed form. For example, sales reports, tour reports.
(2) Letter Format: It is a short report of a few pages. Besides all routine parts of a letter, this type
of format includes illustrations, footnotes, and references and so on.
(3) Memo Format: A memo- memorandum format is mainly used for short reports to be
communicated within organization. It is used to send from one department to another. It is short
version of letter format.
(4) Manuscript Format: The manuscript format is generally used for long and formal reports. The
length of such reports can be form few pages of hundred pages.

Technical reports may contain few separate elements, or they may have many components. They
may be written to describe, narrate, review, evaluate, instruct, analyze, recommend, or any
combination of these purposes. In other words, technical reports are so diverse that they may be
categorized according to their length, their tone (formal or informal), their format or their purpose.

Hence, the classification in this material is based on the general purpose of the report. These are:

5. informational reports

6. analytical reports and

7. persuasive reports

1. Informational Reports

Informational reports describe situations without any analyses, interpretation or recommendations.

Such reports present readers with information so that they can do their own analysis, interpreting,
and recommending.

Informational report conveys facts. It may tell you how to do something. While you may be
inclined to agree or disagree with, like or dislike, oppose or advocate whatever you are reporting on,
your attitude towards the material should be objective and neutral.

Although total impartiality is difficult to achieve, it is a major characteristic of informational

reports. The data (information) should not be colored by the writer’s choice of judgmental words or
slanted language. Good informational report typically tells a reader how and what. It doesn’t say
why.

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Informational reports include:

a. Progress reports

b. Situation reports

a. Progress report

Progress report is sometimes called status report. It is time and task related document. They may
describe the completed, continuing and anticipated work. Period reports on accomplishments can be
an example of progress report. such type of reports want to answer the following questions:

 How much work has been accomplished?

 What work in currently being done?

 How much work is yet to be done?

 Is the project on the schedule and within budget?

b. Situation report

Such type of report is related to events or conditions. They present detail information on what has
happened in a particular situation. If the subject is an event, such as accident, the report can be
called occurrence report. Many occurrence reports are made by filling out appropriate forms.
Usually more detailed reports that narrate an event or condition in expected.

Situation reports answer the following questions:

 What was the situation?

 What exactly happened?

 Who was involved?

 What was the specific time?

 What was the cause?

 What were the consequences?

c. Site visit report

Site visit reports describe visits, trips, observations or actions taken at a location other than the
writer’s own work site. It includes field trips. Such type of reports are necessary especially when
industries need relocating.

Site visit reports answer:

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 Wollo University, KIOT Technical Report Writing

 What site was visited?

 When was it visited?

 Why was the visit made?

 Who was involved?

 What was accomplished?

d. Instructional report

Such type of report tells readers how something is done or how to perform some actions. They
present how a procedure is handled.

Such reports answer the following questions:

 What are the instructions used?

 What supplies are needed?

 What expertise is expected?

 What is the first, second, third… stage?

 How are the problems overcome?

2. Analytical Reports

Analytical reports go one step beyond informational reports. They describe and analyze situations,
but they do not make recommendations. They build on information. They interpret the facts. They
also try to find causes and may show long or short-range consequences. Analytical reports usually
deal with why something is so and it includes:
a. Evaluation report
b. Feasibility report

a. Evaluation report
Evaluation report presents data and the writer’s judgment of that information. From the facts, the
writer draws inferences and then presents conclusions.
Evaluation report reviews and judges projects, situations, organizations and equipments. Such
report answers the questions:
 Is the project meeting its objectives?
 How well is it doing so?
 What improvements are needed?
 What are the influential factors?

b. Feasibility report

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Feasibility report assesses the practicality of a proposed project or change. They assist readers
whether something can be done, whether that course of action is either economically or technically
likely to succeed. Such report considers all facets of proposed actions and conclude that an action
is justified or not.
The following question can be answered through feasibility report:
 What is the current situation?
 Is sufficient capital available?
 What legal concerns must be considered?
 Is the technology available?
 Are appropriate personnel available?
 What are the costs?

3. Persuasive Reports
The main purpose of persuasive reports is to influence in determining a course of action. They are
action-oriented. They describe and analyze, but they take the final step in technical report writing
and present clear recommendation for readers to consider and to act upon.
The following are the specific types of persuasive reports:
a. Proposals
b. Responses to requests for proposal
a. Proposals
Proposals propose a change, solution and/or an action. The writer wants something to be done. It is
a strong statement that shows why, how, under what circumstances, with what results some actions
should be undertaken. It gives specific details intended to convince the reader of the validity of a
decision or action.
Proposals are expected to answer the following questions:

 Why is the proposal being made?

 What is the current situation?

 How much financing is involved?

 How much time is required?

 How many people are involved?

 What facilities and equipments are required?

b. Responses to requests for proposal

Response to requests for proposals (RFPs) indicates specifically what an entity can do to meet a
stated need and specifically how it can do so. RFPs document expectations on the part of a
company or agency that wants a job done. When RFP is made, the problem and certain
characteristics of the solution have already been identified. The writer is being requested to respond
to the recognized need by supplying very specific information about how he of his organization can
precisely meet the need.

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CHAPTER FIVE
5. TYPICAL FORMATS OF TECHNICAL REPORT
Engineers write technical reports (also called engineering reports) to communicate technical
information and conclusions about projects to customers, managers, legal authority figures, other
engineers and other scientific community.
A technical report follows a specific layout and format as specified by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).

All technical reports – long or short – have at least three basic parts: beginning, middle and ending.
The beginning part gives a preview of the report. The middle part presents the main part (body) of
the report. On the other hand, the ending part restates the main points presented in the middle part
of the report. These parts can be summarized by saying “Tell the audience what you are going to
tell them. Tell them. Then tell them what you told them.” Although some writers omit some of the
components mentioned here, all writers are expected to include these components to keep the flow
of idea logical and relevant. Depending on the length of the report and the needs of the audience, a
technical report should guide the readers from the beginning to the end of the report.

5.1. Beginning Parts/The front matter

The front matter is used to help potential readers find the report. Once found, the front matter will
help the reader to quickly decide whether or not the material contained within the report pertains to

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what they are investigating. The front matter includes cover, label, title page, abstract, table of
contents, and lists of figures and tables. However, cover and lable are optional.
5.1.1. Cover
A cover and label are used if the report is over 10 pages long. The cover (front and back) provides
physical protection for the printed report. Plastic spiral bindings and thick, card-stock paper is
recommended.
5.1.2. A label
A label is placed on the cover to identify: Report title and subtitle (if a subtitle is appropriate),
Author’s name, Publisher (optional), and Date of publication.
5.1.3. Title page
Title page is the first element in structuring technical reports that the audience see. As a first
impression is usually decisive for later reading, its impact is considerable. The title page provides
descriptive information that is used by organizations that provide access to information resources
(i.e., library). A title page duplicates the information found on the front cover (if one is used).

Writers must make sure the title or title page has the following positive characteristics. It should
be informative, concise, clear enough, free from vague and complex terms, and it should be put on
new separated page if the report is more than five pages.
Title page contains title of the report, name and position of the receiver of the report, firm’s name of
the receiver, the writer’s name and position, the writer’s specific department’s name in the
organization, and date of submission.
5.1.4. Executive Summary/Abstract
An executive summary is a brief synopsis of all the findings detailed in the report. Its purpose is to
allow a busy executive the opportunity to review the material in the document quickly. So it should
be complete and accurate. It should tell the reader the topic of the report, the purpose of the report,
the method used for researching the topic, the results of the analysis and provide some very brief
discussion of the analysis. It should also include conclusions and recommendations.

Executive summary is similar with "abstract" though abstracts are most often used for research
purposes.

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This is a concise and clear description of what the report covers. It summarizes the objective,
method, discussion and conclusion using at most 500 words. Therefore it is a condensed
presentation of your report. It should be placed on a separate sheet next to table of contents.

We have to make sure that executive summary is informative – it should serve as a substitute for the
whole report. Do not cite any references in the abstract/executive summary, and do not begin the
abstract with the weak, hackneyed, and boring phrase like “This paper ....”

Many readers are first informed of your report through abstracting services. In fact, the Abstract
usually receives wider circulation than the report. Therefore take the time to word the Abstract
carefully so that the true nature and content of your report are described.

Though it is found near the beginning of the report, it should be written after we finished the
writing of the report.

The summary/abstract does not provide general background information; does not explain why
you are doing the research, investigation or design; does not refer to later diagrams or references.

Here are examples of abstract:

Example 1
• The aim of this experiment was to determine the influence of carbon content on the tensile
material properties of steel. Specimens of 1020, 1045, and 1090 steel were tensile tested
until failure. Of the three types of steel examined, 1020 had the lowest yield strength but
the highest elongation, at 52kpsi and 62%, respectively. 1090 had the highest yield strength
and lowest elongation, achieving 75kpsi and 7.8%, respectively. It appears that higher
carbon content increases strength and decreases ductility in steel.

Example 2

• This report presents a design for a simple food processing machine to be produced. Two
designs for the machine were developed and then compared by considering the cost,
construction and maintenance of each. Design 1 is …. while Design 2 is …. . It is
concluded that Design 1 is better design. This design is cheaper, easier to produce, more
durable and easier to maintain.

5.1.5. Table of Contents

If a report is longer than five pages, it needs to include table of contents. Table of content is a menu
like presentation of the topics and subtopics of the report with their beginning page number where

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each is placed. It is necessary to list all major and subtopics of the report to show the audience
where each section begins. Every heading or subheading should be worded as it has been worded in
the body (report). Indentation is required when writing the subtopics. If there are figure/table
included in the report, it is necessary to prepare list of figures/tables following table of contents.

Other Points about table of contents:

• The contents page sets out the sections and subsections of the report and their
corresponding page numbers.
• The contents page should clearly show the structural relationship between the sections and
subsections.
• Number all the preliminary pages in lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv,).
• Preliminary pages are any which come before the introduction, including the summary
and, where applicable, acknowledgements.
• Number all the remaining pages of your report with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4,). Thus the
report proper begins on page 1 with your introduction.
• Provide a title in your table of contents to describe the contents of each appendix (Note:
one appendix, two or more appendices).
• Don't just call them Appendix 1 or Appendix 2, but include its name. (Example: Appendix
1: Sample Calculations
5.1.6. List of Figures and Tables
A list of figures and tables helps the reader to locate illustrations, drawings, photographs, graphs,
charts, and tables of information contained in the report.
Some points in writing list of Figures
• Graphs and Illustrations should be neatly drawn or produced with computer software
(preferred).

• Fonts should be of similar size as the text of the report.

• Give each figure a descriptive title, centered over the figure, starting with “Figure 1:...”

• Acknowledge any figures that are not your own work.

Some points in writing Tables

• Tables should be produced with computer software.

• Fonts should be similar in size as the text of the report.

• Give each table a descriptive title, centered over the table, starting with “Table 1:...”

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• Acknowledge any tables that are not your own work.

5.1.7. Glossaries
This section of a report presents lists of words, expressions or concepts which need explanation for
the readers. This section may also include abbreviations and/or acronyms. If more than five
symbols, abbreviations, or acronyms are used in the report, they are to be listed with their
explanation. It is put right after the abstract or sometimes at the back of the report preceding the
appendix.

Examples of list of symbols: V for volume of a sphere, r for radius of a circle, and π for pi.

5.2. MIDDILE PARTS/BODY SECTION

This is the main part of the report, where the author presents his/her work. In this section the author
describes introduction, the methods; presents and discusses the results; draws conclusions, and
recommends actions based on the results.

The body of the report presents the information from your work, both real world and theoretical, or
your design; organizes information logically under appropriate headings; conveys information in
the most effective way for communication (using figures and tables, bulleted or numbered lists)

5.2.1. Introduction
The introduction provides a contextual basis for the material that will follow in the rest of the
report. It explains why the communicator has developed the analysis, and in some cases, what
questions the analysis tends to answer. The introduction should also make it clear to the reader why
and in what ways the document will be useful.

An introduction of this sort can be fairly long, since the technical communicator needs to
familiarize readers with the report topic, the significance of the report to them, the objectives in
conducting the research and the significance of those objectives, and finally, the methodology.

The introduction of your report familiarizes the audience with the report’s subject material. It
includes
a. Purpose: explains as fully as necessary the conditions or events that created the need for the
report.

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b. Scope: the extent of the report. It settles any possible doubt about what the report coves and
what it omits.
c. Methodology: explains the type of the report, the sources of information to develop the
report, the way the information is collected and how the information is treated (analyzed).
"Methodology" denotes the means used for collecting information or data. This section
informs readers of the type of research design the technical communicator used to gather
information. Essentially, it describes the means of collection used to arrive at conclusions.
In addition, when communicators use special equipment or software programs they must
describe them as well as the range of materials used for collecting information, and any
significance of the choices made.

The first function of the introduction is to identify immediately and unmistakably the exact subject
of the report. What is going to be considered in the report? It is necessary to define and bound the
subject in order to guard against misunderstanding.

A second, and equally important, function of the Introduction is to state clearly the reasons for
discussing the particular subject. Just why was the report written? It should indicate the importance
of the subject to the reader, relate the report to previous and similar work, and make clear your
objective.

5.2.2 Review of the Literature

 “The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It
should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about
the area” (Wiersma, 1995: 406).
Here are some points to consider in reviewing the related literature:
The literature review provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study as well
as a benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings.
It “frames” the research problem.
It demonstrates to the reader that the author has a comprehensive grasp of the field and is aware
of the important recent substantive and methodological developments.
It helps to show the research gap and indicates the need for further investigation.

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Plagiarism

Plagiarism can be:

1. Unauthorized use of the language and thoughts of another author and the representation of
them as one's own
2. Submitting someone else’s text as one’s own or attempting to blur the line between one’s
own ideas or words and those borrowed from another source.
3. Carelessly or inadequately citing ideas or words borrowed from another source.
 Plagiarism can sometimes be the result of poor note taking, or paraphrasing without
properly citing the reference. You can avoid plagiarism by:
 citing your references
 referencing correctly
 recording direct quotes and paraphrases correctly when note taking.
 To compose the literature review effectively, the researcher needs to be equipped with the
skills of paraphrasing, summarizing, quoting and citing sources.

A. Quotation

When you use the exact words, ideas or images of another person, you are quoting the author. If
you do not use quotation marks around the original author's direct words and cite the reference,
you are plagiarizing.

B. Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is when you take someone else's concepts and put them into your own words
without changing the original meaning. Even though you are not using the same words you still
need to state where the concepts came from.

C. Note taking

Poor note taking can lead to plagiarism. You should always take care to record all reference
information correctly, use quotation marks exactly as in the original, and paraphrase correctly

Clearly distinguish your own ideas from the ideas of other authors and researchers. All plagiarism
is viewed seriously by the University and can incur penalties.

Look at the following examples of in-text citation:

a. Quotation
• Corrosion is defined as a “chemical action which harms the properties of a metal”
(Glendinning 1973, p.12).

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b. Paraphrasing
• Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help minimize the
amount of quoted material in a research paper (Lester1976, 46-47).

5.2.3 Methods, Assumptions, and Procedures

The methods, assumptions, and procedures used in the investigation are described so the reader
could duplicate the procedures of the investigation.
Information in this section includes:
• System of measurement
• Types of equipment used and accuracy
• Test methods used
5.2.4 Results and Discussion

The presentation and discussion of the results is the heart of the technical report. Readers who have
reason to study the entire text of a report will normally spend most of their time on the Results and
Discussion section.

This section describes what you learned about the problem as a result of your research, identifies
the degree of accuracy related to your findings, and gives the reader your view of the significance
of your findings.
Results explain your findings with help of graphs or tables, simulations etc. Discussion explains
how accurate are your findings, and what the significance of the results of the research is ?

The first purpose of this section is a well-organized and objective presentation of the results. Tables
and figures that show the results should have sufficient supporting description to permit the reader
to interpret them quickly and accurately. The second purpose of this section is a discussion of the
results, together with their analysis, to show that the conclusions are warranted. Each major
conclusion should be clearly explained and compared with the results of similar work by other
investigators.

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5.2.5 Conclusion & Recommendations

A necessary part of relaying information to readers is to finish by ‘telling them what you told them.’
It provides an effective ending to your report.

Conclusion
The concluding section is where you tell your readers what you have told them. It is also the section
usually examined first by the prospective reader with limited available time. It provides a short
synopsis of the findings derived from the research and their significance for readers.

Any effective technical report builds on its information and draws sound conclusions for its readers.

Begin the conclusion by briefly stating the main points. This section should contain no information
that has not already been included in the body of the report. Using the words like “because of,”
“based on” and “therefore” will help a technical report writer to make smooth transitions in the
conclusion to move from one major point to the next.

A few ground rules should be observed in writing the concluding section:

1. Do not use undefined symbols.
2. Do not cite equations, tables, figures, references, and appendixes.
3. Do not introduce new material.
Example
• Aim
- The aim of this project is to design a mobile phone tower.
• Conclusions
In this report, a design for a mobile phone tower has been presented. The key features of the
tower are... It was found that...

Recommendations
The recommendation does exactly what it implies; it recommends action (or lack of action) by
readers who use the information in the report. Once conclusions are made, make some
recommendations as to the utilities of those conclusions. Suggest what the next step in the study
should be to overcome the limitation or advance the study further.

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The recommendation of a report explains what actions does the report call for, what suggestions do
you forward based on your findings. But remember that your recommendations should follow
logical reasoning instead of putting heavenly recommendations.
Both conclusions and recommendations may be in the form of descriptive paragraphs or running
lists. Whichever the format is chosen, apply it consistently for both the conclusions and the
recommendations.

5.3 Ending Parts/Back Matter

5.3.1 References
The references section is the place where the author cites all of the secondary sources* that were
used to develop an understanding of the problem, and it supports the information contained in the
report.
References are citations of work related to points brought out in the report and are given as sources
of additional information for the reader.

Giving proper credit to originator of an idea is very important. Any idea, formula, etc., not
originating from the author must be cited. Failure to reference prior works may be interpreted as
claiming those works to be your own.

The reference list only identifies sources referred to (cite) in the text of your research. A
bibliography on the other hand is presented in the same format as reference list but it includes a list
of all material referred to due to the course of your investigation. In other words, a bibliography
presents the same items as a reference list but it also includes all other sources which you read or
consulted but did not cite. This must be done using the referencing convention specified by your
lecturer/tutor.

Referencing of sources in written work generally occurs in the body of the text as either in-text
citations or as footnotes, and at the end of the text in the form of a reference list or a
bibliography.

Therefore, the two parts to referencing are citations in the text of the report and a list of references
in the final section.

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Referencing Style
Make sure that your referencing method is one of the popular ones (such as the APA or Harvard
styles). There's absolutely no point in inventing another system of your own. Ensure you know how
to correctly reference: A periodical, A PhD/MSc thesis, final-year project or research report, A
book, and An Internet source (via the URL).

Nowadays, the American Psychologists Association (APA) system of referencing is popular, and
has some advantages in technical material. As APA style, a bibliography/ reference list is written in
the following manner and arranged alphabetically:

1. Name of the author with the last name first and initials afterwards,

2. The year of publication is given in bracket after the name of the author or authors,

3. Title of the book or the work is written, underlined/ bolded/italicized and followed by a
full stop,

4. Place of Publication followed by a colon (:).

5. Name of the publishing agency or publishers and followed by a full stop (.).

Remember:
 The references are presented in alphabetical order by author.
 Each reference is given a new line and not numbered.
 Multiple entries by the same author are ordered according to the year of publication, with
the earliest listed first.
Examples of writing reference lists
a. Book

Hawley, R. (1996). Leadership challenges in an engineering environment, Engineering

Management Journal, vol 6 no 5, pp 217-231.

Seliger, W.H. and Shohamy, E. (1989). Second Language Research Methods. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

Singh, K.Y. (2006). Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics. New Delhi: New
Age International (P) Limited Publishers.

Van Emden, J. (2005). Writing for Engineers. (3rd ed). Palgrave: Macmillan.

b. Journal Article:

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 Wollo University, KIOT Technical Report Writing

Hawley, R.(1996). Leadership Challenges in an Engineering Environment, Engineering Management

Journal, vol 6 no 5, pp 217-231.

Sparrow, E. M.(1980). Forced-Convection Heat Transfer in a Duct Having Spanwise-Periodic

Rectangular Protuberances. Numerical Heat Transfer, Vol. 3, pp. 149-167.

c. Web Page (access date is given):

ASME JBE Web Page, 1/13/2001, http://www.asme.org/pubs/MS4.html.

d. Written or spoken communication:

Clark, J. A.(1986). Private Communication. University of Michigan: Ann Arbor, MI.

Activity

The following works are not arranged to be used as a reference in research report writing.
Rewrite them using APA style of documentation. Punctuate and capitalize where necessary

1. 2nd edition of an introduction to qualitative research at London by u. flick in 1995, sage

publications.

2. The practice of communicative teaching by C. Brumfit in 1986, Pergamum press at

oxford.

The back matter supplements and clarifies the body of the report, makes the body easier to
understand, and shows where additional information can be found. Components of Back Matter
include appendixes, bibliography, and list of symbols, abbreviations, and acronyms

5.3.2 Appendixes
Appendices are put at the end of the report and are labeled "A" through "Z." These are used to hold
all supplemental materials related to the report.

These include texts of interview, pertinent correspondence, large drawings, test results, calculations
and questionnaires
If you have more than one appendix item, put each of them on a separate page named and numbered
in Roman numbers (Appendix i, Appendix ii, Appendix xxi) or in alphabet letters (Appendix A,
Appendix B, Appendix C…).

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 Wollo University, KIOT Technical Report Writing

 Anything that cannot be left out of a report, but is too large for the main part of the
report and would serve to distract or interrupt the flow belongs in the appendixes.
Examples include:
• Large tables of data
• Flowcharts
• Mathematical analysis
• Large illustrations
• Detailed explanations and descriptions of test techniques and apparatus
• Technical drawings

Look at the following example:

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 Wollo University, KIOT Technical Report Writing

Tips: Ten Reasons Why Reports Fail

1. There is no logical structure.
2. Ideas are not well thought out.
3. Work is disorganized.
4. Assumptions are made which cannot be justified by evidence.
5. There are too many grammatical and spelling mistakes.
6. Sentences and/or paragraphs are too long or too obscure.
7. It is obvious that ideas and sentences have been taken from other sources.
8. There is too much repetition.
9. There is too much irrelevant information.
10. Summary and conclusions are weak.

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