Ministry of agriculture

GEWANE ATVET COLLEGE

LEARNING GUIDE #

OS: NATURAL RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT LEVEL III

Unit of Competence: Measure and Apply Irrigation Water

Module Title: Measuring and Applying Irrigation Water

LG Code: AGR NRD3M160615

TTLM Code: AGRNRDTTLM065v1

Lo1: Compute the water to be applied

1.1 Measuring Soil moisture deficit

The difference between the amount of water actually in the soil and the amount of water that
the soil can hold.
The soil moisture deficit, or the depth of water required at a given time to bring the soil
moisture reservoir to field capacity, largely controls the runoff response of the basin to a
given depth of rainfall.

 Permissible deficit or depletion of soil available water

Soil Moisture

It indicates the amount of water present in the soil. It is determined by

total weight of water

Soil moisture in % = x100
total weight of soil
 Measurement of soil water status

In order to understand or manage water supply and movement in soils it is essential to have
information on the amount of water content.
Generally, the behavior of soil water is most closely related to the energy status of the water.
However, the amount of water held by fine textured soil, and the thus the length of time it
could supply water to plants, would be far greater at this potential than would be the case for
coarse textured soil.
So that, researchers land managers, and engineers designed several methods, to measure each
of these parameters.
 Measuring Soil Water content
I. Techniques of Measuring Soil Moisture Content
Moisture content of a soil can be measured using different methods such as:
 Gravimetric method,
 Electrical Resistance Block Method,
 Neutron scattering,
 Time domain refract meter,
 Gamma ray attenuation etc.
From them let us see the most important one which is gravimetric method.
 Gravimetric method:
 It is under taken in laboratory.
 A known weight of moist soil sample is dried in an oven drier at 100 0C to 1100c and
weighed again.
 The weight lost is considered as that of the moisture evaporated through heating.

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  It is a direct measurement and use as a standard method to calibrate all indirect
methods.
 However it is destructive, cannot be automated, and not used in the field.
 The fraction of moisture in the soil which amounts to 20-70 percent of the total available
moisture (SA) and is easily absorbed by the plants (without any stress that results in yield
reduction) is called readily available moisture.
It is a product of SA multiplied by p, which represents the maximum permissible
depletion of available water (moisture).
The p value differs according to the kind of plant, the root depth, the climatic conditions
and the irrigation techniques.
Values for p vary from 0.25 in shallow rooted sensitive crops to 0.70 in deep rooted
tolerant crops.
 Field observations have shown that the lower the soil moisture depletion (p), the better
the crop development and yield. Hence, the recommended p values are:
 0.20-0.30 for shallow rooted seasonal crops;
 0.40-0.60 for deep rooted field crops and mature trees.

1.2 Measuring Area to Be Irrigated

AREA MEASUREMENT IN THE FIELD
Area by division into triangle
A field may be dividing into simple geometric figures such as triangle. The area of the
triangle whose sides are known may be computed by the formula.
A = √ (–c) (a) (b) - Where a, b, c are sides of triangle
S = ½ (a + b + c)
If two sides and one included angle of a triangle are measured, the areas triangle is given
A = ½ ab sin Φ. Φ is included angle use for working small nature
Area by coordinate
Is single process for closed traverse with known coordinates for each corner?
The area is equals to the half of the sum of the products obtained by multiplying each
coordinate by d/c b/n the adjacent x-coordinates. The x-coordinate must always be taken in
the same order around the travels. The rule can also be stated in another form or.
The area is equal to one half of the product obtain by multiplying each x- coordinates by d/ce
b/n the adjacent y-coordinate.
Using both rule produced a check as answer

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Let for (x1, y1), (x2, y2) (x3, y3) and (xn, yn) be coordinate of n- station
A = ½ (y1(x2+xn) + yn(x3 – x1) + - - - - - yn(x1 – xn -1))

There are many ways to find the area of an object, with the dimensions of its sides, with
angles or even with the location of its vertices. Finding the area of a polygon with the use of
its vertices takes a fair amount of manual calculation, especially for larger polygons, but is
relatively easy. By finding the product of a point's x coordinate times the next point's y
coordinate, then subtracting the y coordinate of the first point times the x coordinate of the
second coordinate and dividing by two, you will find the area of the polygon.

Multiply the x coordinate of the first point with the y coordinate of the second point. For
example, the first point is at 2,3 and the second is 4,5, so you would multiply 2 by 5, getting a
product of 10.

Multiply the y coordinate of the first point by the x coordinate of the second point. For
example, the product of the two points (the first at 2,3 and the second at 4,5) would be 12.

Subtract the second number from the first. For example, the products would be subtracted
(10-12) leaving a difference of -2.

Multiply each of the points with its corresponding counterparts. For example, the second
point's coordinates would be multiplied by the coordinates from the third point. When you
reach the final point, you will simple multiply it with the first number.

Add the final numbers left from the differences together, to get a single number. Divide this
number by 2 and the quotient will be your polygon's area.

1.3 Deciding Amount of water to be applied based on crop growth stage

1.3.1. Crop water requirements
Crop water requirements (CWR) are defined as the depth of water [mm] needed to meet the
water consumed through evapotranspiration (ETc) by a disease-free crop, growing in large
fields under non-restricting soil conditions including soil water and fertility, and achieving
full production potential under the given growing environment.

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The amount of water which evaporates from wet soils and plant surfaces together with the
plant transpiration is called Evapotranspiration (ET). Its value is largely determined by
climate factors, such as solar radiation, temperature, humidity and wind, and by the
environment. Out of the total Evapotranspiration, evaporation accounts for about 10 percent
and plant transpiration for the remaining 90 percent. Crop water requirements encompass the
total amount of water used in Evapotranspiration.
The most practical method for determining ETO is the pan evaporation method. This
approach combines the effects of temperature, humidity, wind speed and sunshine. The best
known pans are the Class A evaporation pan (circular) and the Colorado sunken pan
(square).The evaporation from the pan is very near to the Evapotranspiration of grass that is
taken as an index of ETO for calculation purposes. The pan direct readings (Epan) are related
to the ETO with the aid of the pan coefficient (kpan), which depends on the type of pan, its
location (surroundings with or without ground cover vegetation) and the climate humidity
and wind speed).
Hence,
ETo= Epan *kpan

The kpan values for both types of pans are given in FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No.
24. For the Class A pan the average kpan is 0.70 and for the Colorado sunken pan is 0.80.
GROUND COVER
Another element to consider when estimating crop water requirements is the percentage of
the field area (ground) covered by the cultivation. A Reduction factor, expressed as kr, is
applied to the conventional ET crop calculations. This factor is slightly higher, by about 15
percent, than the actual ground covered by the crop. For example, if the actual groundcover is
70 percent, kr = 0.70 x 1.15 = 0.80.

I.3.2. Crop Growth Stage

The crop water requirement largely depends on the growth stage.

The growing period of the crop can be divided into four growth stages.

1. The initial stage: This is the period from sowing or transplanting until the crop covers
about 10% of the ground.

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 2. The crop development stage: This period starts at the end of the initial stage and lasts
until the full ground cover has been reached (ground cover 70%–80%); it does not
necessarily mean that the crop is at its maximum height.
3. The midseason stage: This period starts at the end of the crop development stage and
lasts until maturity; it includes flowering and grain setting.
4. The late season stage: This period starts at the end of the midseason stage and lasts
until the last day of the harvest; it includes ripening.

Lo2: Apply a measured amount of water

2.1 Predicting a pre-determined deficit using a scheduling system(s).

 Irrigation scheduling

Irrigation scheduling is one of the factors that influence the agronomic and economic
viability of small farms. It is the process of determining when to apply and how much to
apply. It is important for both water savings and improved crop yields. The irrigation water
is applied to the cultivation according to predetermined schedules based upon the monitoring
of:
 The soil water status;
 The crop water requirements.
The type of soil and climatic conditions have a significant effect on the main practical aspects
of irrigation, which are the determination of how much water should be applied and when it
should be applied to a given crop.
In addition to the basic factors relevant to the preparation of irrigation schedules examined
below, other important elements should also be considered, such as crop tolerance and
sensitivity to water deficit at various growth stages, and optimum water use.
 Effective root depth
This is the soil depth from which the plants take nearly 80 percent of their water needs,
mostly from the upper part where the root system is denser. The rooting depths depend on the
plant physiology, the type of soil, and the water availability (kind of irrigation).
In general, vegetables (beans, tomatoes, potatoes, onions, peanuts, cucumbers, etc. are
shallow rooted, about 50-60 cm; fruit trees, cotton and some other plants have medium root
depths, 80-120 cm. Alfalfa, Sorghum and maize have deeper roots. Moreover, rooting depths
vary according to age.

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2.2Applying Irrigation to partly or fully replace the deficit.
Irrigation takes place when the permissible percentage (p) of available water (SA) is depleted
from the root depth, i.e. to replenish the depleted water.
Therefore:
Net depth of irrigation dose (d) (mm) = (SA x p) D where SA is the available water in
millimeters per meter, p is the permissible depletion (fraction), and D is the root depth (m).
Example:
Where SA = 99 mm/m, p = 0.5, D = 0.4 m. What is the net irrigation dose (d) in millimeters
to replenish the moisture deficit?
d = 99 x 0.5 x 0.4 = 19.8 mm.
 Gross irrigation application depth
Given the irrigation efficiency as a fraction, i.e. Ea = 0.60 (60 percent), the gross depth of
irrigation application or gross irrigation dose (dg) is calculated as follows:
Dg = d /Ea (fraction)

 System flow (system capacity)

The minimum flow capacity of any irrigation system should be the one that can meet the
water requirements of the area under irrigation at peak demand:
Q = 10 A x dg / IT

Where: - Q is the system flow in cubic meters per hour,

A is the area in hectares,
Dg is the gross irrigation application depth (irrigation dose) in mm,
I is the interval in days between two irrigations at peak demand,
T is the operating hours per day, and 10 is a constant for hectares.
However, the minimum flow of the system should be the one that enables the completion of
irrigation at least two days before the next irrigation. This allows time to repair any damage
to the system or pumping unit. Therefore, the value of I in the above formula should be
reduced by two days. The duration of application per irrigation is determined as:
T = 10 A x Dg / Q

Where T is the total operating hours of the system

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2.3 Ensuring dilution and transport of toxic solutes below the root zone.

A toxicity problem is different from a salinity problem in that it occurs within the plant itself
and is not caused by water shortage. Toxicity normally results when certain ions are taken up
by plants with the soil water and accumulate in the leaves during water transpiration to such
an extent that the plant is damaged. The degree of damage depends upon time, concentration
of toxic material, crop sensitivity and crop water use and, if damage is severe enough, crop
yield is reduced. Common toxic ions in irrigation water are chloride, sodium, and boron, all
of which will be contained in sewage.

Damage can be caused by each individually or in combination. Not all crops are equally
sensitive to these toxic ions. However, toxicity symptoms can appear in almost any crop if
concentrations of toxic materials are sufficiently high. Toxicity often accompanies or
complicates a salinity or infiltration problem, although it may appear even when salinity is
not a problem.

The toxic ions of sodium and chloride can also be absorbed directly into the plant through
the leaves when moistened during sprinkler irrigation. This typically occurs during periods of
high temperature and low humidity. Leaf absorption speeds up the rate of accumulation of a
toxic ion and may be a primary source of the toxicity.

In addition to sodium, chloride and boron, many trace elements are toxic to plants at low
concentrations. Fortunately, most irrigation supplies and sewage effluents contain very low
concentrations of these trace elements and are generally not a problem.

However, urban wastewater may contain heavy metals at concentrations which will give rise
to elevated levels in the soil and cause undesirable accumulations in plant tissue and crop
growth reductions.

Heavy metals are readily fixed and accumulate in soils with repeated irrigation by such
wastewaters and may either render them non-productive or the product unusable.

Surveys of wastewater use have shown that more than 85 % of the applied heavy metals are
likely to accumulate in the soil, most at the surface.

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The levels at which heavy metals accumulation in the soil is likely to have a deleterious effect
on crops. Any wastewater use project should include monitoring of soil and plants for toxic
materials.

 Leaching requirements
The salinity level in the root zone is related directly to the water quality, the amount of
fertilizers and the irrigation application depth.
A high salt content in the soil is controlled by leaching.
An excess amount of water, 10-15 percent, is applied during the irrigation where necessary
for leaching purposes.
In this way a portion of the water percolates through and below the root zone carrying with it
a portion of the accumulated soluble salts.
The leaching requirements (LR) are considered for the calculation of the gross irrigation
application (d).

Lo3: Determine soil intake rate

3.1. Selecting method for intake rate determination.

Surface irrigation systems intake
(1) Border and basin irrigation systems
When irrigation takes place for either level or graded border systems, water is pounded on the
surface of the soil with water infiltrating vertically downward into the soil. The process to
determine soil intake characteristics for borders or basins must be similar. A process using a
series of cylinders (short lengths of steel pipe driven into the ground) has been developed.
They are referred to as cylinder infiltrometers.
Cylinder infiltrometers are installed with buffer rings (or dike earth) around each cylinder to
help maintain near vertical water movement. For the intake test, water is pounded in the
cylinders and buffer rings to a depth slightly greater than the normal depth of irrigation water
flow. Depth of water should be maintained within 20 percent of the normal flow depth. The
rate of water level drop is measured in the inside of the cylinder(s) and recorded. With basin
irrigation, the entire irrigation set can be used as an infiltrometer.
Data are plotted to display cumulative infiltration in inches versus time. The plotted curve is
then compared to a standard set of border intake-family curves to determine the average
border intake family for the specific soil at that specific site.
(2) Furrow irrigation systems

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When irrigation takes place for either level or graded furrow systems, water within the furrow
infiltrates vertically downward, laterally, and diagonally upward into the furrow bed because
of soil water tension differential. Methods developed to determine soil intake characteristics
for furrows need to simulate the actual irrigation process. Typical furrow conditions needed
for determining intake characteristics would include:
• Water flowing in the furrow at a rate and depth similar to a normal irrigation,
• Water flowing at the soil water content when an irrigation is needed, and
• Water flowing in a wheel and non-wheel row or recently cultivated or non-cultivated
furrow.
The three methods developed to determine infiltration characteristics for furrow irrigation are
the furrow inflow-outflow, flowing furrow infiltrometer, and the furrow stream-rate of
advance methods. Only the flowing furrow infiltrometer and the furrow stream rate of
advance methods will be described fully in this information sheet.
(i) Furrow inflow-outflow method— when the furrow inflow-outflow method is used,
furrow flow rate measuring flumes, weirs, or orifice plates are placed at the head end and
lower end of the furrow. The actual irrigation is used for a water supply. Infiltration
characteristics of enough furrows (typically four or more) should be measured to be
representative of the field. Buffer furrows on each side of test furrow should be used.
(ii) Flowing furrow infiltrometer method_. With the flowing furrow infiltrometer, an
auxiliary water supply in a vertical sided container and a return flow pump are needed. After
a furrow section (typically 10 meters or 33 feet) is selected, a float controlled water sump
with pump is placed at the lower end of the furrow. A flow measuring flume with return hose
(from the downstream sump pump) and valve is installed at the upper end of the furrow
section. To begin the furrow intake characteristic test, water from the auxiliary supply
reservoir is discharged into the downstream pump sump via the float controlled valve.
The return flow pump then transfers the water to the upstream sump and flume via the return
hose, where the flow rate is both controlled and measured. A constant flow rate is maintained
in the furrow, with water lost by infiltration coming from the auxiliary reservoir via the float
control valve in the downstream pump sump. Water surface elevation in the auxiliary
reservoir versus time is recorded as soon as the furrow flow rate stabilizes, generally within 5
minutes.
Furrow flow rate and soil infiltration volume determine the necessary capacity of the flowing
furrow infiltrometer.
(iii) Furrow stream-rate of advance method—
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When this method is used, the furrow inflow stream is held constant and the rate of advance
measured. The gross application calculated at the time water reaches each station (based on
an area equal to the furrow spacing times length of advance) is plotted on log-log paper
versus time of advance. An average cumulative intake curve results. This procedure assumes
all water has been infiltrated into the soil. Thus, the test section must be long enough where
surface storage is a small percentage of water infiltrated. Initial points plot as a curve on log-
log paper. As the volume of water in surface storage becomes a smaller percentage of total
water applied, the curve straightens. The straight line portion represents the accumulative
intake curve. Each method has its own unique field equipment and data collection process
even though they provide similar intake characteristic curve. Data are plotted to display
cumulative infiltration in inches versus time. The plotted curve can be matched to a standard
set of furrow intake-family curves to determine furrow intake family for that particular soil
type.
3. Sprinkle irrigation systems
Rotating impact type sprinkler heads apply water to the soil surface intermittently as the jet
from the nozzle rotates around a riser. Spray type heads apply water to the soil surface
continually. Water infiltrates vertically downward. Continuous (self) moving systems use
either rotating impact type heads, rotating spray heads, or continuous spray heads.
A continuous moving lateral provides an increasing and decreasing application rate pattern
(assumed elliptical pattern) on a specific spot; as the lateral approaches, centers over, and
moves past a specific spot on the soil surface. Short duration application rates on quarter mile
center pivot laterals that have low pressure spray heads can be very high (up to12 inches per
hour). Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA) and Low Pressure In-Canopy (LPIC)
systems use very narrow spray pattern discharge devices, thus providing extremely high,
short duration application rates (up to 30 inches per hour). All require different processes to
determine soil intake characteristics even though a maximum sprinkler application rate is the
net result. Regardless of the sprinkler application process, determining the maximum
allowable application rate is a visual observation process. When application rate exceeds soil
intake rate, ponding or runoff occurs. The spot or area of soil along the lateral where ponding
is beginning to occur and runoff or translocation is just starting represents the area receiving
the maximum allowable soil application rate. Ponding is generally not a good indicator by
itself, since surface storage can contain an excessive application until sufficient time has
elapsed to allow the pounded water to infiltrate. However with most sprinkler systems, some
soil surface storage must be available. A small amount of wind can distort application
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patterns. Typically wind speed is not uniform; therefore, the test should be done during a no-
wind condition.
The best judgment of maximum soil infiltration rate can be made by watching the sheen of
reflected light on the soil surface as water is applied. With rotating impact sprinklers, the
sheen should have just disappeared before the next sprinkler rotation. With spray heads,
watch for micro runoff and ponding. Typically many tests are needed on any one soil series
because of the small areas that are tested.

3.2. Making available tools and equipment’s

(1) Border and basin
The equipment needed for border and basin systems include:
• Set of five cylinder infiltration rings (14- to 16-inch lengths of bare welded steel pipe at
least 12 inches in diameter), driving plate, driving hammer, and coarse burlap or cotton sack
material to be laid on soil surface inside rings to prevent soil puddling when pouring water
into rings. See figure 9–32 for plates showing cylinder infiltrometer and hook gauge.
• Carpenter’s level to level rings, hook gauge, engineer’s scale, and recording forms.
• 50-gallon barrel(s) for water supply, several 3-gallon buckets.
• Soil auger, push type sampler, probe, and shovel.
• Buffer rings generally cut from 55-gallon barrels.
Small earth dikes built around each ring can also be used. Water level is not measured inside
the Buffer rings.
(2) Furrow inflow-outflow method
Equipment needs for furrow inflow-outflow method include:
• Portable water flow measuring devices for determining inflow and outflow in each furrow
(small broad crested v-notch or trapezoidal flumes, V-notch weirs, or orifice plates). Water
surface in furrow should not be raised above normal flow conditions by the measuring
device.
• Auger, push type sampler, probe, shovel.
• 100-foot tape, lath, or wire flags.

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• Level and rod to determine elevations at 100-footstations down the length of the test
furrows.
• Pocket tape and straight edge to measure furrow cross sections at two or three stations.
(3) Flowing furrow infiltrometer method
Equipment needed for flowing furrow infiltrometer method include:
• Auger, probe, push type core sampler, shovel, measuring tape.
• Flowing furrow infiltrometer device consisting of:
— water supply
— calibrated vertical sided water supply tank
— pump for return of furrow outflow
— Upstream flow control valve sump that has measuring flume
— Downstream sump that has float controlled water supply valve
— Two hoses for inflow from water supply and return of furrow runoff to upstream sump.
The required water supply volume can be calculated by knowing the area irrigated by the test,
in acres; planned depth of water application during the test, in inches; plus water volume
contained in the furrow during the test and miscellaneous losses. Cross sectional area of the
water supply tank should be such that the water surface elevation drops at least 2 feet during
the test.
(4) Sprinkler
(I) Periodic move or set type sprinkler
Equipment needed:
• Catch containers or rain gauges.
• 100- to 250-milliliter graduated cylinder.
• Measuring tape, watch, recording forms.
• Stakes, rubber bands, or similar way to support catch containers or rain gauges above crop
canopy.
• Miscellaneous sprinkler nozzles or spray heads and tools.
• Operating sprinkler lateral or sprinkler infiltrometer. When using an operating sprinkler
lateral, first obtain permission to change sprinkler nozzles (and heads if necessary).

Before performing the infiltration test, install valves ball type preferred) in sprinkler head
risers where nozzles and or heads may be changed. Valves in adjacent risers help to minimize
getting wet.

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• Sprinkler infiltrometer test device. The test device need only wet a small portion of a full
circle so operator and observers are working on dry soil. A collection system is necessary to
catch and recalculate water from the sprinkler or spray head area when it is not discharging
water onto the soil surface. Sharp edged and vertical sided containers work; however, 4-inch
or larger diameter sharp edged catch containers are preferred as they can more accurately
catch precipitation. If containers are not vertical sided, the catch must be measured
volumetrically and converted to depth in inches based on the open area at top of container.
With some nozzle trajectory patterns, such as low angle sprinkler heads on short risers, water
droplets are moving more horizontal than vertical. This type of sprinkler head presents a
challenge, so the results are meaningful.
(ii) Continuous move systems—center pivot or linear move (using catch containers)

3.3. Determining soil moisture holding capacity

Applying water: Consider soil properties

Water should never be applied at a rate faster than it can be absorbed by the soil. Soil
properties that govern water infiltration (movement of water into the soil) are:

 Texture: The size of soil particles

 Structure: The arrangement of soil particles. Soils exhibiting good aggregation (a
measure of structure) permit more rapid infiltration of water.

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Texture and structure influences not only the infiltration of water, but also water-holding
ability and soil drainage.

 Degree of compaction: Compaction refers to a condition in which aggregation is

reduced or absent. The degree of compaction at or near the surface is of special
importance insofar as infiltration of water is concerned. It has been shown
experimentally that a very thin layer of compacted soil will substantially reduce the
rate of infiltration.
 Another very important factor that influences the ability of a soil to absorb moisture is
the rate at which the water is applied.

Sprinklers that do not adequately disperse moisture, as well as sprinklers that deliver a large
volume of water within a concentrated area, tend to cause surface runoff. Whenever water is
applied at a rate faster than it may be absorbed by a given soil, the water is being wasted.

Amount of water to apply

The amount of water to apply at any one time will depend upon:

 The water-holding capacity of the soil: The water-holding capacity of the soil will
determine how much water will be needed at any one watering. Loams and clay loams
are generally considered to have desirable water-holding capacity, whereas sands
display very little water-holding capacity.
 The amount of moisture present when irrigation is started: A sufficient amount of
moisture should be applied to insure that the entire root zone will be wetted. Once the
soil is already wet throughout the root zone any additional water applied will merely
fill the large pores and be excess.
 Drainage: Removal of excess water from soils is referred to as drainage. Unless soil is
adequately drained, problems can arise because of the slow removal of excess water.

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LO4: Identify Irrigation Measuring devices &Techniques

4.1 Identifying Type of irrigation method

Irrigation methods

Many different methods are used by farmers to irrigate crops. They range from watering
individual plants from a can of water to highly automated irrigation by a center pivot system.
However, from the point of wetting the soil, these methods can be grouped under five
headings, namely:

I. Flood irrigation - water is applied over the entire field to infiltrate into the soil (e.g. wild
flooding, contour flooding, borders, basins, etc.).

II. Furrow irrigation - water is applied between ridges (e.g. level and graded furrows,
contour furrows, corrugations, etc.). Water reaches the ridge, where the plant roots are
concentrated, by capillary action.

III. Sprinkler irrigation - water is applied in the form of a spray and reaches the soil very
much like rain (e.g. portable and solid set sprinklers, travelling sprinklers, spray guns, center-
pivot systems, etc.). The rate of application is adjusted so that it does not create ponding of
water on the surface.

Iv. Sub-irrigation - water is applied beneath the root zone in such a manner that it wets the
root zone by capillary rise (e.g. subsurface irrigation canals, buried pipes, etc.). Deep surface
canals or buried pipes are used for this purpose.

V. Localized irrigation - water is applied around each plant or a group of plants so as to wet
locally and the root zone only (e.g. drip irrigation, bubblers, micro-sprinklers, etc.). The
application rate is adjusted to meet Evapotranspiration needs so that percolation losses are
minimized.

VI. Spate irrigation: _Spate irrigation systems are different from other flood based irrigation
system. They comprises of structures like check dams, diversion canals, and bunds etc… that
divert the water from beds of perennial rivers during floods. Floods can be one of the most
destructive forces of the nature, but floods are not always a hazard. No one could ever
imagine that barren lands would ever shows a sign of life. For thousands of years

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communities around the world have been utilizing floods to irrigate crops and recharge
ground water. Spate irrigation system in arid and semi-arid is an example.
Flood water is channeled to fields through a network of canals and tactical breaching of
bunds. The massive inflows during floods are then stored as soil moisture to grow crops even
during dry spells through practices like mulching, ploughing, building bunds around fields.
Spate waters are laden with sediments. Managing scour and siltation is key to manage spate
systems. Silt can be good: It could contain nutrients beneficial to crops. It could be bad: too
much of it can shoke river, which may change the course.
Spate systems are not ONLY just about irrigating crops. But also they make for unique,
comprehensive agro economies.
Spate systems support agroforestry, livestock, and ground water recharge. Spate Irrigation
system currently found in ETHIOPIA, YEMEN, Eritrea, Sudan, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia,
Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia etc.
Open channel primary measuring devices
(1) Weirs
• Sharp-crested, triangular, rectangular, and trapezoidal
• Short-crested, such as OG weir
• Cipolletti (sharp crested trapezoidal)
• Broad crested, trapezoidal, rectangular, and Circular
(2) Flumes
• Long-throated (modified broad crested weir) sometimes called Replogle or Ramp Flume.
• Short-throated, such as Palmer Bowles
• Par shall (no longer recommended for most installations)
(3) Gates and orifices
• Sluice
• Radial
• Armco Meter Gate (no longer in production)
• Orifice plates
(4) Current metering
• Mechanical and electrical
(5) Acoustic meters
• Cross path, transit time, single path, ultra sonic
(6) Other open channel measuring devices
• Vane-defection
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• Volume and weight tanks
• Bucket and stop watch
• Volume drawdown
• Surface velocity/area
• Bubble curtain
• Chemical dilution
Closed-pipeline primary measuring devices
(1) Differential head meters
• Orifice plates, end-cap orifices, etc.
• Ventura meters
• Pivot tubes
• Elbow meters
• Shunt meters
(2) Velocity meters
• Propeller meters
• Turbine meters
• Paddle-wheel turbines
• Electromagnetic
(3) Acoustic meters
• Transit time, diametrical path, 2 or 4 transducers on opposite sides of pipe
• Transit time, diametrical path, reflective, 2 transducers on same side of pipe.

4.2 Identifying Operation feasibility based on local conditions.

 A feasibility study looks at the viability of an idea with an emphasis on
identifying potential problems and attempts to answer one main question: Will
the idea work and should you proceed with it?

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  In agriculture it is used to support decision making process based on a
cost-benefit analysis of the actual project viability.

 It is conducted during the deliberation phase of the project development

cycle prior to commencement of a formal project plan.

 Feasibility studies address things like where and how the project will
operate. They provide in-depth details about the agricultural
development to determine if and how it can succeed, and serve as a
valuable tool for developing a winning a predetermined plan.
 A feasibility study contains five major components namely:
 Marketing study,
 Technical study,
 Organizational and production study
 Management study,
 Financial study and
 Social desirability Study and Environmental desirability study.
 EFFICIENT: Technology should be efficient in its utilization of local resources.
 COST EFFECTIVE: The cost of technology should be justified by the benefits
achieved. The overall benefits should be greater than the cost of the technology.

4.3 Identifying Site of measurement

Locating and selecting the measuring site and device
All structures for measuring or regulating the rate off low should be located in a channel
reach where an accurate value of head can be measured. Also, sufficient head loss must be
created to obtain a unique flow rate versus head relation (modular flow).
The survey of a channel to find a suitable location for a structure should also provide
information on a number of relevant factors that influence the performance of a future
structure. These factors are described in the following paragraphs.
Upstream of the potential site, the channel should be straight and have a reasonably
uniform cross-section for a length equal to about 10 times its average width.
If a bend is closer to the structure, water elevations along the sides of the channel become
different. Reasonably accurate measurements can be made (added error about 3%) if the
upstream straight channel has a length equal to about two times its width. In this case the
water level should be measured at the inner bend of the channel.

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The channel reach should have a stable bottom elevation. In some channel reaches,
sedimentation occurs in dry seasons or periods of low water. The sediment may be eroded
again during the wet season. Such sedimentation can change the approach velocity toward the
structure or may even bury a flow measuring structure.
Erosion may undercut the foundation of the structure. Water level in the channel generally
should be predictable. Water surface elevations are affected by channel discharge,
downstream confluences with other channels, operation of gates, and reservoir operation.
Channel water surface elevations greatly influence the sill height to obtain modular flow
through a measuring structure. Based on channel water surface elevations and the required
sill height in combination with the flow versus head relation of the structure, the possible
inundation of upstream surroundings should be assessed. These inundations cause
sedimentation because of the subsequent reduction in approach flow velocities.
Soil conditions at the site can influence the tendency for leakage around and beneath the
measuring structure caused by the head differential. Excess leakage must be prevented at
reasonable costs. Also, a stable foundation, without significant settling is important.
To avoid sedimentation upstream of the structure, sufficient head must be available in the
selected channel reach to control flow velocities.

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