Chapter 3

SOIL- PLANT -WATER RELATIONSHIP

3.1. Crop Water Requirement

It is defined as the total quantity of water required by a crop irrespective of its source in a given
period of time for its normal growth and development under field conditions at a given place. It
means that it is the total quantity of water required to mature an adequately irrigated crop to meet
the losses due to evapotranspiration (ET), plus the losses during the application of irrigation
water (unavoidable losses) and the additional quantity of water required for special operations
such as land preparation, transplanting, leaching of salts below the crop root zone, frost control
etc. It is expressed in depth per unit time.

Crop water requirement is the quantity of water needed for normal growth and yield and may be
supplied by precipitation or by irrigation or by both. Water is mainly needed to meet the
demands of evaporation (E) and transpiration (T) and metabolic needs of the plants, and all
together known as consumptive use (CU).
CU= E+ T+ Water needed for metabolic purposes.

Water used in the metabolic activities of plant is negligible and is often less than 1% of the
quantity of water passing through the plant. Evapotranspiration (ET) is, therefore, considered as
equal to consumptive use. Different losses like percolation, seepage and runoff etc., occur during
the transport and application of irrigation water. Water is need for special operations such as land
preparation, transplantation, leaching etc. Water requirement of a crop (CWR), therefore,
includes ET, application losses and water needs for special purposes.
CWR= ET + Application losses +Water for special purposes
In other words, crop water requirement is total water demand for growing a crop. Crop water
requirement is a demand whereas the supply consists of the contribution from irrigation water,
effective rainfall (ER) and soil profile contribution including that from shallow water table.

Crop water demand can also be expressed in term of supply as:

CWR = IR + ER +ΔS +GWC                              

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Where:
CWR = Total depth of water required during the life of crop irrespective of source
CU = Consumptive use (total water required for all plant processes)
ER = Effective rainfall received during crop life
ΔS = Profile water use i.e., difference in soil moisture in the crop root zone at the beginning and
end of the crop
GWC= Groundwater contribution, if any
IR = Irrigation

Some Terminology On Evapotranspiration

Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo): Used by FAO.

It is the rate of evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of 8 to 15 cm tall, green grass cover
of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water.
Reference Crop ET – is the potential ET for a specific crop (usually either grass or
alfalfa) and set of surrounding conditions.
According to Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977)” ET from an extensive surface of 8 to 15 cm
tall, green grass covers of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the
ground and not short of water”.
Allen et al. (1998) modified the above definition to represent hypothetical grass surface.
Reference crop evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of green grass of uniform
height(0.12m), actively growing, completely shading the ground with an albedo of 0.23
and having ample water supply is called reference crop evapotranspiration and is denoted
by ETo (Fig.-).
Climatic parameters are the only factors affecting ET o and it can be computed from
weather data.
ET for specific crop can be estimated using reference crop ET and crop coefficients.

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The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the sole method for determining ETo.
The method has been selected because it closely approximates grass ETo at the location
evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic
parameters.
3.2 Calculation/Estimation of Crop Water Requirement

Crop water requirement can be calculated from the climate and crop data. Crop water
requirement for a given crop, i, for the whole growing season:
m
CWR  ETi   ET0t * K ct
t 0

where CWRi is the crop water requirement for the growing period, in mm, ETi is the crop
evapotranspiration for the growing period, in mm, t is the time interval in days, m is the days to
physiological maturity from sowing or transplanting (total effective crop growth period), in
numbers, ETot is the reference crop evapotranspiration of the location concern for the day t, in
mm, and Kct is the crop coefficient for the time t day. Note: Actually, the crops do not need water
up to the harvest date. Physiological maturity is the status of maturity after which the weight of
the grains does not change/increase. Normally it reaches a week (7 days) ahead of traditional
harvest time in cereals, and 3–5 days in pulses and oilseeds. The methods for determining ETo
and Kc have been described in the following sections. Crop water requirement for a particular

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growth stage (or period) of the crop can be calculated using the Kc for that growth stage (or
period).
Crop Water Use and Stages of Growth
Crop growth periods can be divided into four distinct growth stages; initial, crop development,
mid-season and late season. See Figure below. The length of each of these stages depends on the
climate, latitude, elevation and planting date. Local observations are best for determining the
growth stage of the crop and which Kc values to use.

Figure - Crop growth period

Table provides a description of the various plant growth stages. These stages can be used to
select an appropriate crop coefficient from Table 2.

Table -2: FAO Mean Crop Coefficients, Kc, for Subhumid Climates

Crop Kc ini Kc mid Kc end Maximum crop height (h), (m)

Cabbage 0.7 1.05 0.95 0.4
Carrots 0.7 1.05 0.95 0.3
Cauliflower 0.7 1.05 0.95 0.4
Onion, green 0.7 1.00 1.00 0.3
Onion, dry 0.7 1.05 0.75 0.4
Onion, seed 0.7 1.05 0.80 0.5
Garlic 0.7 1.00 0.70 0.3
Lettuce 0.7 1 0.95 0.3
Potato 0.5 1.15 0.75 0.6
Pumpkin 0.5 1 0.8 0.4
Tomato 0.7 1.15 0.8 0.6

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3.3. Factors Affecting Crop Water Requirement

Weather and crop influence in determining water requirement for crop.

A. Climatic factors
Temperature: As the temperature increases, the saturation vapor pressure also increases and
results in increase of evaporation and thus consumptive use of water.
Wind Speed: The more the speed of wind, the more will be the rate of evaporation; because the
saturated film of air containing the water will be removed easily.
Humidity: The more the air humidity, the less will be the rate of consumptive use of water. This
is because water vapor moves from the point of high moisture content to the point of low
moisture content. So if the humidity is high water vapor cannot be removed easily.
Sunshine hours: The longer the duration of the sunshine hour the larger will be the total amount
of energy received from the sun. This increases the rate of evaporation and thus the rate of
consumptive use of crops.

B. Crop Factor

Different crops use different amount of water during its growing period. Crop factors influencing
crop water requirement include the following: type of crop, cultivar/species, growing stage, leaf
area, leaf type, stomatal behavior, root length and root density. Due to difference in growth
pattern, different crops or even different cultivar of the same crop show different
evapotranspiration demand. Length of crop duration has a direct effect on total water
requirement. A wheat variety with maturity period of 150 days will use more water than 120
days variety. Crop planting time or the season has an impact on crop water demand due to
differential energy pattern for evapotranspiration. Some crops are grown both in winter and
summer/spring. Summer season crop will surely need more water than that of winter. Younger
plants require less water than the mature one. Besides, leaf area (evaporative surface) and
stomatal closure behavior influence on ET. Under similar environmental condition, a plant
having little leaf area and root system would require much less water than a plant having higher
leaf area and dense root system. In addition, crop population may influence ET demand –
decrease in population will result in less ET. Other factors determining total crop water

5
requirement are growing season (winter or spring) and length of growing period (short or long
duration crop cultivar).
Table -3: The water requirement of different crops

3.4. Irrigation Requirement (IR)

Irrigation requirement of a crop refers to the amount of water needed to be applied as irrigation
to supplement the water received through rainfall and soil profile contribution to meet the water
needs of crops for optimum growth and yield. It may be classified into net and gross irrigation
requirement.

IR= CWR-(ER+S)

3.4.1.Net irrigation requirement (NIR)

The net irrigation requirement (NIR) is the amount of irrigation water just required to bring the
soil moisture content in the root zone depth of the crops to field capacity. Thus the NIR is the
difference between the field capacity and soil moisture content in the root zone before irrigation.

It is expressed by the equation:

n
FC i  Mbi
IR   * AS i * Di
i 100
Where,
FCi= field capacity (% w/w) in the ith layer of the soil.
Mbi = soil water content just before irrigation (% w/w) in the ith layer of the soil.
Asi =Apparent specific gravity of soil (dimensionless)
Di= depth of the ith layer of soil, cm.
n= number of soil layers in crop root zone D.

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 3.4.2. Gross Irrigation Water Requirement (GIR)

During delivery of water in the crop field, some losses occur such as inefficiencies in
conveyance system, evaporation and wind drift (especially for sprinkler irrigation). Besides,
surface runoff and percolation below root zone may occur from the field plot. For these reasons,
the water that should be pumped to supply the crop water requirement should be higher than the
actual (net) crop water requirement. The above losses can be minimized through proper
management practices, but cannot be eliminated completely. These points should be considered
during determination of total irrigation water requirement. Hence, the gross irrigation
requirement (GIR) is the total of net irrigation requirement and other losses such as conveyance,
distribution, and application. The GIR may be determined considering the irrigation application
efficiency at the field head as follows.

NIR
GIR 
OverallIrrigationEfficiency

NIR
GIR 
Ec * Ea

Where Ec is the field conveyance efficiency, Ea is the field application efficiency.

3.5. Factors Affecting Irrigation Requirement

The factors which influence crop water demand (ET demand), also influence the irrigation water
demand. Weather, crop, and soil – all these three factors influence in determining water
requirement for irrigation. Crop and weather factors influencing crop water demand have been
described earlier.

Soil Factor

Soil factor does not affect irrigation demand directly (but a little by absorbing heat), but affect
total water requirement by its storage and release properties of water. In addition to type of the
soil, the organic matter content of the soil controls a great deal to its storage and release
properties. Seepage and percolation rate of sandy soil is much higher than that of the silt and clay
soils. The rate of percolation follows the order: sandy soil > silt > clay soil. Hence, the total
irrigation requirement during the crop growing season is higher in sandy soil than the clayey soil.

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Other factors affecting irrigation water requirement include effective rainfall, water required for
leaching of salt (leaching requirement), water required for land preparation or land soaking, etc.

3.6.Difference between Crop Water Requirement and Irrigation Water Requirement

Crop water requirement Irrigation water requirement

It is a function of weather and crop
Normally it is less than the irrigation
water requirement
It is not a function of soil and
irrigation method
It does not depend on rainfall (but on
temperature and humidity)
It is not a function of depth to water table
or saturated layer
It involves additional factors other than the
weather and crop
Normally it is higher than the crop water
requirement
It depends on soil type and irrigation method
Irrigation water requirement decreases if there
is any rainfall
It decreases with the contribution of upward
flow from the water-table or saturated layer

3.7. Soil physical properties influencing irrigation:

 Infiltration capacity of soil
 Water holding capacity of soil
 Soil texture
 Soil structure
 Depth to water table etc.
Soil Texture:
 The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay determines the soil texture. Texture can be
determined from grain-size distribution using textural classification chart. Example:
Classify a soil sample that is 30% clay, 15% silt, and 55% sand. First locate 30% on the
clay axis, and draw a line horizontally from left to right. Next, locate 15% on the silt axis,
and draw a line going down diagonally to the left. Finally, locate 55% on the sand axis,
and draw a line going up diagonally to the left. The intersection is in a region called
Sandy Clay Loam. See figure below. (Truthfully, you only need to make two lines.). The

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 geometry of voids created in the soil matrix is dependent on the textural classification of
soil. The soil texture, therefore, influences considerably the other phases (water and air)
contained in the spaces of soil matrix.
 Sandy soils are loose and non-cohesive and have a low water holding capacity. Such soils
form relatively simple capillary systems, which ensure good drainage and aeration.
 The clay particles are usually aggregated together into complex granules. Because of
their plate-like shape, clay particles have a much greater surface area than cubes or
spheres of similar volume. Their extensive surface enables clay particles to hold more
water and minerals than sandy soils.

Figure 1 USDA Textural Triangle

Soil Structure:

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  The arrangement of individual soil particles with respect to each other is called soil
structure
 The size of aggregates is a valuable criterion of soil structure. Sand-sized aggregates are
more favorable for plant growth than very small and very large ones. For instance, a soil
made up exclusively of silt-size aggregates cannot be drained by gravity, since the pores
are too small.
 Large pores induce aeration and infiltration, medium-sized pores facilitate capillary
conductivity, and small pores induce greater water holding capacity.
 Rounded edges of the aggregates result in better pore distribution than angular ones.
Regarding the size of aggregates, sand-size and gravel-size are preferred. A massive
compact soil restricts aeration and root spread.
 For optimum crop growth, soil structure should be such that the infiltration capacity is
large, the percolation capacity is medium and aeration is sufficient, without being
excessive.
3.8. Irrigation Scheduling

Once the crop water and irrigation requirements have been calculated, the next step is the
preparation of field irrigation schedules. Three parameters have to be considered in preparing an
irrigation schedule:
 The daily crop water requirements
 The soil, particularly its total available moisture or water-holding capacity
 The effective root zone depth
The problem of irrigation consists of when to irrigate, and how much to irrigate. Efficient water
use depends on timely application of water at right amount at right time with right way or
method. Irrigation scheduling means when to irrigate and how much water to apply in crop field.
In other words, irrigation scheduling is the decision of when and how much water to be applied
in a crop field. The objectives of irrigation scheduling are to maximize yield, irrigation
effectiveness/efficiency, and crop quality by applying the exact amount of water needed by the
crop (or to replenish the soil moisture to the desired level).

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The scheduling of irrigation can be field irrigation scheduling and field irrigation supply
schedules. Field irrigation Scheduling is done at field level. The two scheduling parameters of
field irrigation scheduling are the depth of irrigation and interval of irrigation.

3.8.1. Depth of irrigation (d)

This is the depth of irrigation water that is to be applied at one irrigation. It is the depth of water
that can be retained in the crop root zone b/n the field capacity and the given depletion of the
available moisture content. All the water retained in the soil b/n FC and PWP is not readily
available to crops. The readily available moisture is only some percentage of the total available
moisture. Thus, depth of irrigation is the readily available portion of the soil moisture. It is the
depth of irrigation water required to replenish the soil moisture to field capacity.

d
 FC  PWP  * P * As * D
100
d= net depth of water to be applied or net irrigation in cm
As = Apparent specific gravity of soil
D = Effective root zone depth in m
FC = water content of soil at F.C (% w/w)
PWP = Water content of soil at PWP (% w/w)
P = depletion factor

Because of application losses such as deep percolation and runoff losses, the total depth of water
to be applied will be greater than the net depth of water.
Gross depth of application

d gross 
 FC  PWP * P * As * D
100 * E a

Where, Ea = Field application efficiency and other parameters as defined above

3.8.2. Interval of Irrigation (I)

The interval of irrigation is the time gap in days b/n two successive irrigation applications. It
depends on the type of the crop, soil type and climate conditions. Thus interval of irrigation
depends on the consumptive use rate of the crop and the amount of readily available moisture
(RAM) in the crop root zone. The consumptive use rate of the crop varies from crop to crop. The

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RAM moisture also varies from soil to soil depending on soil water constants. The interval
(frequency) of irrigation is given by:

 FC  PWP * P * As * D / 100
I  day   Where,
ETcrop  peak ) 
Fc= field capacity in %
PWP=Permanent wilting point in %
As= apparent specific gravity of soil
D= depth of crop root zone, cm
ET crop(peak) = the peak rate of crop evapotranspiration in m/day.

3.9. Soil water constants

For a particular soil, certain soil water proportions are defined which dictate whether the water is
available or not for plant growth. These are called the soil water constants, which are described below.

Saturation capacity (S or  s ): This is the total water content of the soil when all the pores of the soil are
filled with water. It is also termed as the maximum water holding capacity of the soil. At saturation
capacity, the soil moisture tension is almost equal to zero.

Field Capacity (FC):

 It is the water content of the soil when gravitational water has been removed.
 It is the water retained by an initially saturated soil against the force of gravity.
 Hence, as the gravitational water gets drained off from the soil, it is said to reach the field capacity.
 At field capacity, the macro-pores of the soil are drained off, but water is retained in the
micropores
 It represents the upper limit of available soil water range.
 It is determined two days after an irrigation or thorough wetting. Limitations are:
restricting layers, high water table, surface evaporation, consumptive use by crops.
 Water content corresponding to a soil-moisture of 1/10 atm for sandy soil to 1/3 atm for
silty or clay soil.
Permanent Wilting Point (PWP):
Plant roots are able to extract water from a soil matrix, which is saturated up to field capacity.
 However, as the water extraction proceeds, the moisture content diminishes and the negative

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 pressure increases.
 At one point, the plant cannot extract any further water and thus wilts.
Two stages of wilting points are recognized and they are:
 Temporary wilting point: this denotes the soil water content at which the plant wilts at day
time, but recovers during night or when water is added to the soil.
 Ultimate wilting point/Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)/: at such , soil water
content, the plant wilts and fails to regain life even after addition of water to soil.
 It must be noted that the above water contents are expressed as percentage of water held in the soil
pores, compared to a fully saturated soil.
 It is the moisture content at which plants permanently wilt
 Wilting depends on the rate of water use, depth of root zone and water holding capacity
of soil
 It is the lower end of available moisture range.
 Water content corresponding to soil-moisture tension of 15 atm

Figure 2 Classes and soil-water availability to plants and drainage characteristics

Available Water (AW):

 The difference of water content of the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting
point
 It represents the moisture which can be stored in the soil for subsequent use by plants i.e.

13
 ‘available’ for plant use.
 Water held in the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting point
 The moisture near the wilting point is not readily available to the plant.
 The portion of the available moisture which is most easily extracted by plants is termed
as readily available water/moisture.
 Readily Available Water (RAW): This is the level to which the available water in the
soil can be used up without causing stress in the crop. For most crops, 50 to 60%
available water is taken as readily available.
 Irrigation water should be supplied as soon as the moisture falls up to optimum level. The
optimum level represents the maximum deficiency up to which the soil moisture may be
allowed without any fall in crop yields.
 The amount of irrigation should be just enough to bring the moisture content up to its
field capacity making allowance for application losses.
Available Water Capacity (AWC)
AWC   fc   wp

– Units: depth of available water per unit depth of soil, “unitless” (in/in, or mm/mm)
– Measured using field or laboratory methods.
Fraction of available water depleted(fd)
 fc  v 
fd 
 fc   wp 

Fraction of available water remaining(fr)

 v   wp 
fr 
 fc   wp 

Total Available Water (TAW)

TAW = (AWC) (Dr)
– TAW = total available water capacity within the plant root zone, (mm)
– AWC = available water capacity of the soil, (mm of H2O/mm of soil)
– Dr = depth of the plant root zone, (mm)
– If different soil layers have different AWC’s, need to sum up the layer-by-layer TAW’s
TAW = (AWC1) (L1) + (AWC2) (L2) + . . . (AWCN) (LN)

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 - L = thickness of soil layer, (mm)
- 1, 2, N: subscripts represent each successive soil layer

Table Effective rooting depths of crops

Crops Effective Rooting Depth,(Dr ) , ( mm)

Fruits 750
Cotton 900
Maize, small grains, wheat 600
Most vegetables 300

4. Measurement of soil moisture

Importance: to determine the time and amount of irrigation
Methods:
a) Appearance and feel method:
Using the soil auger, soil samples throughout the root zone are collected. By looking and
feeling the sample, soil moisture deficiency is determined using guideline. Not precise
and it requires experience and judgment. Simple, quick and it requires no equipment
except soil auger. In many applications, greater accuracy is not needed, nor is it justified
economically.
b) Gravimetric method:
This method is used for primary measurement. It involves weighting a sample of moist
soil, drying to a constant weight at a temperature of 105 to 110 oC, and re-weighting.

15
 Usually 24 hours are required for drying. Most accurate and direct method. Destructive,
labor intensive and time consuming; several samples are required to obtain a satisfactory
representative indication of moisture content.
c) Electro-resistance blocks:
The porous blocks (gypsum) are calibrated against a range of moisture. The blocks
containing desired electrical elements are placed in the field of at required depth. As the
moisture content of the blocks changes, the electrical resistance also changes. The
gypsum blocks are soluble and deteriorate in one to three seasons of use. Normally there
is considerable variation between blocks and considerable changes occur in the
calibration during the season
d) Tensiometer:
A porous ceramic cup filled with water is attached to a vacuum gauge or mercury
manometer. A hole is bored or dug to a desired depth; a handful of loose soil is placed
into the hole, and the cup pushed firmly into the soil. The water inside the cup comes into
hydraulic contact through the pores in the cup. When initially placed in the soil, water
contained in the tensiometer is generally at atmospheric pressure. Soil water, being
generally at sub-atmospheric pressure, exercises a suction which draws out a certain
amount of water within the tensiometer, thus causing a drop in its hydrostatic pressure.
This pressure is indicated by the manometer or vacuum gauge. Tensiometer is effective
up to a tension of 0.8 bar. At this pressure air enters the closed system through the pores
of the cup and makes the unit inoperative. Tensiometer readings are useful in deciding
when to irrigate, but they do not indicate how much water should be applied. A special
moisture-characteristic curve for the particular soil is needed to convert moisture tension
measurements into available moisture percentage. Tensiometers are less well suited to
use in fine-textured soils in which only a small part of the available moisture is held at a
tension of less than 1 atmosphere. Since the unit operates satisfactorily only up to
tensions of 0.8 atmospher, they are most useful in sandy soil, where this represents a
major portion of the available water. Because of its narrow range of application the
tensiometer is used for moist and resistance blocks for dryer soil conditions. Sometimes a
combination of tensiometer and resistance blocks is used.

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Figure - the essential parts of a tensiometer
e) Neutron method:
A hole is dug with an auger, and a metal tube is driven into the hole to retain the soil. The
neutron source and counting device are lowered to the desired depth. Fast neutrons emitted from
the source and slowed down by water in the surrounding soil. The resulting slow neutrons which
reach the counting tube are recorded. Fast neutrons are not registered by the counter. The greater
the water content of the soil, the greater is the number of slow neutrons reaching the counting
tube. There exists a good correlation between moisture content and the number of slowed down
neutron reaching the counter.
Rs
 v   a  b *
Rst

Where, a and b are calibration coefficients, Rs = Count Rate in the soil, Rst = Standard count rate
It measures  v directly. It is expensive, cannot be used to measure near the surface because of
boundary effect and possible radiation hazard, and needs calibration

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 Chapter 4
Water Application Methods
4.1. Introduction
The application of water to soils for crop use is referred to as irrigation. Irrigation systems differ
greatly depending on what they are going to be used for. They range from the simple hand
watering method used in most home gardens and many nurseries to the huge flood and furrow
irrigation systems found in large-scale production. Surface (gravity-driven surface irrigation),
sprinkler, drip/micro, and subsurface are types of irrigation methods that are used by growers to
irrigate various crops. Each system has its advantages and disadvantages. But with good design,
they can be very successful for appropriate cases. Water losses from irrigation vary with the type
of irrigation method. The water management decisions strongly influence how uniform water can
be applied through different irrigation methods to provide optimal soil water conditions for crop
growth and marketable yields. The most appropriate irrigation method for an area depends upon
physical site conditions, the crops being grown, amount of water available, and management
skill. This chapter gives some very broad guidance and indicates several important criteria in the
selection of a suitable irrigation method.
Based on energy/pressure requirement, irrigation methods can be grouped as gravity irrigation
and pressurized irrigation. Again, gravity irrigation may be subdivided based on mode of
application as border irrigation, basin irrigation and furrow irrigation. Pressure irrigation system
may be subdivided based on mode of application as drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation.
The definition of different types of irrigation systems are outlined below:
 Gravity irrigation: Irrigation in which the water is not pumped but flows and is
distributed to the crop field by gravity.
 Pressurized irrigation: Irrigation system in which water is pumped and flows to the crop
field by pressure.
 Surface irrigation: A form of irrigation where the soil surface is used as a conduit.
 Subsurface irrigation or sub irrigation: Applying irrigation water below the ground
surface either by raising the water table within or near the root zone or by using a buried
perforated or porous pipe system that discharges directly into the root zone is termed
subsurface irrigation.

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  Border irrigation: Border irrigation is defined as the application of water to an area
typically down slope and surrounded by two border ridges or dikes to the ends of the
strip.
 Basin irrigation: Basin irrigation is defined as the application of water to an area
typically leveled to zero slope and surrounded by dikes or check banks to prevent runoff.
 Furrow irrigation: A partial surface flooding method of irrigation in which water is
applied in furrows (narrow channels dug between the rows of crops) or “rows of
sufficient capacity” to contain the designed irrigation system, instead of distributing
water throughout the whole field.
 Sprinkler irrigation: A system in which water is applied by means of nozzle or
perforated pipe that operates under pressure in the form of a spray pattern.
 Drip irrigation: An irrigation system in which water is applied directly to the root zone
of plants.
4.2. Surface Irrigation
4.2.1. Border Irrigation
Border irrigation is a modern method of surface irrigation. Border irrigation uses land formed
into strips, bounded by ridges or borders (Fig.1). Borders are generally prepared with zero side
slope and a small but uniform longitudinal slope not exceeding 1%. The borders are divided by
levees running down the slope at uniform spacing. The lower end of the border is opened to a
drainage ditch or closed with a levee to create ponding on the end of the border. Levees are
pulled across the end on steeper borders.

In this method, water is applied at the upper end of the border strip, and advances down the strip.
Irrigation takes place by allowing the flow to advance and infiltrate along the border. Border
irrigation is best adapted to grain and forage crops where there are large areas of flat topography
and water supplies are large.

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Figure 3 Schematic of border irrigation system
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
(i) Easy to construct and maintain
(ii) Operational system is simple and easy
(iii) High irrigation efficiencies are possible if properly designed, but rarely obtained in practice
due to difficulty of balancing the advance and recession phases of water application
(iv) Natural drainage is facilitated through downward slope
(v) Comparatively less labor is required
Limitations
(i) Requires flat and smooth topography
(ii) Not suitable for sandy soils
(iii) Not suitable for crops which requires ponding water
(iv) Higher amount of water is required compared to sprinkler or drip irrigation.
4.2.2. Basin Irrigation
In this method, water is applied to leveled surface units (basins) which have complete perimeter
dikes to prevent runoff and to allow infiltration after cutoff (Fig. 2). The best performance is
obtained when advance time is minimized by using large non-erosive discharges, and the basin
surface is precision leveled. This method is the most commonly practiced worldwide, both for
rice and other field crops, including orchard tree crops. Basins may be of different types:
rectangular, ring, and contour. Basin size is limited by available water stream size, topography,
soil factors, and degree of leveling required.

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Figure 4 Schematic layout of a basin irrigation system

Basin irrigation is suited to irrigate close growing crops (e.g., paddy). Paddy (rice) is always
grown in basins. Those crops that cannot stand a very wet soil for more than 12–24 h should not
be grown in basins. Basin lengths should be limited to 100 meter (m) on very coarse textured
soils, but may reach 400 m on other soils. Flat lands, with a slope of 0.1% or less, are best suited
for basin irrigation: little land leveling will be required. Basin irrigation is generally the most
expensive surface irrigation configuration to develop and maintain but often the least expensive
to operate and manage.
Advantage and Disadvantage
Advantages
(i) One of the major advantages of the basin method is its utility in irrigating fields with irregular
shapes and small fields
(ii) Best suited for lands/crops where leaching is required to wash out salts from the root zone
(iii) Water application and distribution efficiencies are generally high
Limitations
(i) It requires accurate land leveling to achieve high application efficiency
(ii) Comparatively high labor intensive
(iii) Impedes surface drainage
(iv) Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to water logging
(v) Border ridges interfere with the free movement of farm machineries
(vi) Higher amount of water is required compared to sprinkler or drip irrigation.

4.2.3. Furrow Irrigation

A furrow is a small, evenly spaced, shallow channel installed down or across the slope of the
field to be irrigated parallel to row direction (Fig. 3). In this method, water is applied to furrows

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using small discharges to favor water infiltration while advancing down the field. Furrow
irrigation can thus be defined as a partial surface flooding method of irrigation (normally used
with clean-tilled crops), where water is applied in furrows or rows of sufficient capacity to obtain
the designed irrigation system.

Figure 5 Schematic of furrow irrigation system. Furrow irrigation is best used for irrigating
widely spaced row crops such as potato, maize, vegetables, and trees.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
(i) developed gradually as labor or economics allows
(ii) developed at a relatively low cost after necessary land-forming activities are accomplished
(iii) erosion is minimal
(iv) adaptable to a wide range of land slopes
Limitations
(i) Not suitable for high permeable soil where vertical infiltration is much higher than the lateral
entry
(ii) Higher amount of water is required, compared to sprinkler or drip irrigation
(iii) Furrows should be closely arranged

4.3. Sprinkler Irrigation Systems

In sprinkler irrigation, water is delivered through a pressurized pipe network to sprinklers,
nozzles, or jets which spray the water into the air, to fall to the soil as an artificial “rain” (Fig. 4).
Sprinkler irrigation can be defined as a pressurized system, where water is distributed through a

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network of pipe lines to and in the field and applied through selected sprinkler heads or water
applicators.
The basic components of any sprinkler system are
 a water source
 a pump (to pressurize the water)
 a pipe network (to distribute the water throughout the field)
 sprinklers (to spray the water over the ground) and
 valves (to control the flow of water)
In addition, flow meters and pressure gauges are sometimes added to monitor system
performance.
The sprinklers, when properly spaced, give a relatively uniform application of water over the
irrigated area. Sprinkler systems are usually (there are some exceptions) designed to apply water
at a lower rate than the soil infiltration rate so that the amount of water infiltrated at any point
depends upon the application rate and time of application but not the soil infiltration rate.

Figure 6 Sprinkler system (a) view of a sprinkler and (b) sprinklers irrigating a field

Sprinkler irrigation systems are normally used under more favorable operational conditions than
surface systems because farmers may control the discharge rates, duration, and frequency.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of sprinkler systems include the following: readily automatable, facilitates to
chemigation and fertigation, reduced labor requirements needed for irrigation. A disadvantage of
sprinkler irrigation is that many crops (citrus, for example) are sensitive to foliar damage when

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sprinkled with saline waters. Other disadvantages of sprinkler systems are the initially high
installation cost and high maintenance cost thereafter (when needed).
4.4. Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation system is traditionally the application of a constant steady flow of water to soil at
low pressure. In this system, water is applied directly to the root zone of plants by means of
applicators (orifices, emitters, porous tubing, perforated pipe, etc.) operated under low pressure
with the applicators being placed either on or below the surface of the ground (Fig. 9).Water loss
is minimized through these measures, as there is very little splash owing to the low pressure and
short distance to the ground. Of the irrigation systems available, drip is the most ideally suited to
high-value crops such as the vegetables and fruits. Properly managed systems enable the
production of maximum yields with a minimum quantity of water. These advantages often help
justify the high costs and management requirements. A typical drip irrigation system is shown in
Fig. 2.9. There are many types of drip products on the market designed to meet the demands for
just about any application.

Figure 7 Drip irrigation system

Drip irrigation is most suited to high-density orchards, tree crops, and high-value horticultural
crops. Drip systems allow accurate amounts of water to be supplied regularly to a small area of
the root zone. Such a system can be used to restrict the vegetative growth of the trees, an
important part of management in high density planting. Drip irrigation is not designed for
applying water to large root systems. To obtain adequate water distribution and application rates,
two to three dripper lines per row of trees are required. As only a small area of the total field is
wetted, drip irrigation is especially suited for situations where the water supply is limited. Drip
tubing is used frequently to supply water under plastic mulches.

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Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of drip irrigation are as follows:
• Highly efficient system
• Saves water
• Limited water sources can be used
• Correct volume of water can be applied in the root zone
• The system can be automated and well adapted to chemigation and fertigation
• Reduces nutrient leaching, labor requirement, and operating cost
• Other field operations such as harvesting and spraying can be done while irrigating
• Each plant of the field receives nearly the same amount of water
• Lower pressures are required to operate systems resulting in a reduction in energy for pumping
The disadvantages/limitations of the drip system are as follows:
• High initial cost
• Technical skill is required to maintain and operate the system
• The closer the spacing, the higher the system cost per hectare
• Damage to drip tape may occur
• Cannot wet the soil volume quickly (to recover from moisture deficit) as other systems
• Facilitates shallow root zone
• Needs clean water
4.5 Selection of Irrigation Method
Decision must be made regarding the type of irrigation method before an irrigation system is
installed in a field. To choose an appropriate irrigation method, one must know the advantages
and disadvantages of the various methods. He or she must know which method suits the local
conditions best. Unfortunately, in many cases there is no single best solution, as all methods have
their relative advantages and disadvantages. Trials of the various methods under the prevailing
local conditions provide the best basis for a sound choice of irrigation method
4.5.1. Factors affecting selection of an irrigation method
Factors determining irrigation method are some in technical nature, some economic, and others
involve a close scrutiny of the operation and crop to be irrigated. In selecting an irrigation
method, the following factors should be considered:
• Soil type

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• Field shape/geometry and topography
• Climate – evaporation rates, wind, and rainfall
• Water availability and its price
• Water quality
• The particular crop to be grown – physical requirements, crop layout, and water use
characteristics
• Required depth and frequency of irrigation application
• Labor requirements and its availability
• Energy requirement
• Economic factor – cost–benefit ratio, initial investment
• Compatibility with existing farm equipments
• Attainable irrigation efficiency of the proposed system
• Relative advantages and disadvantages of the available systems
• Type/level of technology at the locality
• Cultural factor/previous experience with irrigation
• Automation capacity
• Fertigation capability
• Environmental conditions – impact and regulations
• Farm machinery and equipment requirements
4.5.2. Selection Procedure
To choose an irrigation method, the farmer must know the advantages and disadvantages of the
various methods. He or she must know which method suits the local conditions best.
Unfortunately, in many cases, there is no single best solution: all methods have their advantages
and disadvantages. Testing of the various methods under the prevailing local conditions provides
the best basis for a sound choice of irrigation method. Based on the local soil, climate, crop and
water availability, and the suitability and limiting criteria of the methods (described in earlier
sections, and also summarized in Table 2.1, the irrigation engineer will prescribe the appropriate
method for the particular area.

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