Chapter - 3 CWR (Updated)

CHAPTER – 3 CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS
3. CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Crop Water Requirement
In irrigation, it is essential to know the amount of water needed by crops. This determines
the quantity of water to be added by irrigation and rainfall and helps in day to day
management of irrigation systems.
Total Water demand of water is made up of

i) Crop water use: includes evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration)
ii) Leaching requirement:
iii) Land preparation /pre-sawing requirement
iv) Losses of water due to deep seepage /percolation in canals and losses due to the
inefficiency of application.
3.2 Evapotranspiration Process
The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost on the one hand from the
soil surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by transpiration is referred
to as evapotranspiration (ET).
Evaporation
Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapour (vaporization)
and removed from the evaporating surface (vapour removal). Water evaporates from a
variety of surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation.
Energy is required to change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to vapour. Direct
solar radiation and, to a lesser extent, the ambient temperature of the air provide this
energy. The driving force to remove water vapour from the evaporating surface is the
difference between the water vapour pressure at the evaporating surface and that of the
surrounding atmosphere. As evaporation proceeds, the surrounding air becomes gradually
saturated and the process will slow down and might stop if the wet air is not transferred to
the atmosphere. The replacement of the saturated air with drier air depends greatly on wind
speed. Hence, solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed are
climatological parameters to consider when assessing the evaporation process.
LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 1

Transpiration
Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant tissues and the
vapour removal to the atmosphere. Crops predominately lose their water through stomata.
These are small openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water vapour pass.
The water, together with some nutrients, is taken up by the roots and transported through
the plant. The vaporization occurs within the leaf, namely in the intercellular spaces, and the
vapour exchange with the atmosphere is controlled by the stomatal aperture. Nearly all
water taken up is lost by transpiration and only a tiny fraction is used within the plant.
Transpiration, like direct evaporation, depends on the energy supply, vapour pressure
gradient and wind. Hence, radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind terms should be
considered when assessing transpiration. The soil water content and the ability of the soil to
conduct water to the roots also determine the transpiration rate, as do water logging and soil
water salinity. The transpiration rate is also influenced by crop characteristics, environmental
aspects and cultivation practices.
Evapotranspiration (ET)
Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of

distinguishing between the two processes. Apart from the water availability in the topsoil, the
evaporation from a cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar radiation
reaching the soil surface. This fraction decreases over the growing period as the crop
develops and the crop canopy shades more and more of the ground area. When the crop is
small, water is predominately lost by soil evaporation, but once the crop is well developed
and completely covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main process. In Figure 1 the
partitioning of evapotranspiration into evaporation and transpiration is plotted in
correspondence to leaf area per unit surface of soil below it. At sowing nearly 100% of ET
comes from evaporation, while at full crop cover more than 90% of ET comes from
transpiration.

Factors affecting evapotranspiration
Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects are

factors affecting evaporation and transpiration. The related ET concepts presented in Figure
2 are discussed in the section on evapotranspiration concepts.
FIGURE 2. Factors affecting evapotranspiration with reference to related ET concepts
Weather parameters
The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air

temperature, humidity and wind speed. Several procedures have been developed to assess
the evaporation rate from these parameters. The evaporation power of the atmosphere is
expressed by the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo). The reference crop
evapotranspiration represents the evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated
surface. The ETo is described in detail later in this Chapter.
Crop factors
The crop type, variety and development stage should be considered when assessing the
evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed fields. Differences in resistance
to transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting
characteristics result in different ET levels in different types of crops under identical
environmental conditions. Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refers to
the evaporating demand from crops that are grown in large fields under optimum soil water,
excellent management and environmental conditions, and achieve full production under the
given climatic conditions.
Evapotranspiration concepts
Distinctions are made (Figure 3) between reference crop evapotranspiration (ET o), crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) and crop evapotranspiration under non-
standard conditions (ETc adj). ETo is a climatic parameter expressing the evaporation power
of the atmosphere. ETc refers to the evapotranspiration from excellently managed, large,
well-watered fields that achieve full production under the given climatic conditions. Due to
sub-optimal crop management and environmental constraints that affect crop growth and
limit evapotranspiration, ETc under non-standard conditions generally requires a correction.

FIGURE 3. Reference (ETo), crop evapotranspiration under standard (ETc) and non-
standard conditions (ETc adj)
3.3 Determination of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo)
The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the
reference crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ET o.
The reference surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics.
The use of other denominations such as potential ET is strongly discouraged due to
ambiguities in their definitions.
The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo is a climatic
parameter and can be computed from weather data. ETo expresses the evaporating power
of the atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and does not consider the crop
characteristics and soil factors.
ET measurement
Evapotranspiration is not easy to measure. Specific devices and accurate measurements of
various physical parameters or the soil water balance in lysimeters are required to determine
evapotranspiration. Although the methods are inappropriate for routine measurements, they
remain important for the evaluation of ET estimates obtained by more indirect methods.
Direct Measurement of ET include:
A) Lysimeter experiment
B) Field experimental plots
C) Soil moisture studies

D) Water balance method
A) Lysimeter experiment:
By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and controlling the processes that are
difficult to measure, the different terms in the soil water balance equation can be determined
with greater accuracy. This is done in lysimeters where the crop grows in isolated tanks filled
with either disturbed or undisturbed soil. In precision weighing lysimeters, where the water
loss is directly measured by the change of mass, evapotranspiration can be obtained with
an accuracy of a few hundredths of a millimeter, and small time periods such as an hour can
be considered. In non-weighing lysimeters the evapotranspiration for a given time period is
determined by deducting the drainage water, collected at the bottom of the lysimeters, from
the total water input.
A requirement of lysimeters is that the vegetation both inside and immediately outside of the
lysimeter be perfectly matched (same height and leaf area index). This requirement has
historically not been closely adhered to in a majority of lysimeter studies and has resulted in
severely erroneous and unrepresentative ETc and Kc data.
B) Field experimental plots

This is most suitable for determination of seasonal water requirements. Water is added to
selected field plots, yield obtained from different fields are plotted against the total amount of
water used. The yield increases as the water used increases for some limit and then
decreases with further increase in water. The break in the curve indicates the amount of
consumptive use of water.
C) Soil moisture studies
In this method soil moisture measurements are done before and after each irrigation
application. Knowing the time gap b/n the two consecutive irrigations, the quantity of water
extracted per day can be computed by dividing the total moisture depletion b/n the two
successive irrigations by the interval of irrigation. Then a curve is drawn by plotting the rate
of use of water against the time from this curve, seasonal water use of crops is determined.
D) Water balance method
Evapotranspiration can also be determined by measuring the various components of the soil
water balance. The method consists of assessing the incoming and outgoing water flux into
the crop root zone over some time period (Figure 4). Irrigation (I) and rainfall (P) add water
to the root zone. Part of I and P might be lost by surface runoff (RO) and by deep
percolation (DP) that will eventually recharge the water table. Water might also be
transported upward by capillary rise (CR) from a shallow water table towards the root zone
or even transferred horizontally by subsurface flow in (SFin) or out of (SFout) the root zone. In
many situations, however, except under conditions with large slopes, SFin and SFout are
minor and can be ignored. Soil evaporation and crop transpiration deplete water from the
root zone. If all fluxes other than evapotranspiration (ET) can be assessed, the
evapotranspiration can be deduced from the change in soil water content ( SW) over the
time period:
ET = I + P - RO - DP + CR ±  SF ±  SW (2)

Some fluxes such as subsurface flow, deep percolation and capillary rise from a water table
are difficult to assess and short time periods cannot be considered. The soil water balance
method can usually only give ET estimates over long time periods of the order of week-long
or ten-day periods.
FIGURE 4. Soil water balance of the root zone
Climatic Approaches to estimate evapotranspiration

Some empirical and theoretical equations are derived on the basis of regional
relationship between measured ET and climatic factors. The following methods are
the combination of some empirical, analytical and theoretical approaches.
1. FAO Balnney-Criddle Method

2. FAO Radiation Method
3. FAO Penman Method
4. Hargreave's Class A Pan Evaporation Method
5. FAO Pan Evaporation Method
6. FAO Penman-Monteith Method
7. Thornthwaite Method
1. ET0 = C P (0.46T + 8)

2. ET0 = C (WRs)
Rs = (0.25 + 0.50 n/N) RA
3. ETo  CW  Rn  1  w f u  es  ea 
(Radiation term) (Aerodynamic term)
4. ET0 = 0.0023  Ra (T + 17.8)  TD0.50
5. ET0 = kpEpan

0.408  Rn  G    V2 es  ea 

900
T  273
6. ET0 
   1  0.34V2 
a
 10Tm 
7. ETo  1.62 R f  
 Te 
Where:
C in (1) = adjustment factor which depends on the min relative humidity, sunshine hours
and daytime wind estimates
C in (2) = Adjustment factor which depends on mean humidity and daytime wind
condition
C in (3) = Adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night weather
conditions
T = Mean daily temperature in oC over the month considered
P = Mean daily percentage of total annual day time hours obtained from the
relevant table for a given month and latitude
Rs = Solar radiation in equivalent evaporation mm/d
W in (2) = the temperature and altitude dependant weighing factor
W in (3) = Temperature related weighing factor for the effect of radiation on PET
(1-w) = a temperature and elevation related weighing factor for the effect of wind and
humidity on PET
Rn = Net radiation in equivalent evaporation mm/d
f (u) = Wind related function
(es - ea) = Difference between the saturated and actual vapour pressure, in mbar
Ra = Extraterrestrial radiation in mm/d
TD = Difference in max and min mean temperature in oC
Epa = Pan evaporation in mm/d and presents the mean daily value of the period
considered
kp = Pan coefficient
Rn in (6) = Net radiation at crop surface (MJ/ m2day)
G = Soil heat flux (MJ/ m2day)
V2 = Wind speed measured at 2m height (m/s)
(es - ea) = Vapour pressure deficit (kPa)
 = Slope of vapour pressure curve (kPa oC-1)
 = Psychometric constant (kPa oC-1)
900 = a conversion factor
Rf = reduction factor
a  0.4923  0.01792 Te  0.0000771 Te2  0.000000675 Te3
1.514
 Tm 
In (7) Te   
 5 
3.3.1 FAO Blaney-Criddle Method
Blaney and Criddle (1962) proposed an empirical relation which is used largely by
irrigation engineers to calculate crop water requirement of various crops. Estimation
of potential evapotranspiration (consumptive use) is carried out by correlating it with
sunshine temperature. Sunshine at a place is dependent on latitude of the place and
varies with month of the year.
Table3.1: Monthly day light hours percentage (P) to be used by Blaney-Criddle Formula
Lat. Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
o
N
0 8.50 7.66 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50
10 8.13 7.47 8.45 8.37 8.81 8.60 8.86 8.71 8.25 8.34 7.91 8.10
15 7.94 7.36 8.43 8.44 8.98 8.80 9.05 8.83 8.28 8.26 7.75 7.88
20 7.74 7.25 8.41 8.52 9.15 9.00 9.25 8.96 8.30 8.18 7.58 7.66
25 7.53 7.14 8.39 8.61 9.33 9.23 9.45 9.09 8.32 8.09 7.40 7.42
30 7.30 7.03 8.38 8.72 9.53 9.49 9.67 9.22 8.33 7.99 7.19 7.15
35 7.05 6.88 8.35 8.83 9.76 9.77 9.93 9.37 8.36 7.87 6.97 6.86
40 6.76 6.72 8.33 8.95 10.02 10.08 10.22 9.54 8.39 7.75 6.72 6.52
42 6.63 6.65 8.31 9.00 10.14 10.22 10.35 9.62 8.40 7.69 6.62 6.37
44 6.49 6.58 8.30 9.06 10.26 10.38 10.49 9.70 8.41 7.63 6.49 6.21
46 6.34 6.50 8.29 9.12 10.39 10.54 10.64 9.79 8.42 7.57 6.36 6.04
48 6.17 6.41 8.27 9.18 10.53 10.71 10.80 9.89 8.44 7.51 6.23 5.86
50 5.98 6.30 8.24 9.24 10.68 10.91 10.99 10.00 8.46 7.45 6.100 5.65
ETo   K .F ...3.11
Where: F  (0.0457Tm  0.8128) P ...3.2
Here K is the monthly crop coefficient to be determined from experimental data, F is
the monthly consumptive use factor, ETo is the potential evapotranspiration in cm;
Tm the mean monthly temperature in 0C, P is the monthly percentage of hours of
bright sunshine in the year (table-3.1).
Example Problem 3.1: Use Blaney-Criddle method to calculate
consumptive use (PET) for rice crop grown from January to March (Dalua
Rabi crop) in Orissa at a latitude 220 N from the following data taken from
a nearby observatory. Find the net irrigation demand for rice using the
given rainfall during crop period. Consider 80% Fixed percentage effective
rainfall and monthly crop coefficient value for rice as 1.10
Month January February March
Mean temperature 0C 12 16 24
Rainfall (mm) 8 20 16
Solution
Mean monthly sunshine hours for latitude of 220N for the months of January,
February and March are obtained form Table-3.1 and tabulated below.
1
This equation is used to determine the seasonal crop evapotranspiration
Table: Blaney-Criddle Method of Computation of Consumptive use of Rice Crop for

the example above:
Month Mean Monthly % Monthly Monthly PET Effective Depth of

monthly (P) of day Consumptive crop (4) x (5) rainfall = irrigation
temp time Use factor coeff. 0.08 * TRF (6) – (7)
(Tm) Hours from (F) (K) (cm)1 (cm)
Table 3.1
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
January 12 7.62 10.37 1.1 11.40 0.64 10.76
February 16 7.20 11.12 1.1 12.23 1.60 10.63
March 24 8.40 16.04 1.1 17.64 1.28 16.36
F for col. (4) for January = (0.0457 Tm + 0.8128) x P

= (0.0457 x 12 + 0.8128) x 7.62 = 10.37 cm
F (February) = (0.0457 x 16 + 0.8128) x 7.2 = 11.12 cm
F (March) = (0.0457 x 24 + 0.8128) x 84 = 16.04 cm
The net irrigation demand = 10.76 + 10.63 + 16.36 = 37.75 cm
For any month considered the ETo can be calculated by the following equation and
by the help of figure- below.
ET0 = C P (0.46T + 8) ...3.3
Where the parameters are as defined in previous section.
Figure 3.5 can be used to estimate ETo using calculated values of p(0.46T+8) for
i) three levels of minimum humidity (RH min)
ii) three levels of the ratio of actual to maximum possible sunshine hours (n/N)
and
iii) three ranges of daytime wind conditions at 2m height (Uday).
Note:
Minimum humidity refers to minimum daytime humidity
Wind refers to daytime wind. Generally Uday/Unight =2 and mean 24 hr wind data
should be multiplied by 1.33 to obtain mean daytime wind.
Example Problem 3.2:
Given: Cairo, Egypt,: latitude 300N, altitude 95m, month July.
Calculation:
Tmax = Tmax daily values/31 350c.
Tmin = Tmin daily values/31 220c.
Tdaily mean = Tmean/31 or [(Tmax/31) +(Tmin/31)]/2 28.50c
0
P (from table for 30 N) 0.31
P(0.46T+8) = 0.31(0.46*28.5 +8) 6.6mm/day
RH min (from climates of Africa) medium
n/N (from climates of Africa) high to medium
U2 day time (from climates of Africa) moderate
ETo Fig. 3.5 8.0 mm/day
1
Effective rainfall=80%(Rainfall given in table)
Figure 3.5: ETo determination from Blanney Criddle's F factor for different condition of
relative humidity, sunshine duration and day-time wind

3.2.2 Hargrave's Class A Pan Evaporation Method1

ETo is related to pan evaporation (EP) by a constant Kc, called consumptive use
coefficient.
ETo = Kc * Ep ...3.4
Determination of Ep can be by:
(a.)Experiment
(b.)Christiansen formula
Ep = 0.459R * Ct*Cw*Ch*Cs *Ce ...3.5
Ct = Coefficient for temperature
Ct = 0.393 +0.02796Tc+0.0001189Tc2 ...3.6
0
Tc= mean temperature, c
Cw = Coefficient for wind velocity
Cw= 0.708+0.0034w-0.0000038w2 ...3.7
w=mean wind velocity at 0.5m above the ground, km/day.
Ch= Coefficient for relative humidity.
Ch= 1.250-0.0087H-0.75*104H2 –0.85*10-8H4 ...3.8
H= mean percentage relative humidity at noon
Cs= Coefficient for percent of possible sunshine
Cs= 0.542+0.008S-0.78*10-4S2+0.62*10-6S3 ...3.9
S= mean sunshine percentage
Ce= Coefficient of elevation
Ce= 0.97+ 0.00984E ...3.10
E= elevation in 100 meters
3.2.3 FAO Pan Evaporation Method

Pans provide a measurement of the integrated effect of radiation, wind, temperature
and humidity on the evaporation from an open water surface. Although the pan
responds in a similar fashion to the same climatic factors affecting crop transpiration,
several factors produce significant differences in loss of water from a water surface
and from a cropped surface.
The pan evaporation is related to the reference evapotranspiration by an empirically derived

pan coefficient:
ETo = Kp Epan ... 3.11
where
ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm/day],
Kp pan coefficient [-],
Epan pan evaporation [mm/day].
Pan coefficient (Kp)

In selecting the appropriate pan coefficient, not only the pan type, but also the
ground cover in the station, its surroundings as well as the general wind and
1
Refer to "Irrigation: Theory and Practice" by A.M. Michael, pp-533-535 for more detailed example on
this method.
humidity conditions, should be checked. Two cases are commonly considered: Case A
where the pan is sat on a short green (grass) cover and surrounded by fallow soil; and Case
B where the pan is sat on fallow soil and surrounded by a green crop (Figure 3.6).
FIGURE 3.6. Two cases of evaporation pan sitting and their environment
3.2.4 Penman1 Method
Penman developed a theoretical formula based on the principles of both energy

budget and mass-transfer approaches to calculate potential evapotranspiration. A
simple energy budget neglecting all minor losses can be written as:
(  H    E a )
ET  … 3.12
(   )
Where H is the heat budget of an area with crops which is the net radiation in mm of
evaporable water per day, ET the daily evaporation from free water surface in
mm/day,  is a constant (called psychometric constant whose value is 0.49
mmHg/0C or 0.66 mb/0C,  the slope of the saturated vapor pressure vs.
temperature curve at mean air temperature given from table 3.4, Ea is the drying
power of air which includes wind velocity and saturation deficit and is estimated form
the relation:
E  0.002187 (160  u ) (e  e ) … 3.13
a 2 s a
where u2 is the mean wind speed in km/day measured 2 m above the ground, e s is
saturation vapor pressure at mean air temperature in mm Hg (given in Table 3.4)
Table 3.4 : Saturation vapor pressure of water.
1
Is sometimes also called 'Modified' Penman Method
Temperature Saturation vapor Slope of

(oC) pressure es plot
mmHg) mbar between
(1) and (2)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
0.0 4.58 6.11 0.30
5.0 6.54 8.72 0.45
7.5 7.78 10.37 0.54
10.0 9.21 12.28 0.60
12.5 10.87 14.49 0.71
15.0 12.79 17.05 0.80
17.5 15.00 20.00 0.95
20.0 17.54 23.38 1.05
22.5 20.44 27.95 1.24
25.0 23.76 31.67 1.40
27.5 27.54 36.71 1.61
30.0 31.81 42.42 1.85
32.5 36.68 48.89 2.07
35.0 42.81 57.07 2.35
37.5 48.36 64.46 2.62
40.0 55.32 73.14 2.95
42.5 62.18 84.23 3.25
45.0 71.20 94.91 3.66
ea is actual vapor pressure in the air in mm of mercury and H is the daily net
radiation in mm of evaporable water and is estimated from the energy budget
theories using the relation
H  H a (1  r ) (0.29 cos   0.55n / N )  Ta4 (0.56  0.092 ea ) (0.10  0.9n / N ) ...3.14
Where Ha is the extraterrestrial solar radiation received on a horizontal surface in

mm of evaporable water per day (whose value for different latitudes are given in
Table 3.5),  the latitude of the place where ETo is to be computed, r is the reflection
coefficient whose values for close crops may be taken as 0.15-0.25, for barren land
0.05-0.45 and for water surface 0.05, n is the actual duration of bright sunshine
which is a function of latitude and is an observed data at a place, N is the maximum
possible hours of bright sunshine available at different location ( given in Table 3.1),
 is the Stefan-Boltzman constant = 2.01 x 10-9 mm/day, Ta is the mean air
temperature in oK = (273 + 0C) and ea is the actual vapor pressure in mm of Hg. The
relation that can reduce the wind speed measured at any other height z to 2 m
height is given by:
0.143
2
u2  u   … 3.15
z
Equation (3.15) is known as (1/7)th power law. Knowing all other data from the table
and measuring n, ea u2, at the place, ETo can easily be calculated from the relation
given by Penman. This method is finding its increasing application for crop water
estimation by various countries.

Table 3.5: Mean daily maximum duration of bright sunshine hour N for different month and
latitudes (Doorenbos & Pruitt, 1977)
N Lat Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
S Lat July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June
50 8.5 10.1 11.8 13.6 15.4 16.3 15.9 14.5 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1
48 8.8 10.2 11.8 13.8 15.2 16.0 15.6 14.3 12.6 10.9 9.3 8.3
46 9.1 10.4 11.9 13.5 14.9 15.7 15.4 14.2 12.6 10.9 9.5 8.7
44 9.3 10.5 11.9 13.4 14.7 15.4 15.2 14.0 12.6 11.0 9.7 8.9
42 9.4 10.6 11.9 13.4 14.6 15.2 14.9 13.9 12.9 11.1 9.8 9.1
40 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.3 14.4 15.0 14.7 13.7 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.3
35 10.1 11.0 11.9 13.1 14.0 14.5 14.3 13.5 12.4 11.3 10.3 9.8
30 10.4 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.6 14.0 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2
25 10.7 11.3 12.0 12.7 13.3 13.7 13.5 13.0 12.3 11.6 10.9 10.6
20 10.0 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9
15 11.3 11.6 12.0 12.5 12.8 13.0 12.9 12.6 12.2 11.8 11.4 11.2
10 11.6 11.8 12.0 12.3 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.1 11.8 11.6 11.5
5 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.3 12.3 12.1 12.0 11.9 11.8
0 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1
Table 3.6: Mean Monthly Solar Radiation Incident on Earth's Outer Space (Extra Terrestrial
Radiation) in mm of Evaporable Water per day.
North Latitude in Degrees

Month 0o 100 200 300 400 500 60o 70o 800 90o
Jan. 14.5 12.8 10.8 8.5 6.0 3.6 1.3 - - -
Feb. 15.0 13.9 12.3 10.5 8.3 5.9 3.5 1.1 - -
Mar. 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.0 9.1 6.8 4.3 1.8 -
Apr. 14.7 15.2 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.1 9.1 7.8 7.9
May 13.9 15.0 15.7 16.0 15.9 15.4 14.6 13.6 14.6 14.9
Jun. 13.4 14.8 15.8 16.5 16.7 16.7 16.5 17.0 17.8 18.1
Jul. 13.5 14.8 15.7 16.2 16.3 16.1 15.7 15.8 16.5 16.8
Aug. 14.2 15.0 15.3 15.3 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.4 10.6 11.2
Sep. 14.9 14.9 14.4 13.5 12.2 10.5 8.5 6.8 4.0 2.6
Oct. 15.0 14.1 12.9 11.3 9.3 7.1 4.7 2.4 0.2 -
Nov. 14.6 13.1 11.2 9.1 6.7 4.3 1.9 0.1 - -
Dec. 14.3 12.4 10.3 7.9 5.5 3.0 0.9 - - -
Example problem 3.5: Using Penman’s formula calculate the consumptive use of
rice for the month of February. Take the following data
Wind velocity measured at 2 m height = 30 km/day
Elevation of the area = 220 m
Relative humidity for February = 50%
Latitude = 220N
Mean monthly temperature = 160C

Solution
From Table 3.4, for temperature of 160C, es = 13.67 mmHg
Slope of the saturated vapour pressure vs. temp. curve A = 0.86 mm per 0C
From Table 3.6, Ha = 11.94 mm of water per day for 22 0N latitude
From Table 3.5, N = 11.42 h for the latitude of 22 0N
Monthly percentage of day time hours = 7.20 h (from Table 3.1)
n 7.2
  0.63
N 11.42
vapour pressure in air ea = es x RH = 13.67 x 0.50 = 6.88 mmHg
Drying power of air Ea = 0.002187 (160 + U2) (es – ea)
= 0.0021817 (160 + 30) (13.67 – 6.88) = 2.84 mm/day
The reflection coefficient for close crop like paddy is 0.20.
  0.49,   2.01 x 109 mm / day, Ta  273  16  2890 K
Take
H  H a (1  r ) (0.29 cos   0.55n / N )


 Ta4 (0.56  0.0092 ea ) (0.1  0.9 n / N
Or H = 11.94 (1-0.2) (0.29 cos 220 + 0.55x 7.2/11.42) - 2.01 x 10-9 x 2894 (0.56 –
0.092√6.88) x (0.1 + 0.9 x 7.2/11.42)
= 11.94 x 0.8 x (0.269 + 0.347) – 14.02 (0.56 – 0.24) (0.1 + 0.568)
= 5.88 – 3.00 = 2.88 mm of water/day
H   Ea 0386 2.88  0.49 2.84
ETo    2.865 mm / day
  0.86  0.49
= 2.865  28  1/10 cm/month = 8.03 cm for February Consumptive use of rice for
February is 8.03 cm = 80.3 mm of water.
3.2.5 Thornthwaite Method
Thornthwaite (1948) developed an exponential relationship between mean monthly

temperature and mean monthly consumptive, given as
a
 10Tm 
ETo 1.62 R f   ... 3.16
 Te 
Where Rf is the reduction factor (See Table 2.5), Tm the mean monthly temperature
in 0C, a is a constant which can be computed from the relation
… 3.17
a  0.4923  0.01792 Te  0.0000771 Te  0.000000675 Te
2 3
Where Te is the annual temperature efficiency index given by

12 1.514
 Tm 
Te  
j l
 
 5 
…3.18
For one period, say for one month, Te is calculated as

1.514
T 
Te   m  …3.19
 5 
The above calculations are made for a month of 30 days and for each day 12 h of
evapotranspiration is considered. Since the two factors vary from 28 to 31 days and
with latitude, the values of 12 h a day is not constant, it can be multiplied with factors
from Table 3.7 depending on the month and latitude of the place.
Table 3.7: Reduction Factor Rf for ETo to be used in Thornthwiate's equation.
Month
Latitude J F M A M J J A S O N D
00N 1.04 0.94 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04
100N 1.00 0.91 1.03 1.03 1.08 1.06 1.08 1.07 1.02 1.02 0.98 0.99
200N 0.95 0.90 1.03 1.05 1.13 1.11 1.14 1.11 1.02 1.00 0.93 0.94
300N 0.90 0.87 1.03 1.08 1.18 1.17 1.20 1.14 1.03 0.98 0.89 0.88
400N 0.84 0.83 1.03 1.11 1.24 1.25 1.27 1.18 1.04 0.96 0.83 0.81
500N 0.74 0.78 1.02 1.15 1.33 1.36 1.37 1.25 1.00 0.92 0.76 0.70
Example problem 3.6: Using Thornthwaite equation, calculate the consumptive

use of paddy for the month of February. Take data from Example 3.5 above.
Solution
Since ETo is required to be calculated for February only, the following equation is
used.
1.514 1.514
T   16 
Te   m     5.818
 5  5
a = 0.4923 + 0.01792 x 5.818 – 0.0000771 x 5.8182 + …
= 0.4923 + 0.1043 – 0.0026 = 0.594
Reduction factor for February at latitude of 220N is 0.895 (from Table 3.7)
Proceeding in the same way, ETo for other months can be calculated and added up.
If a crop is grown from 15th February then the value of ETo is to be reduced by
(13/28) to arrive at the value for the month.
3.2.6 Penman Monteith1 Method
From the original Penman-Monteith equation and the equations of the aerodynamic
and canopy resistance, the FAO Penman-Monteith equation has been given by:
1
Procedural steps for calculating ETo by this method are given in detail in FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper-56 (New Version of FAO-24)
...3.20
where all parameters are as defined in previous sections
The FAO Penman method was found to frequently overestimate ET o while the other
FAO recommended equations, namely the radiation, the Blaney-Criddle, and the
pan evaporation methods, showed variable adherence to the grass reference crop
evapotranspiration. As a result, the FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended
as the sole method for determining reference evapotranspiration. The method has
been selected because it closely approximates grass ETo at the location evaluated,
is physically based, and explicitly incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic
parameters. Moreover, procedures have been developed for estimating missing
climatic parameters.
3.4 Duty-Delta Relationship
☻ Crop period and Base period

The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its
harvesting is called the crop period. The time between the first watering of a crop at
the time of its sowing to its last watering before harvesting is called the base period.
Crop period is slightly more than the base period, but for all practical purposes, they
are taken as one and the same thing and both are expressed in days.
☻ Duty and Delta of Crops

Duty (D): is defined as the area of the land which can be irrigated if one cumec
(m3/sec) of water was applied to the land continuously for the entire base period of
the crop.
It is expressed in hectares / cumecs.

Delta ( ): is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire base period.
If the entire quantity of applied water were spread uniformly on the land surface, the
depth of water would have been equal to delta. Thus the delta (in m) of any crop can
be determined by dividing the total quantity of water (in ha-m) required by the crop
by the area of the land (in ha)
Delta ( ) = Total quantity of water (ha-m)

Total area of land (ha)
The relation between duty, base period and delta, can be obtained as follows:-
Considering the area of land of D-hectares, if Duty is expressed in ha/cumecs the
total quantity of water used in the base period of B days is equal to that obtained by
a continuous flow of 1 cumec for B days.
Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3 …. 3.21

If Delta (  ) is the total depth of water in meters supplied to the land of D- hectares,
the quantity of water is also given by:
Quantity of water = ( D *104)* , m3 .…3.22
Equating the volumes of water given in egn_s 3.1 and 3.2:

1*B*24*60*60* = (D*104)* 
8.64 B
 D

8.64 B
 … 3.23b
D
Where D = in ha/cumec
 = in m
B = in days
☻ Different forms of Duty

1. Flow duty: the duty of water in hectares /cumec is convenient in the case of
flow irrigation from canals and duty and the area of land to be irrigated are
known, the required discharge in the canal can be determined.
 Area (ha) 
Disch arg e, m3 / s =   …3.24
 Duty (ha / cumec) 
2. Quantity of Duty
- For Tank /pond irrigation, the duty is usually expressed as the total area of
land which can be irrigated per million m 3 of water stored in the tank. If the
duty and the area to be irrigated are known, the volume of water to be stored
in the tank can be determined.
Area (ha)
Volume of water (Mm3) = … 3.25
Duty(ha / Mm 3 )
3. Duty in the form of total depth ( or Delta ):
-It can be expressed in terms of the total depth (i.e. delta) of water required
for a crop. It is another form of the quantity duty because the total depth is
equal to the volume divided by the area of land.
Volume(ha  m)
Delta = ,m … 3.26
Area (ha)
Delta is the quantity of water actually supplied to the crop. Delta included not only
consumptive use of water for a crop but also the water lost by evapotranspiration
and seepage from canals, and deep percolation in the field.
Duty of water varies from head regulator to the canal out let because of various
losses. The duty of water goes on increasing as the water flows from the head to
the tail of the canal system. Thus, in order to specify duty two things must be
stated clearly: Base of duty and position of measurement of duty.

☻ Factors affecting Duty

- Duty of water depends up on different factors. In general, the smaller the losses,
the greater is duty because one cumec of water will be able to irrigate larger area.
 Type of soil
 Type of crop and base period
 structure of soil
 Slop of ground
 Climatic condition
 Method of application of water
 Salt content of soil
- Duty of water may be improved by counter – acting all the factors that decrease it
(by decreasing various losses).
Example problem 3.7: A discharge of 15 cumecs is released at the head of the
canal. If the duty at the field is 1800 ha/cumecs, and the losses in the transit are
30%, determine the area that can be irrigated.
Solution:
o Discharge at field= Eff. * Q @ head = 0.7*15 =10.5 m3/s
o Irrigated area= D*Q @ field level = 1800 * 10.5= 18,900ha
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.8 The base period, duty of water and area under irrigation
for various crops under a canal system are given in the table below. If the losses in
the reservoir and canals are respectively 15%, 25%, determine the reservoir
capacity.
Crop Wheat Sugar cane Cotton Rice V. table
Base period B (days) 120 320 180 120 120

Duty , D (ha/cumec) 1800 1600 1500 800 700
Area irrigated (ha) 15000 10,000 5000 7500 5000
Solution: Calculation is done on table:

Crop Wheat Sugarcane cotton Rice Vegetable Sum
8.64 B 0.576 1.725 0.972 1.296 1.481 -
 ,m
D
Volume of water = 8640 17280 4860 9720 7410 47910
V   * Airr , (ha-m) ha-m
Total volume of water 47,910 ha-m

47910
Volume at head of canal =  63,880 ha-m
0.75
63880
Volume of reservoir =  75,150 ha-m
0.85
3.5 Determination of Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) Under Standard

Condition
This part examines crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ET c). This is
the evapotranspiration from disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown in large fields,
under optimum soil water conditions and achieving full production under the given
climatic conditions.
The effects of various weather conditions on evapotranspiration are incorporated

into ETo. The effects of characteristics that distinguish the cropped surface from the
reference surface are integrated into the crop coefficient. Multiplying ET o by the crop
coefficient, ETc is determined.
Two calculation approaches are outlined: the single and the dual crop coefficient
approach. In the single crop coefficient approach, the difference in
evapotranspiration between the cropped and reference grass is combined into one
single coefficient. In the dual crop coefficient approach, the crop coefficient is
split into two factors describing separately the differences in evaporation and
transpiration between the crop and reference surface.
The single crop coefficient approach is used for most applications related to
irrigation planning, design, and management.
The crop evapotranspiration differs distinctly from the reference evapotranspiration
(ETo) as the ground cover, canopy properties and aerodynamic resistance of the
crop are different from grass.
The effects of characteristics that distinguish field crops from grass are integrated
into the crop coefficient (Kc). In the crop coefficient approach, crop
evapotranspiration is calculated by multiplying ETo by Kc.
Calculation procedure by the crop coefficient approach:

In the crop coefficient approach the crop evapotranspiration, ETc, is calculated by
multiplying the reference crop evapotranspiration, ETo, by a crop coefficient, Kc:
ETc = Kc * ETo … 3.27

Where:
ETc crop evapotranspiration [mm d-1],
Kc crop coefficient [dimensionless],
ETo reference crop evapotranspiration [mm d-1]
Most of the effects of the various weather conditions are incorporated into the ETo
estimate. Therefore, as ETo represents an index of climatic demand, Kc varies
predominately with the specific crop characteristics and only to a limited extent with
climate.

The crop coefficient, Kc, is basically the ratio of the crop ETc to the reference ETo,
and it represents an integration of the effects of four primary characteristics that
distinguish the crop from reference grass. These characteristics are:
Crop height
Albedo (reflectance) of the crop-soil surface
Canopy resistance
Evaporation from soil
Factors determining the crop coefficient:

Crop type
The crop coefficient integrates the effect of characteristics that distinguish a typical
field crop from the grass reference, which has a constant appearance and a
complete ground cover. Consequently, different crops will have different Kc
coefficients. The changing characteristics of the crop over the growing season also
affect the Kc coefficient. Finally, as evaporation is an integrated part of crop
evapotranspiration, conditions affecting soil evaporation will also have an effect on
Kc.
Figure 3.7: Typical Kc for different types of full grown crops
Climate
The effect of the difference in aerodynamic properties between the grass reference
surface and agricultural crops is not only crop specific. It also varies with the climatic
conditions and crop height. Because aerodynamic properties are greater for many
agricultural crops as compared to the grass reference, the ratio of ETc to ETo (i.e.,
Kc) for many crops increases as wind speed increases and as relative humidity
decreases. More arid climates and conditions of greater wind speed will have higher
values for Kc. More humid climates and conditions of lower wind speed will have
lower values for Kc.
Soil evaporation
Differences in soil evaporation and crop transpiration between field crops and the
reference surface are integrated within the crop coefficient. The Kc coefficient for
full-cover crops primarily reflects differences in transpiration as the contribution of
soil evaporation is relatively small. After rainfall or irrigation, the effect of evaporation
is predominant when the crop is small and scarcely shades the ground. For such

low-cover conditions, the Kc coefficient is determined largely by the frequency with

which the soil surface is wetted. Where the soil is wet for most of the time from
irrigation or rain, the evaporation from the soil surface will be considerable and Kc
may exceed 1. On the other hand, where the soil surface is dry, evaporation is
restricted and Kc will be small and might even drop to as low as 0.1 (figure 3.8)
FIGURE 3.8. The effect of evaporation on Kc. The horizontal line represents Kc when the
soil surface is kept continuously wet. The curved line corresponds to Kc when the soil
surface is kept dry but the crop receives sufficient water to sustain full transpiration.
Crop growth stages

As the crop develops, the ground cover, crop height and the leaf area change. Due
to differences in evapotranspiration during the various growth stages, the Kc for a
given crop will vary over the growing period. The growing period can be divided into
four distinct growth stages: initial, crop development, mid-season and late season.
Figure 3.9 illustrates the general sequence and proportion of these stages for
different types of crops.

Figure-3.9 crop Growth stages.
Initial stage
The initial stage runs from planting date to approximately 10% ground cover.
Crop development stage
The crop development stage runs from 10% ground cover to effective full cover.
Effective full cover for many crops occurs at the initiation of flowering.
Mid-season stage
The mid-season stage runs from effective full cover to the start of maturity. The start
of maturity is often indicated by the beginning of the ageing,
Late season stage
The late season stage runs from the start of maturity to harvest or full senescence.
Figure 3-10: Typical ranges expected in Kc for the four growth stages.

Crop evapotranspiration (ETc)

Crop evapotranspiration is calculated by multiplying ET o by Kc, a coefficient
expressing the difference in evapotranspiration between the cropped and reference
grass surface.
Crop coefficient curve

From the determination of the lengths for the crop growth stages and the
corresponding crop coefficients, a crop coefficient curve can be constructed. The
curve represents the changes in the crop coefficient over the length of the growing
season.
FIGURE 3.11: Generalized crop coefficient curve
The calculation procedure for crop evapotranspiration, ETc, consists of:

1. Identifying the crop growth stages, determining their lengths, and selecting the
corresponding Kc coefficients;
2. Adjusting the selected Kc coefficients for frequency of wetting or climatic

conditions during the stage;
3. Constructing the crop coefficient curve (allowing one to determine K c values for
any period during the growing period); and
4. Calculating ETc as the product of ETo and Kc.
Length of growth stages

FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24 provides general lengths for the four
distinct growth stages and the total growing period for various types of climates and
locations.
Kc Values
Typical values for Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end for various agricultural crops are found in
tabulated form.
STEPS for Constructing the crop coefficient curve:

1. Divide the growing period into four general growth stages that describe crop
phonology or development (initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season
stage), and identify the three Kc values that correspond to Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end from
Table.
2. Adjust the Kc values to the frequency of wetting and/or climatic conditions of the
growth stages.
3. Construct a curve by connecting straight line segments through each of the four
growth stage.
FIGURE 3.12: crop coefficient curve
The Kc coefficient for any period of the growing season can be derived by
considering that during the initial and mid-season stages Kc is constant and equal to
the Kc value of the growth stage under consideration. During the crop development
and late season stage, Kc varies linearly between the Kc at the end of the previous
stage (Kc prev) and the Kc at the beginning of the next stage (Kc next), which is Kc
end in the case of the late season stage:
… 3.28
Where:
i day number within the growing season [1.. length of the growing season],
Kc i crop coefficient on day i,
L stage length of the stage under consideration [days],
 (Lprev) sum of the lengths of all previous stages [days]
Example Problem 3.9:

Determine Kc at day 20, 40, 70 and 95 for the dry bean crop.
Crop Length Kc
growth (days)
stage
initial 25 Kc ini = 0.15
crop 25 -
development
mid-season 30 Kc mid = 1.19
late season 20 Kc end = 0.35
Solution:
At i = 20: initial stage, Kc = Kc ini = 0.15 -
At i = 40 Crop development stage,
For: Σ (Lprev) = Lini = 25 days
and: Lstage = Ldev = 25 days
From Eq. Kc = 0.15 + [(40 - 25)/25](1.19 - 0.77 -
66: 0.15) =
At i = 70: mid-season stage, Kc = Kc mid = 1.19 -
At i = 95 late season stage,
For: Σ(Lprev) = Lini + Ldev + Lmid = (25 + 80 days
25 + 30) =
and: Lstage = Llate = 20 days
From Eq. Kc = 1.19 + [(95-80)/20](0.35- 0.56 -
66: 1.19) =
The crop coefficients at day 20, 40, 70 and 95 for the dry bean crop are 0.15, 0.77, 1.19
and 0.56 respectively.
Irrigation requirement of Crops
The irrigation water requirement of crops is defined as the part of water requirement
of crops that should be fulfilled by irrigation. In other words, it is the water
requirement of crops excluding effective rain fall, carry over soil moisture and ground
water contributions.
WR=IR + Peff + S + GW
IR= WR-(Peff + S+ GW) … 3.29
Effective Rainfall (Peff)

Effective rainfall can be defined as the rainfall that is stored in the root zone and can
be utilized by crops. All the rainfall that falls is not useful or effective. As the total
amount of rainfall varies, so does the amount of useful or effective rainfall. Some of
the seasonal rainfall that falls will be lost as unnecessary deep percolation; surface
runoff and some water may remain in the soil after the crop is harvested. From the
water requirement of crops point of view, this water, which is lost, is ineffective.
There are four methods for calculating the effective rainfall from entered monthly
total rainfall data.
1 Fixed Percentage Effective Rainfall
The effective rainfall is taken as a fixed percentage of the monthly rainfall;
Effective Rainfall = % of Total Rainfall … 3.30
2 Dependable Rain
An empirical formula developed by FAO/AGLW based on analysis for different arid
and sub-humid climates. This formula is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = 0.6 * Total Rainfall - 10 ... (Total Rainfall < 70 mm)
… 3.31a&b
Effective Rainfall = 0.8 * Total Rainfall - 24 ... (Total Rainfall > 70 mm)
3 Empirical Formula for Effective Rainfall

This formula is similar to FAO/AGLW formula (see Dependable Rain method above)
with some parameters left to the user to define. The formula is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = a * Total Rainfall - b ... (Total Rainfall < z mm)
… 3.32a&b
Effective Rainfall = c * Total Rainfall - d ... (Total Rainfall > z mm)
Where a, b, c, and z are the variables to be defined by the user.
4 Method of USDA Soil Conservation Service (default)

The effective rainfall is calculated according to the formula developed by the USDA
Soil Conservation Service which is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = Total Rainfall / 125 * (125 - 0.2 * Total Rainfall)

...(Total Rainfall < 250 mm)
Effective Rainfall = 125 + 0.1 * Total Rainfall …3.33
... (Total Rainfall > 250 mm)
Ground water contribution (Gw):

Some times there is a contribution from the groundwater reservoir for water
requirement of crops. The actual contribution from the groundwater table is
dependent on the depth of ground water table below the root zone & capillary
characteristics of soil. For clayey soils the rate of movement is low and distance of
upward movement is high while for light textured soils the rate is high and the
distance of movement is low. For practical purposes the GW contribution when the
ground water table is below 3m is assumed to be nil.
Carry over soil moisture(S):

This is the moisture retained in the crop root zone b/n cropping seasons or before
the crop is planted. The source of this moisture is either from the rainfall that man
occurs before sowing or it may be the moisture that remained in the soil from past
irrigation. This moisture also contributes to the consumptive use of water and should
be deducted from the water requirement of crops in determining irrigation
requirements.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.10

Maize crop planted on March 1. The total duration of the growing season of the crop
is 4.5 months. The evapotranspiration of the crop have been determined using one
of the methods. The Kc values and effective rainfall during each decade have been
determined. If there is appreciable contribution from the ground water and carry over
soil moisture can also be include. For this particular example, the above two
mentioned contributions except effective rainfall have been assumed to be nil.
Solution:
Month Dec Stage Kc ET0 ETcrop ETcrop Peff NIR NIR

mm/dec Kc.*ETo mm/dec mm/dec mm/dec mm/day
March 1 Ini 0.30 4.00 1.20 12.00 0 12.00 1.20
,, 2 Ini 0.30 4.20 1.26 12.60 0 12.60 1.26
,, 3 Ini 0.30 3.90 1.17 11.70 0 11.70 1.17
April 1 Dev 0.50 3.80 1.90 19.00 4 15.00 1.50
,, 2 Dev 0.80 4.20 3.36 33.60 4 29.60 2.96
,, 3 Dev 1.00 4.10 4.10 41.00 4 37.00 3.70
May 1 Dev/mid 1.00 3.90 3.90 39.00 2.5 36.50 3.65
,, 2 mid 1.00 3.80 3.80 38.00 2.5 35.50 3.55
,, 3 mid 1.00 4.00 4.00 40.00 2.5 37.50 3.75
June 1 mid 1.00 4.30 4.30 43.00 5.5 37.50 3.75
,, 2 Late 0.80 4.50 3.60 36.00 5.5 30.50 3.05
,, 3 Late 0.65 3.70 2.405 24.05 5.5 18.55 1.855
July 1 Late 0.50 3.60 1.80 18.00 8.00 10.00 1.00
3.6 Irrigation Efficiencies
1. Water Conveyance efficiency ( Ec)
This term is used to measure the efficiency of water conveyance system associated with
the canal network, water courses and field channels. It is also applicable where the

water is conveyed in channels from the well to the individual fields. It is expressed as
follows:
Wf
*100
W
Ec = d
Where Ec = water conveyance efficiency , %
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot ( At the field supply channel)
Wd = Water diverted from the source.
2. Water application Efficiency ( Ea)
After the water reaches the field supply Channel , it is important to apply the water as
efficiently as possible. A measure of how efficiently this is done is the water application
efficiency.
Ws
*100
Wf
Ea =
Where Ea = application efficiency , %
Ws = water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot ( At the field supply channel)
Water application efficiency below 100 percent are due to seepage looses from the field
distribution channels, deep percolation below the crop root zone and runoff loses from
the tail end of borders and furrows ( in very long fields).
3. Water storage efficiency (Es)

Small irrigation may lead to high water application efficiencies, yet the irrigation practice
may be poor. The concept of water storage efficiency is useful in evaluating this
problem. This concept relates how completely the water needed prior to irrigation has
been stored in the root zone during irrigation.
Ws
Es  *100
Wn
where Es = Water storage efficiency , %
Ws= water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wn = Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation
Water storage efficiency becomes important when water supplies are limited or when
excessive time is required to secure adequate penetration of water in to the soil. Also,
when salt problems exist, the water storage efficiency should be kept high to maintain
favorable salt balance.
4. Field Canal Efficiency (Eb)

This ratio between water received at the field inlet and that received at the inlet of the block of fields.
Wp
Eb  *100 where Ef = Field canal efficiency
Wf
Wp = water received at the field inlet
Wf = water delivered to the field channel
5. Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed)

This shows how uniformly water is applied to the field along the irrigation run. In sandy
soils there is generally over irrigation at upper reaches of the run when as in clayey soils,
there is over- irrigation at the lower reaches of the run.
 y
E d  1   x 100 Where Ed = water distribution efficiency , %
 d
d = average depth of water penetration.
y = average deviation from d.
6. Water Use Efficiency
This shows the yield of the crop per unit volume of water used. It may be expressed in
Kg/ha.cm or q/ha.cm
A. Crop Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (Y) to the amount of water
consumptively used by the crop.
Y
Ew 
CU
B. Field Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (y) to the total water
requirement of crops including Cu losses and other
needs.
Y
Et 
WR
7. Project Efficiency (Ep)
This shows how efficiently the water source used in crop production. It shows the
percentage of the total water that is stored in the soil and available for consumptive
requirements of the crop. It indicates the overall efficiency of the systems from the head
work to the final use by plants for Cu. The Overall project efficiency must be considered in
order to fix the amount of water required at the Diversion head work.

A stream size of 150 lit /sec was released from the diversion headwork to irrigate a
land of area 1.8 hectares. The stream size when measured at the delivery to the
field channels is 120lit/sec. The stream continued for 8 hours. The effective root
zone depth is 1.80m. The application losses in the field are estimated to be 440m 3.
The depth of water penetration was 1.80m and 1.20m at the head and tail of the run
respectively. The available water holding capacity of the soil is 21cm/m and irrigation

was done at 60% depletion of AM. Find Ec, Ef, Ea, Es and Ed. The stream size
delivered to the plot was 100 lit/sec.
Solution:
Wf 120 lit / sec

Ec  x100  x100  80%
Wd 150 lit / sec
Wp 100 lit / sec
Eb  x100  x100  83.3%
Wf 120 lit / sec
100 x 60 x 60 x8
 2880m3
Water delivered to the plot = 1000
Water stored in the root zone =2880m3 – Application losses

= 2880m3 - 440m3 = 2440m3
Ws 2440m3
Ea  x100  x100  84.7%
Wp 2880m3
Total A.M = 21cm/m x 1.80m = 37.80 cm
60
RAM = 100 x 37.80 cm  22.68 cm
3
22.68
In volume, RAM = x1.8 x104  4082.4m
100
Ws 2440m3
Es  x 100   59.8%  60%
Wn 4082.4m3
1.8  1.20
Average water penetration d   1.50m
2
Numerical deviation at upper end =1.80 –1.50=0.30m
At lower end = 1.50 – 1.20 =0.30m
2 x 0,30
Average numerical deviation = 0,30m
2
 y  0,30 
Ed 100 x 1    100 x 1   80%
 d  1.50 
Gross irrigation requirement (GIR)

Usually more amount of water than the NIR is applied during irrigation to compensate for the
unavoidable losses. The total water applied to satisfy ET and losses is known as Gross
irrigation requirement (GIR)
NIR
GIR 
Ep
where Ep=project Efficiency

3.7 Irrigation Scheduling
Scheduling of irrigation application is very important for successive plant growth and
maturity. Water is not applied randomly at any time and in any quantity. Irrigation
scheduling is the schedule in which water is applied to the field. It is an important
aspect of an efficient operation of an irrigation system. The scheduling of irrigation
can be field irrigation scheduling and field irrigation supply schedules.
Field irrigation Scheduling
This scheduling of irrigation is done at field level. The two scheduling parameters of
field irrigation scheduling are the depth of irrigation and interval of irrigation.
Depth of irrigation (d):
This is the depth of irrigation water that is to be applied at one irrigation. It is the
depth of water that can be retained in the crop root zone b/n the field capacity and
the given depletion of the available moisture content. All the water retained in the
soil b/n FC and PWP is not readily available to crops. The readily available moisture
is only some percentage of the total available moisture. Thus, depth of irrigation is
the readily available portion of the soil moisture. In other words, it is the depth of
irrigation water required to replenish the soil moisture to field capacity.
The depth of irrigation (d) is given by :
d (net) = As *D *(FC – PWP)*P, m ... 3.46
Where As = Apparent specific gravity of soil
D = Effective root zone depth in m
FC = water content of soil at FC
PWP = Water content of soil at PWP
P = depletion factor
Because of application losses such as deep percolation and runoff losses, the total
depth of water to be applied will be greater than the net depth of water.
d (gross) = As*D(FC-PWP)*P ,m ...3.47
Ea
Where Ea = Field application efficiency and other parameters as defined above
Interval of irrigation (i):

The interval of irrigation is the time gap in days between two successive irrigation
applications. It depends on the type of the crop, soil type and climate conditions.
Thus interval of irrigation depends on the consumptive use rate of the crop and the
amount of readily available moisture (RAM) in the crop root zone. The consumptive
use rate of the crop varies from crop to crop and also during different stages of the
crop. The RAM moisture also varies from soil to soil depending on soil water
constants.
The interval (frequency) of irrigation is given by:

As .DFC  PWP  . P
i (days) = , ... 3.48
ETcrop peak
Where: ETcrop (peak) is the peak rate of crop evapotranspiration in m/day.
For the same crop and soil type the ETcrop (peak) goes on increasing from the initial
stage to the development and mid season stage and the interval of irrigation will go
on decreasing during late season stage.
Field Irrigation Supply Schedules (Irrigation Scheduling in a Command Area)

This is the schedule of water supply to individual fields or command area. This is a
schedule of the total volume of water to be applied to the soil during irrigation. It
depends on crop and soil characteristics.
It is expressed as: -
q.t 
10
 AS .D ( Fc  pwp .P. A , m3 ...3.49
Ea
Where: q= Stream size (application rate) lit/sec
t = Application time in sec
Ea = Application efficiency
As = Apparent specific gravity
D = Effective root zone depth, m
P = Depletion factor
A = Area of the command (field) in ha
From the above equation, if either of the application time or the stream size fixed,
one of them can be determined.
In the above equation q.t indicates the total volume of water applied to the field
during irrigation at the head of the field. But the total volume of water diverted at the
headwork will obviously be greater than this value, because there is loss of water
during conveyance and distribution canals. The total volume of water to be diverted
is given by:
As .D. FC  PwP , p. A.
10
Q.t = , m3 ...3.50
Ep
Where: Q = flow rate at the head work, lit/sec.
Ep = project efficiency and others as defined above.
For the data below, determine depth & interval of irrigation during different stages.
Depth of the root zone = 1 m, FC = 20 %, PwP = 8 %
Dry density of soil = 1.6 gm/cm3 and density of water = 1 gm/cm3. The rates of
consumptive uses during different stages are as follows. A depletion of 50% during
initial period, 60 % during development and mid – season stage and 70 % during
late season stage is allowable.
Solution:

Month June July August September

Dec 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Stage ini ini In/dev dev dev dev mid mid mid Late Late Late
ETcrop/mm/day 3.5 3.5 5.0 5.2 5.8 6.50 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.2 6.0 5.80
Root depth(m) 0.30 0.30 0.4 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
Depletion 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.70 0.70
Fraction (p)
Depth of 28.8 28.80 38.4 57.60 69.12 80.64 92.16 92.16 92.16 107. 107. 107.
irrigation (mm) 0 52 52 52
Interval of 8 8 7 11 11 12 13 13 3 17 17 18
irrigation
(days)
Irrigation 7 11 13 17
interval (days)

A crop has effective root zone of 120 cm (1.20 m) prior to irrigation; soil samples
were taken from different depths to determine the moisture status of the soil.
Depth of root zone (m) Weight soil sample (gm) Weight of oven dry soil
(gm)
0 – 0.30 m 98.80 94.60

0.30 – 0.60 m 96.60 92.10
0.60 – 0.90 m 95.00 90.60
0.90 – 1.20 m 94.00 89.40
The water holding capacity of the soil at field capacity is 19.60 cm/meter. The
apparent specific gravity of the soil is 1.60. Determine, the moisture content in the
root zone at different depths, total depth of water available in the root zone at
different depths, total depth of water available in the root zone and the soil moisture
deficit.
Solution:
For depth from 0  0.30 m
Mass of water  98.80 gm  94.60 gm  4.20 gm
4.20 gm
Moisture content , W  * 100  4.44 %
94.60 gm
In depth of water ,d = As . D .w =1.6*0.3*0.0444=0.0213m=2.13cm

For depth 0.3-0.6m
Mass of water=96.60-92.10=4.50gm.
W=4.50/92.10 *100= 4.88%
In depth, d = As. D.w = 1.60 * 0.30* 0.0488 = 0.0234 = 2.34 cm

For depth 0.60  0.90 m

Mass of water  95.00  90.60  4.40 gm
4.40
W  * 100  4.86 %
90.60
 In depth of water , d = As.D.w = 1.60 x 0.30* 0.0486 = 0.0233 = 2.33 cm
For depth 0.90  1.20 m

Mass of water  94.00 gm  89.40 gm  4.60 gm
4.60
W  * 100  5.14 %
89.40
In depth, d = As .D.w = 1.60 x 0.30 * 0.0514 = 0.0247 m = 2.47 cm
The total depth of water in the root zone is the total of all the water retained at
different depths.
 Total depth = 2.13 cm + 2.34 cm + 2.33 cm + 2.47 cm = 9.27 cm
Water retained at field capacity = 19.60 cm/m

Water in the root zone = 19.60 * 1.20 m = 23.52 cm
The soil moisture deficit prior to irrigation is therefore,
FC – depth of water during sampling
= 23.52 cm – 9.27 cm = 14.25 cm
This deficit is the amount of water which should be added to the soil to bring the soil
moisture content to field capacity. Thus, it represents the depth of irrigation.
Assuming that the peak rate of consumptive use during the stage of the plant is
8mm/day
depth 142.50 mm
Interval, i=   17.8  17 days
peakET 8 mm / day
The next watering will be done after 17 days. The interval should not be made 18
days, because the plant may suffer shortage of water for one day.

Chapter - 3 CWR (Updated)

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CHAPTER – 3 CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

3. CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

Total Water demand of water is made up of

3.2 Evapotranspiration Process

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 1

Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 2

Factors affecting evapotranspiration

Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects are

FIGURE 2. Factors affecting evapotranspiration with reference to related ET concepts

The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 3

3.3 Determination of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo)

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 4

D) Water balance method

B) Field experimental plots

C) Soil moisture studies

D) Water balance method

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 5

FIGURE 4. Soil water balance of the root zone

Climatic Approaches to estimate evapotranspiration

1. FAO Balnney-Criddle Method

1. ET0 = C P (0.46T + 8)

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 6

0.408  Rn  G    V2 es  ea 

Table: Blaney-Criddle Method of Computation of Consumptive use of Rice Crop for

Month Mean Monthly % Monthly Monthly PET Effective Depth of

F for col. (4) for January = (0.0457 Tm + 0.8128) x P

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 10

3.2.2 Hargrave's Class A Pan Evaporation Method1

3.2.3 FAO Pan Evaporation Method

The pan evaporation is related to the reference evapotranspiration by an empirically derived

ETo = Kp Epan ... 3.11

Pan coefficient (Kp)

3.2.4 Penman1 Method

Penman developed a theoretical formula based on the principles of both energy

Temperature Saturation vapor Slope of

H  H a (1  r ) (0.29 cos   0.55n / N )  Ta4 (0.56  0.092 ea ) (0.10  0.9n / N ) ...3.14

Where Ha is the extraterrestrial solar radiation received on a horizontal surface in

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 13

North Latitude in Degrees

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 14

H  H a (1  r ) (0.29 cos   0.55n / N )

3.2.5 Thornthwaite Method

Thornthwaite (1948) developed an exponential relationship between mean monthly

Where Te is the annual temperature efficiency index given by

For one period, say for one month, Te is calculated as

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 15

Example problem 3.6: Using Thornthwaite equation, calculate the consumptive

3.2.6 Penman Monteith1 Method

where all parameters are as defined in previous sections

3.4 Duty-Delta Relationship

☻ Crop period and Base period

☻ Duty and Delta of Crops

It is expressed in hectares / cumecs.

Delta ( ) = Total quantity of water (ha-m)

Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3 …. 3.21

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 17

Quantity of water = ( D *104)* , m3 .…3.22

Equating the volumes of water given in egn_s 3.1 and 3.2:

☻ Different forms of Duty

LECTURE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 18

☻ Factors affecting Duty

Quantity of water= 1B246060*, m3 …. 3.21

Quantity of water = ( D 104) , m3 .…3.22

In depth of water ,d = As . D .w =1.60.30.0444=0.0213m=2.13cm