Water retention curve

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Water retention curve for a sand, clay loam, clay, and peat.

Water retention curve is the relationship between the water content, θ, and the soil water
potential, ψ. This curve is characteristic for different types of soil, and is also called the soil
moisture characteristic.

It is used to predict the soil water storage, water supply to the plants (field capacity) and soil
aggregate stability. Due to the hysteretic effect of water filling and draining the pores,
different wetting and drying curves may be distinguished.

The general features of a water retention curve can be seen in the figure, in which the volume
water content, θ, is plotted against the matric potential, . At potentials close to zero, a soil
is close to saturation, and water is held in the soil primarily by capillary forces. As θ
decreases, binding of the water becomes stronger, and at small potentials (more negative,
approaching wilting point) water is strongly bound in the smallest of pores, at contact points
between grains and as films bound by adsorptive forces around particles.

Sandy soils will involve mainly capillary binding, and will therefore release most of the water
at higher potentials, while clayey soils, with adhesive and osmotic binding, will release water
at lower (more negative) potentials. At any given potential, peaty soils will usually display
much higher moisture contents than clayey soils, which would be expected to hold more
water than sandy soils. The water holding capacity of any soil is due to the porosity and the
nature of the bonding in the soil.
Soil Air
In nutrient management, soil aeration influences the availability of many nutrients.
Particularly, soil air is needed by many of the microorganisms that release plant nutrients to
the soil. An appropriate balance between soil air and soil water must be maintained since soil
air is displaced by soil water.

Air can fill soil pores as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root
absorption. The network of pores within the soil aerates, or ventilates, the soil. This aeration
network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores. Not only are both soil air and soil
water very dynamic parts of soil, but both are often inversely related:

 An increase in soil water content often causes a reduction in soil aeration.

 Likewise, reducing soil water content may mean an increase in soil aeration.
 Since plant roots require water and oxygen (from the air in pore spaces), maintaining
the balance between root and aeration and soil water availability is a critical aspect of
managing crop plants.

Soil air is very different than the above-ground atmosphere. A significant difference is
between the levels of carbon dioxide. Since the soil contains high amounts of carbon dioxide,
oxygen levels may become limited. Since plants must have oxygen to live, it is important to
allow proper aeration in the soil.

Osmosis in Plants
Osmosis is a vital function to the growth and stability of plant life. Without osmosis,
photosynthesis would never occur and plants would wilt and die. A wilted plant looks wilted
because the vacuoles of the cells do not have proper amounts of water. Although osmosis is
still occurring, the lack of volume of water in the plant causes all of the cell walls to lose their
turgor, and thus the plant loses its upright and healthy state. Osmosis distributes water
through selectively permeable membranes to maintain this proper volume and pressure of all
plant cells. Plant cell walls are incredibly tough and rigid which is necessary to uphold the
integrity of the cell. It’s when there is adequate water that the pressure from the water can
become too high in some places and through osmosis the water moves to a place of lower
pressure and concentration.

 Photosynthesis

Osmosis is especially crucial to photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process of converting

solar energy into chemical energy. Basically, the plant uses the sun to create proteins, sugars
and lipids that in turn become energy for the plant’s survival. Photosynthesis primarily occurs
on plant leaves and requires a combination of carbon dioxide, sunlight and water to be
successful. On every plant leaf there are many guard cells that literally “guard” the stomata.
A stomata is a plant pore that lives on the plant leaf surface. Stomata are responsible for plant
gas exchange which enables the process of photosynthesis. What does osmosis have to do
with this? The guard cells have vacuoles (remember those little cellular sacs?) that fill up
with water and other fluids.

During osmosis, the guard cells swell with water and the pressure triggers the stomata to
open. When the stomata open they suck in carbon dioxide from the air which is then used in
combination with the water from the roots and the sunlight absorbed in chlorophyll to
produce plant energy. Plant energy is then used to feed and nurture the plant. The by-product
of this process is oxygen which is recirculated into the air that we breathe. This is why plants
are fundamental to human survival! They eat up carbon dioxide which in high amounts is
dangerous and produce more oxygen which we need.

 Roots and Osmosis

The roots of a plant are the plants lifeline. They reach out into the soil to establish an avenue
for the transport of nutrients and water to the rest of the plant. The roots absorb water through
osmosis. If the water concentration outside of the plant roots is greater than that of the water
concentration in the roots osmosis occurs. The difference in pressure triggers the plant to
bring in water through the root cell walls to create a pressure balance and thus providing
necessary water to the plant. When a plant has adequate water uptake, it will flourish and
grow.

Evapotranspiration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Water cycle of the Earth's surface, showing the individual components of transpiration and
evaporation that make up evapotranspiration. Other closely related processes shown are
runoff and groundwater recharge.
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's
land and ocean surface to the atmosphere. Evaporation accounts for the movement of water to
the air from sources such as the soil, canopy interception, and waterbodies. Transpiration
accounts for the movement of water within a plant and the subsequent loss of water as vapor
through stomata in its leaves. Evapotranspiration is an important part of the water cycle. An
element (such as a tree) that contributes to evapotranspiration can be called an
evapotranspirator.[1]

Reference evapotranspiration (ET0), sometimes incorrectly referred to as potential ET, is a

representation of the environmental demand for evapotranspiration and represents the
evapotranspiration rate of a short green crop (grass), completely shading the ground, of
uniform height and with adequate water status in the soil profile. It is a reflection of the
energy available to evaporate water, and of the wind available to transport the water vapour
from the ground up into the lower atmosphere. Actual evapotranspiration is said to equal
reference evapotranspiration when there is ample water. Some US states utilize a full cover
alfalfa reference crop that is 0.5 m in height, rather than the short green grass reference, due
to the higher value of ET from the alfalfa reference.

Potential evapotranspiration

Monthly estimated potential evapotranspiration and measured pan evaporation for two
locations in Hawaii, Hilo and Pahala.

Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is the amount of water that would be evaporated and
transpired if there were sufficient water available. This demand incorporates the energy
available for evaporation and the ability of the lower atmosphere to transport evaporated
moisture away from the land surface. PET is higher in the summer, on less cloudy days, and
closer to the equator, because of the higher levels of solar radiation that provides the energy
for evaporation. PET is also higher on windy days because the evaporated moisture can be
quickly moved from the ground or plant surface, allowing more evaporation to fill its place.

PET is expressed in terms of a depth of water, and can be graphed during the year (see
figure).

Potential evapotranspiration is usually measured indirectly, from other climatic factors, but
also depends on the surface type, such as free water (for lakes and oceans), the soil type for
bare soil, and the vegetation. Often a value for the potential evapotranspiration is calculated
at a nearby climate station on a reference surface, conventionally short grass. This value is
called the reference evapotranspiration, and can be converted to a potential
evapotranspiration by multiplying with a surface coefficient. In agriculture, this is called a
crop coefficient. The difference between potential evapotranspiration and precipitation is
used in irrigation scheduling.

PENMAN MONTEITH METHOD

(6)

where

ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm day-1],

Rn net radiation at the crop surface [MJ m-2 day-1],
G soil heat flux density [MJ m-2 day-1],
T air temperature at 2 m height [°C],
u2 wind speed at 2 m height [m s-1],
es saturation vapour pressure [kPa],
ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],
es - ea saturation vapour pressure deficit [kPa],
 slope vapour pressure curve [kPa °C-1],
 psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1].

The leaching requirement1

To estimate the leaching requirement, both the irrigation water salinity (ECw) and the crop
tolerance to soil salinity (ECe) must be known. The water salinity can be obtained from
laboratory analysis while the ECe should be estimated from appropriate crop tolerance data
given in the tables in Section 2.4.3 of this paper. These tables give an acceptable ECe value
for each crop appropriate to the tolerable degree of yield loss (usually 10 percent or less).

The necessary leaching requirement (LR) can be estimated from Figure 7 for general crop
rotations. For more exact estimates for a particular crop, the leaching requirement equation
(9) (Rhoades 1974; and Rhoades and Merrill 1976) should be used:

where: = the minimum leaching requirement needed to control salts within the
LR
tolerance (ECe) of the crop with ordinary surface methods of irrigation
  ECw = salinity of the applied irrigation water in dS/m
  ECe = average soil salinity tolerated by the crop as measured on a soil saturation
extract. Obtain the ECe value for the given crop and the appropriate
acceptable yield from Table 4. It is recommended that the ECe value that
can be expected to result in at least a 90 percent or greater yield be used
in the calculation. (Figure 7 was developed using ECe values for the 100
percent yield potential.) For water in the moderate to high salinity range
(>1.5 dS/m), it might be better to use the ECe value for maximum yield
 potential (100 percent) since salinity control is critical to obtaining good
yields.

The total annual depth of water that needs to be applied to meet both the crop demand and
leaching requirement can be estimated from equation (7).

where: AW = depth of applied water (mm/year)

  ET = total annual crop water demand (mm/year)
  LR = leaching requirement expressed as a fraction
(leaching fraction)

     
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
4.1 Texture:
Texture refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes such as sand, silt and
clay in the soil. The proportions of the separates in classes commonly used in describing soils
are given in the textural triangle shown in Fig.1.5. In using the diagram, the points
corresponding to the percentages of silt and clay present in the soil under consideration are
located on the silt and clay lines respectively. Lines are then projected inward, parallel in the
first case to the clay side of the triangle and in the second case parallel to the sand side. The
name of the compartment in which the two lines intersect is the class name of the soil in
question. For examples a soil containing 15% clay, 20% silt and 65% sand is sandy loam and
a soil containing equal amounts of sand, silt and clay is clay loam.
The percentages of sand, silt and clay in a soil could be determined in a soil laboratory by
two standard methods - hydrometer method and pipette method (Black et al., 1965a). Both
methods depend on the fact that at any given depth in a settling suspension the concentration
of the particles varies with time, as the coarser fractions settle at a faster rate than the finer
(Fig. 1.6).
In the field, soil texture could be estimated by the following methods (Fig. 1.7).
(i) Feel method. In this method, the soil is moistened with water and rubbed between the
thumb and fingers. The way the wet soil “slicks out” gives a good idea of the clay content.
The sand particles are gritty, the silt has a floury or talcum - powder fell when dry and is only
moderately plastic and sticky when wet. Accuracy of this method depends largely on
experience.

Feel method and Ball and ribbon method)

(ii) Ball and ribbon method: The procedure of this method as described by Coche and
Laughlin (1985) is as follows: Take a handful of soil and wet it so that it begins to stick
together without sticking to the hand. A ball of about 3 cm diameter is made and put down. If
it falls apart it is sand. If it sticks together roll the ball into a sausage shape 6 – 7 cm long. If it
does not remain in this form it is loamy sand. If it remains in this shape, continue to roll until
it reaches 15 – 16 cm long. If it does not remain in this form, it is sandy loam. If it remains in
this shape, try to bend the sausage into a half circle and if it doesn't, it is a loam. If it does,
bend the sausage to form a fullccircle and if it doesn't it is heavy loam. If it does with slight
cracks in the sausage, it is light clay. If it does without any cracks, it is a clay.
(iii) Ball throwing method: The texture of the soil can be inferred by the way a ball of soil
acts when it is thrown at a hard surface such as a wall or a tree (Fig.1.8). The steps to be
followed in this method as described by Coche and Laughlin (1985) is as follows: Throw a
ball of soil to a tree or wall 3 m away. If the soil is good only for splatter shots when either
wet or dry, it has a coarse texture (loamy sand). If there is a “shot gun” pattern when dry and
it holds its shape against medium range target when wet, it has a moderately coarse texture
(sandy loam). If the ball shatters on impact when dry and clings together when moist but does
not stick to the target it has a medium texture (loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam). If the
ball holds its shape for long - range shots when wet and sticks to the target but is fairly easy
to remove it has a moderately fine texture (clay loam). If the ball sticks well to the target
when wet and becomes a very hard missile when dry, it has a fine texture (clay).
The usual mechanical analysis of soils in the laboratory gives the percentages of the three
size fractions, sand, silt and clay. For special uses, the same methods of laboratory analyses
(pipette method or hydrometer method) can provide a much more detailed analysis giving
further breakdown of the relative amounts of soil particles for more size classes in the form of
a table or graph. The data in the graphical form is given as a particle - size frequency curve
(PSF curve). PSF curves for selected soils are shown in Fig. 1.9. The vertical axis represent
the cumulative percentage of occurrance of the various particles sizes and the horizontal axis
represents the logarithms of the particle size. The vertical axis in the left hand side relate to
the percentages of particles passing through sieves of a particular size and the vertical axis in
the right hand side relate to the percentages of particles not passing through sieves of a
particular size.
The more vertical the PSF curve or part of the curve, the more uniform the particle size; a
vertical line represents a perfect uniform particle size. The more inclined the curve or part of
it, the greater the difference between the particle sizes (i.e. smaller porosity and higher
compaction). The inflexion point of the curve shows the most frequent particle size by
weight. Fine textured soils have their curves towards the right hand side of the graph and the
coarse textured soils to the left hand side. From the PSF curves, the percentages of silt, sand
and clay can be calculated and using the textural triangular diagram the texture could be
determined.
Soil texture is an important soil parameter determining the suitability of a site for
aquaculture. A clayey soil stabilises pond bottom besides the fact that it adsorb large quantity
of nutrients and release them slowly over a long period to the overlying water. The clayey soil
normally holds higher amounts of organic matter than light textured soils and thereby
increase the productivity of the pond. It should be noted that too clay a soil (very sticky clay)
may not be very satisfactory as it may give rise to fixation of phosphorus and create other
physico-chemical biological problems. Such soils may give rise to cracks on draining the
ponds, thereby increase seepage losses.

4.2 Structure:
The term texture is used in reference to the size of individual soil particles but when the
arrangement of the particles is considered the term structure is used. Structure refers to the
aggregation of primary soil particles (sand, silt and clay) into compound particles or cluster
of primary particles which are seperated by the adjoining aggregates by surfaces of weakness.
Structure modifies the effect of texture in regard to moisture and air relationships, availability
of nutrients, action of microorganisms and root growth. E.g. a highly plastic clay (60% clay)
is good for crop product if it has a well developed granular structure which facilitates aeration
and water movement. Similarly a soil though has a heavy texture, can have a strongly
developed structure, thus making it not very satisfactory for aquaculture as a result of this soil
allowing high seepage losses.
Structure is defined in terms of grade, class and type of aggregates.
Grade: Grade of structure is the degree of aggregation and expresses the differential between
cohesion within aggregates and adhesion between aggregates. These properties vary with the
moisture content of the soil and it should be determined when the moisture content is normal
- not when unusually dry or unusually wet. The four major grades of structure rated from 0 to
3 are listed below.
0- no observable aggregation or no definite orderly arrangement of natural
Structureless: lines of weakness. Massive if coherent; single grain if noncoherent.
1 - Weak: That degree of aggregation characterised by poorly formed indistinct
aggregates that are barely observable in place. When disturbed, soil
material that has this grade of structure breaks into a mixture of few
entire aggregates many broken aggregates and much unaggregated
material.
2 - Moderate: Well formed distinct aggregates that are moderately durable and evident
but not distinct in undisturbed soil. When disturbed, they break down
into a mixture of many distinct entire aggregates, some broken
aggregates and little unaggregated material.
3 - Strong: Durable aggregates that are quite evident in undisturbed soil that adhere
weakly to one another. When removed from the profile the sokl material
consists very largely of entire aggreates and includes few broken ones
and little or no nonaggregated material.
Diameter of particle (mm)
1 Gravel and A Soil suitable for pond bottom if coefficient
sand(old alluvium) of permeability is less than 5 × 10-6 m/s
2 Sand
B Soil suitable for building dikes without
3 Silt
impermeable clay core
4 Calcareous C Soil suitable for pond bottom or dike only
clayey soil (marl) after modification of soil using
amendments.
5 Heavy clay  

4.3 Consistence:
is the resistance of a soil to deformation or rupture and is determined by the cohesive and
adhesive properties of the soil mass. This is a term used to designate the manifestation of the
cohesive and adhesive properties of soil at various moisture contents. A knowledge of the
consistence of the soil is important in tillage operations, traffic and pond constructions.
Consistence gives also an indication of the soil texture.
Consistence is described for three moisture levels:
1. - Wet soil - non sticky, slightly sticky, sticky, very sticky; non plastic, slightly plastic,
plastic and very plastic.
2. - Moist soil - loose, very friable, friable, firm, very firm, extremely firm.
3. - Dry soil - loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard, extremely hard.
Description of the consistence terms mentioned above can be obtained from “Guidelines for
Soil Profile Description” by FAO (FAO, 1974).

4.4 Particle density

of soil is the mass per unit volume of soil particles (soil solid phase) - expressed in g/c.c.
Most soils have particle density of about 2.6 g/cc. Presence of organic matter decrease the
density and iron compounds increase the density.

4.5 Bulk density

of soil is the mass of soil per unit volume of soil (volume includes both soil and pores) -
expressed in g/c.c.

4.6 Pore space:

Particle density can be determined using specific gravity bottle technique and bulk density by
taking soil core samples of known volume in the field and determining the even dry weight
(Black et al., 1965a). Water and air movements through soil depends on the pore space and
the size distribution of the pores (microPores and macropores). Lower the pore space or
higher the bulk density of the soil, the higher the suitability of the soil for aquaculture.

4.8 Soil colour:

Soil colour gives an indication of the various processes going-on in the soil as well as the
type of minerals in the soil. For example the red colour in the soil is due to the abundance of
iron oxide under oxidised conditions (well-drainage) in the soil; dark colour is generally due
to the accumulation of highly decayed organic matter; yellow colour is due to hydrated iron
oxides and hydroxide; black nodules are due to manganese oxides; mottling and gleying are
associated with poor drainage and/or high water table. Abundant pale yellow mottles coupled
with very low pH are indicative of possible acid sulphate soils. Colours of soil matrix and
mottles are indicative of the water and drainage conditions in the soil and hence suitability of
the soil for aquaculture.
Soil colour is described by the parameters called hue, value and chroma. Hue represents the
dominant wave length or colour of the light; value, refers to the lightness of the colour;
chroma, relative purity or strength of the colour. The colour of the soil in terms of the above
parameters could be quickly determined by comparison of the sample with a standard set of
colour chips mounted in a note-book called MUNSELL SOIL COLOUR CHARTS (Munsell
Soil Colour Charts, 1973). In these charts, the right hand top corner represents the Hue; the
vertical axis, the value; and the horizontal axis, the chroma.

4.9 Soil permeability:

is the ability of the soil to transmit water and air. An impermeable soil is good for aquaculture
as the water loss through seepage or infiltration is low. As the soil layers or horizons vary in
their characteristics, the permeability also differs from one layer to another. Pore size, texture,
structure and the presence of impervious layers such as clay pan determines the permeability
of a soil. Clayey soils with platy structures have very low permeability.
Permeability is measured in terms of permeability rate or coefficient of permeability (cm per
hour, cm per day, cm per sec.).
Permeability rate or coefficient of permeability is determined in the laboratory by measuring
the rate of flow of water from a constant head of water through a colomn of soil at specific
moisture content and other conditions. It is determined in the field by digging a hole of
approximately 30 cm diameter, smearing the sides of the hole with heavy wet clay or lining
with plastic sheet and measuring the rate of infiltration of water by filling the hole repeatedly
with water and noting the time it takes for the water level to go down by a specific depth.
Coefficient of permeability of soils (pond bottom soils) suitable for aquaculture should be
smaller than 5 × 10-6 m/s (Coche and Laughlin, 1985). For more information on this refer to
the chapter on “water supply” in this Manual.

SOIL STRUCTURE

7.0 Definition and importance of soil structure

Soil structure is defined by the way individual particles of sand, silt, and clay are assembled. Single
particles when assembled appear as larger particles. These are called aggregates .

Aggregation of soil particles can occur in different patterns, resulting in different soil structures. The
circulation of water in the soil varies greatly according to structure, Therefore, it is important for you
to know about the structure of the soil where you plan to build a fish-farm. Although you may not be
able to assemble all this information yourself, the specialized technicians from the soil testing
laboratory will be able to provide it after examining your undisturbed soil samples. They will be able
to tell you if your soil has bad structure or good structure (pores/capillary canals, network, etc.).
They will also be able to tell you about the degree of water circulation or permeability.

7.1 Description of soil structure

Soil structure is most usefully described in terms of grade (degree of aggregation), class (average
size) and type of aggregates (form). In some soils, different kinds of aggregates may be found
together and they are then described separately. The following paragraphs will briefly explain the
various terms which are most commonly used to describe soil structure. This will help you to judge
better the quality of the soil where you plan to construct fish-ponds. It will also enable you to learn
how to define the soil structure yourself when examining a soil profile.

Note: the characteristic structure of a soil can be recognized best when it is dry or only slightly moist.
When you are studying a soil profile to determine the grade of structure, make sure you examine a
fresh profile.

7.2 Grades of soil structure

By definition, the grade of structure is the degree of aggregation, expressing the differential between
cohesion* within aggregates and adhesion* between aggregates. As these properties vary with the
moisture content of the soil, grade of structure should be determined when the soil is neither
unusually moist nor unusually dry. There are four major grades of structure rated from 0 to 3 as
follows:

0 Structureless has no observable aggregation or no definite orderly arrangement of natural lines of

weakness, such as:

• Massive structure (coherent) where the entire soil horizon appears cemented in one great
mass;
• Single-grain structure (non-coherent) where the individual soil particles show no tendency to
cling together, such as pure sand;

1 Weak structure is poorly formed from indistinct aggregates that can barely be observed in place.
When removed from the profile, the soil material breaks down into a mixture of very few entire
aggregates, many broken aggregates and much unaggregated material;

2 Moderate structure is well formed from distinct aggregates that are moderately durable and
evident but not distinct in undisturbed soil. When removed from the profile, the soil material breaks
down into a mixture of many distinct entire aggregates, some broken aggregates and little
unaggregated material;

3 Strong structure is well formed from distinct aggregates that are durable and quite evident in
undisturbed soil. When removed from the profile, the soil material consists very largely of entire
aggregates and includes few broken ones and little or no non-aggregated material.

7.3 Classes and types of soil structure

By definition, class of structure describes the average size of individual aggregates. Usually, five
distinct classes may be recognized in relation to the type of soil structure from which they come.
They are:

• Very fine or very thin;

• Fine or thin;

• Medium;

• Coarse or thick;

• Very coarse or very thick.

By definition, type of structure describes the form or shape of individual aggregates. Generally, soil
technicians recognize seven types of soil structure, but here only four types are used. They are rated
from 1 to 4 as follows:

1 Granular and crumb structures are individual particles of sand, silt and clay grouped together in
small, nearly spherical grains. Water circulates very easily through such soils. They are commonly
found in the A-horizon of the soil profile;

2 Blocky and subangular blocky structures are soil particles that cling together in nearly square or
angular blocks having more or less sharp edges. Relatively large blocks indicate that the soil resists
penetration and movement of water. They are commonly found in the B-horizon where clay has
accumulated;

3 Prismatic and columnar structures are soil particles which have formed into vertical columns or
pillars separated by miniature, but definite, vertical cracks. Water circulates with greater difficulty
and drainage is poor. They are commonly found in the B-horizon where clay has accumulated;

4 Platy structure is made up of soil particles aggregated in thin plates or sheets piled horizontally on
one another. Plates often overlap, greatly impairing water circulation. It is commonly found in forest
soils, in part of the A- horizon, and in claypan* soils.

Soil Composition

Plants obtain inorganic elements from the soil, which serves as a natural medium for land plants. Soil
is the outer, loose layer that covers the surface of Earth. Soil quality, a major determinant, along
with climate, of plant distribution and growth, depends not only on the chemical composition of the
soil, but also the topography (regional surface features) and the presence of living organisms.

Soil consists of these major components :

Components of soil

The four major components of soil are shown: inorganic minerals, organic matter, water, and air.

• inorganic mineral matter, about 40 to 45 percent of the soil volume

• organic matter, about 5 percent of the soil volume

• water, about 25 percent of the soil volume

• air, about 25 percent of the soil volume

The amount of each of the four major components of soil depends on the quantity of vegetation, soil
compaction, and water present in the soil. A good, healthy soil has sufficient air, water, minerals,
and organic material to promote and sustain plant life.The organic material of soil, called humus, is
made up of microorganisms (dead and alive), and dead animals and plants in varying stages of
decay. Humus improves soil structure, providing plants with water and minerals. The inorganic
material of soil is composed of rock, slowly broken down into smaller particles that vary in size. Soil
particles that are 0.1 to 2 mm in diameter are sand. Soil particles between 0.002 and 0.1 mm are
called silt, and even smaller particles, less than 0.002 mm in diameter, are called clay. Some soils
have no dominant particle size, containing a mixture of sand, silt, and humus; these soils are called
loams.

Soil Minerals

Soil minerals play a vital role in soil fertility since mineral surfaces serve as potential sites for nutrient
storage. However, different types of soil minerals hold and retain differing amounts of nutrients.
Therefore, it is helpful to know the types of minerals that make up your soil so that you can predict
the degree to which the soil can retain and supply nutrients to plants.

There are numerous types of minerals found in the soil. These minerals vary greatly in size and
chemical composition.
Soil Mineral Particle Size

Particle size is an important property that allows us to make distinctions among the different soil
minerals. Soils contain particles that range from very large boulders to minute particles which are
invisible to the naked eye. To further distinguish particles based upon size, particles are separated
into the two categories: the coarse fraction and the fine earth fraction.

Fine Earth Fraction

When we refer to most soils of Maui, we are generally referring to the second category of particle
size: the fine earth fraction. This is because the soils of Maui are almost exclusively finely textured.
The fine earth fraction includes any particle less than 2.0 mm (.078 inches) and is divided into three
classes of size: sand, silt, or clay. To put this into perspective, the width of the lead in a No. 2 pencil is
approximately 2.0 mm. Table 1 provides descriptions of each class in the fine earth fraction.

Description of sand, silt, and clay classes.

The Fine Earth Fraction

Size Texture Characteristics

Sand 2.0 mm -0.05 mm gritty Sand is visible to the naked eye, consists of particles with
low surface area, and permits excessive drainage.

Silt 0.05 mm - 0.002 mm buttery Silt is not visible to the naked eye and increases the water
holding capacity of soil.

Clay < 0.002 mm sticky Clay has a high surface area, high water holding capacity, many
small pores, and possesses charged surfaces to attract and hold nutrients.

Coarse Fraction

The coarse fraction of soil includes any soil particles greater than 2mm. The coarse fraction includes
boulders, stones, gravels, and coarse sands. These are rocky fragments and are generally a
combination of more than one type of mineral. We are not very concerned with the coarse fraction
in soil since the soils of Maui County primarily fall into the fine earth fraction.

Weathering of Soil Minerals and Change in Mineral Composition

Weathering is the principal process that acts upon the earth’s primary minerals to form the smaller
and finer particles that we call “soil.” Maui County is an excellent place to observe the effects of
weathering since it contains both slightly weathered and highly weathered soils. In terms of nutrient
management, the process of weathering greatly influences the availability of plant nutrients.
Initially, as soil particles begin to weather, primary minerals release nutrients into the soil. As these
particles decrease in size, the soil is also able to retain greater amounts of nutrients. Ultimately,
however, the capacity to hold and retain nutrients is greatly reduced in highly weathered soils, since
most nutrients have been lost due to leaching.
There are two types of weathering: physical weathering and chemical weathering. Differences in
weathering patterns are the reason why there is a great range in soil particle size. Boulders are much
less weathered than gravel. In return, gravel is much less weathered than clay particles. Clay
particles may even weather into other materials, such as iron and aluminum oxides, which are
generally resistant to further weathering. In the tropics, chemical weathering is very important.
Since the climate is typically warm and moist year-round, it provides a suitable environment for
continuous chemical weathering to occur. Over time, with sufficient amounts of rainfall and warm
temperatures, mineral particles weather into smaller and smaller soil particles. As a result, tropical
soils tend to be highly weathered soils. Table 2 provides a list of common primary, secondary
minerals, aluminum and iron oxides, and amorphous materials in Hawaii.

Physical Weathering

Physical weathering is a process that breaks up and disintegrates parent rock, or primary minerals,
within the earth. In the tropics, physical weathering is caused by the wetting and drying of rocks;
erosion; actions of plants and animals; or the falling, smashing, or breaking of rock materials into
smaller pieces.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is important in nutrient management since the resulting soil particles retain
and supply nutrients. However, when highly weathered, the soil loses much of its nutrients due to
excessive leaching. Thus, highly weathered soils tend to be infertile soils, while moderately
weathered soils are generally more fertile.

Once parent rock has broken down into smaller pieces, another process acts upon the rock. This
process is chemical weathering. Chemical weathering involves the change, or transformation, of
primary minerals into secondary minerals. Secondary minerals serve as the basic building blocks of
the small particles with the soil. As a result, new materials may be synthesized, residual material may
accumulate from materials (such as oxides) which cannot be furthered weathered, or materials can
be lost as the result of leaching.

Soil pH

Global variation in soil pH. Red = acidic soil. Yellow = neutral soil. Blue = alkaline soil. Black = no data.

The soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity in soils. pH is defined as the negative logarithm
(base 10) of the activity of hydronium ions (H+ or, more precisely, H 3O aq) in a solution. In water, it
normally ranges from -1 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH below 7 is acidic and above 7 is alkaline.
Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it controls many chemical processes that take
place. It specifically affects plant nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the
nutrient. The optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.0,[1] however many plants
have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range.

Classification of soil pH ranges

The United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, formerly Soil
Conservation Service classifies soil pH ranges as follows: [2]
Denomination pH range

Ultra acid < 3.5

Extreme acid 3.5–4.4

Very strong acid 4.5–5.0

Strong acid 5.1–5.5

Moderate acid 5.6–6.0

Slight acid 6.1–6.5

Neutral 6.6–7.3

Slightly alkaline 7.4–7.8

Moderately alkaline 7.9–8.4

Strongly alkaline 8.5–9.0

Very strongly alkaline > 9.0

Sources of soil pH

Sources of Acidity

[3] Acidity in soils comes from H+ and Al3+ ions in the soil solution and sorbed to soil surfaces. While
pH is the measure of H+ in solution, Al3+ is important in acid soils because between pH 4 and 6, Al3+
reacts with water (H2O) forming AlOH2+, and Al(OH)2+, releasing extra H+ ions. Every Al3+ ion can
create[clarification needed] 3 H+ ions. Many other processes contribute to the formation of acid
soils including rainfall, fertilizer use, plant root activity and the weathering of primary and secondary
soil minerals. Acid soils can also be caused by pollutants such as acid rain and mine spoilings.

• Rainfall: Acid soils are most often found in areas of high rainfall. Excess rainfall leaches base
cation from the soil, increasing the percentage of Al3+ and H+ relative to other cations. Additionally,
rainwater has a slightly acidic pH of 5.7 due to a reaction with CO2 in the atmosphere that forms
carbonic acid.

• Fertilizer use: Ammonium (NH4+) fertilizers react in the soil in a process called nitrification to
form nitrate (NO3−), and in the process release H+ ions.

• Plant root activity: Plants take up nutrients in the form of ions (NO3−, NH4+, Ca2+, H2PO4−,
etc.), and often, they take up more cations than anions. However plants must maintain a neutral
charge in their roots. In order to compensate for the extra positive charge, they will release H+ ions
from the root. Some plants will also exude organic acids into the soil to acidify the zone around their
roots to help solubilize metal nutrients that are insoluble at neutral pH, such as iron (Fe).
• Weathering of minerals: Both primary and secondary minerals that compose soil contain Al.
As these minerals weather, some components such as Mg, Ca, and K, are taken up by plants, others
such as Si are leached from the soil, but due to chemical properties, Fe and Al remain in the soil
profile. Highly weathered soils are often characterized by having high concentrations of Fe and Al
oxides.

• Acid rain: When atmospheric water reacts with sulfur and nitrogen compounds that result
from industrial processes, the result can be the formation of sulfuric and nitric acid in rainwater.
However the amount of acidity that is deposited in rainwater is much less, on average, than that
created through agricultural activities.

• Mine Spoil: Severely acidic conditions can form in soils near mine spoils due to the oxidation
of pyrite.

• Potential acid sulfate soils naturally formed in waterlogged coastal and estuarine
environments can become highly acidic when drained or excavated.

• Decomposition of organic matter by micro organisms releases CO2 which when mixed with
soil water can form carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Sources of Alkalinity

Alkaline soils have a high saturation of base cations (K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+). This is due to an
accumulation of soluble salts which are classified as either saline soil, sodic soil, saline-sodic soil or
alkaline soil. All saline and sodic soils have high salt concentrations, with saline soils being dominated
by calcium and magnesium salts and sodic soils being dominated by sodium. Alkaline soils are
characterized by the presence of carbonates. Soil in areas with limestone near the surface are
alkaline from the calcium carbonate in limestone constantly mixing with the soil.[4] Groundwater
sources in these areas contain dissolved limestone.

Effect of soil pH on plant growth

Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH[5]

Acid affected soils

Plants grown in acid soils can experience a variety of symptoms including aluminium (Al), hydrogen
(H), and/or manganese (Mn) toxicity, as well as nutrient deficiencies of calcium (Ca) and magnesium
(Mg).

Aluminium toxicity is the most widespread problem in acid soils. Aluminium is present in all soils, but
dissolved Al3+ is toxic to plants; Al3+ is most soluble at low pH, above pH 5.2 little Al is in soluble
form in most soils. Aluminium is not a plant nutrient, and as such, is not actively taken up by the
plants, but enters plant roots passively through osmosis. Aluminium inhibits root growth; lateral
roots and root tips become thickened and roots lack fine branching; root tips may turn brown. In the
root, Al has been shown to interfere with many physiological processes including the uptake and
transport of calcium and other essential nutrients, cell division, cell wall formation, and enzyme
activity.
Below pH 4, H+ ions themselves[clarification needed] damage root cell membranes.

In soils with high content of manganese-containing minerals, Mn toxicity can become a problem at
pH 5.6 and lower. Manganese, like aluminium, becomes increasingly soluble as pH drops, and Mn
toxicity symptoms can be seen at pH levels below 5.6. Manganese is an essential plant nutrient, so
plants transport Mn into leaves. Classic symptoms of Mn toxicity are crinkling or cupping of leaves.

Nutrient availability in relation to soil pH

Nutrients needed in large amounts by plants are referred to as macronutrients and include nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (S). Elements that
plants need in trace amounts are called trace nutrients or micronutrients. Trace nutrients are not
major components of plant tissue but are essential for growth. They include iron (Fe), manganese
(Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), molybdenum (Mo), and boron (B). Both macronutrient and
micronutrient availability are affected by soil pH. In slightly to moderately alkaline soils,
molybdenum and macronutrient (except for phosphorus) availability is increased, but P, Fe, Mn, Zn
Cu, and Co levels are reduced and may adversely affect plant growth. In acidic soils, micronutrient
availability (except for Mo and Bo) is increased. Nitrogen is supplied as ammonium (NH4) or nitrate
(NO3) by nitrogen fixation or fertilizer amendments, and dissolved N will have the highest
concentrations in soil with pH 6–8. Concentrations of available N are less sensitive to pH than
concentration of available P. In order for P to be available for plants, soil pH needs to be in the range
6.0 and 7.5. If pH is lower than 6, P starts forming insoluble compounds with iron (Fe) and aluminium
(Al) and if pH is higher than 7.5 P starts forming insoluble compounds with calcium (Ca). Most
nutrient deficiencies can be avoided between a pH range of 5.5 to 6.5, provided that soil minerals
and organic matter contain the essential nutrients to begin with.

Soil-plant-air continuum

At a potential of 0 kPa, soil is in a state of saturation. At saturation, all soil pores are filled with
water, and water typically drains from large pores by gravity. At a potential of -33 kPa, or 1/3 bar, (-
10 kPa for sand), soil is at field capacity. Typically, at field capacity, air is in the macropores and
water in micropores. Field capacity is viewed as the optimal condition for plant growth and microbial
activity. At a potential of -1500 kPa, soil is at its permanent wilting point, meaning that soil water is
held by solid particles as a "water film" that is retained too tightly to be taken up by plants.

In contrast, atmospheric water potentials are much more negative--a typical value for dry air is -100
MPa, though this value depends on the temperature and the humidity. Plant water potentials are
intermediate, and this creates a passive flow of water from the soil through the roots to the leaves
and then into the atmosphere.

Basics of Salinity and Sodicity Effects on Soil Physical Properties

Introduction to Salinity and Sodicity

Saline irrigation water contains dissolved substances known as salts. In much of the arid and semi-
arid United States (including Montana), most of the salts present in irrigation water are chlorides,
sulfates, carbonates, and bicarbonates of calcium magnesium, sodium, and potassium. While salinity
can improve soil structure, it can also negatively affect plant growth and crop yields.

Sodicity refers specifically to the amount of sodium present in irrigation water.Irrigating with water
that has excess amounts of sodium can adversely impact soil structure, making plant growth difficult.
Highly saline and sodic water qualities can cause problems for irrigation, depending on the type and
amount of salts present, the soil type being irrigated, the specific plant species and growth stage,
and the amount of water able to pass through the root zone.

1. Effects of Salinity on Plant Growth

Salinity becomes a problem when enough salts accumulate in the root zone to negatively affect
plant growth. Excess salts in the root zone hinder plant roots from withdrawing water from
surrounding soil. This lowers the amount of water available to the plant, regardless of the amount of
water actually in the root zone. For example, when plant growth is compared in two identical soils
with the same moisture levels, one soil receiving salty water and the other receiving salt-free water,
plants are able to use more water from the soil receiving salt-free water. Although the water is not
held tighter to the soil in saline environments, the presence of salt in the water causes plants to
exert more energy extracting water from the soil. The main point is that excess salinity in soil water
can decrease plant available water and cause plant stress.

Soil water salinity is dependent on soil type, climate, water use and irrigation routines. For example,
immediately after the soil is irrigated, plant available water is at its highest and soil water salinity is
at its lowest. However, as plants use soil water, the remaining water is held tighter to the soil and
becomes progressively more difficult for plants to obtain. As the water is taken up by plants through
transpiration or lost to the atmosphere by evaporation, soil water salinity increases because salts
become more concentrated in the remaining soil water. Thus, evapotranspiration (ET) between
irrigation periods can further increase salinity. (Increased salinity due to ET is rarely taken into
account in salinity charts.)

2. Effects of Salinity on Soil Physical Properties

Soil water salinity can affect soil physical properties by causing fine particles to bind together into
aggregates. This process is known as flocculation and is beneficial in terms of soil aeration, root
penetration, and root growth. Although increasing soil solution salinity has a positive effect on soil
aggregation and stabilization, at high levels salinity can have negative and potentially lethal effects
on plants. As a result, salinity cannot be increased to maintain soil structure without considering
potential impacts on plant health.

3. Effects of Sodium and Sodicity on Soil Physical Properties

Sodium has the opposite effect of salinity on soils. The primary physical processes associated with
high sodium concentrations are soil dispersion and clay platelet and aggregate swelling. The forces
that bind clay particles together are disrupted when too many large sodium ions come between
them. When this separation occurs, the clay particles expand, causing swelling and soil dispersion.

Soil dispersion causes clay particles to plug soil pores, resulting in reduced soil permeability. When
soil is repeatedly wetted and dried and clay dispersion occurs, it then reforms and solidifies into
almost cement-like soil with little or no structure. The three main problems caused by sodium-
induced dispersion are reduced infiltration, reduced hydraulic conductivity, and surface crusting.

Salts that contribute to salinity, such as calcium and magnesium, do not have this effect because
they are smaller and tend to cluster closer to clay particles (Figure 1). Calcium and magnesium will
generally keep soil flocculated because they compete for the same spaces as sodium to bind to clay
particles. Increased amounts of calcium and magnesium can reduce the amount of sodium-induced
dispersion.

Infiltration

Soil dispersion hardens soil and blocks water infiltration, making it difficult for plants to establish and
grow. The major implications associated with decreased infiltration due to sodium-induced
dispersion include reduced plant available water and increased runoff and soil erosion.

Hydraulic Conductivity

Soil dispersion not only reduces the amount of water entering the soil, but also affects hydraulic
conductivity of soil. Hydraulic conductivity refers to the rate at which water flows through soil. For
instance, soils with well-defined structure will contain a large number of macropores, cracks, and
fissures which allow for relatively rapid flow of water through the soil. When sodium-induced soil
dispersion causes loss of soil structure, the hydraulic conductivity is also reduced. If water cannot
pass through the soil, then the upper layer can become swollen and water logged. This results in
anaerobic soils which can reduce or prevent plant growth and decrease organic matter
decomposition rates. The decrease in decomposition causes soils to become infertile, black alkali
soils.

Surface Crusting

Surface crusting is a characteristic of sodium affected soils. The primary causes of surface crusting
are 1) physical dispersion caused by impact of raindrops or irrigation water, and 2) chemical
dispersion, which depends on the ratio of salinity and sodicity of the applied water.

Surface crusting due to rainfall is greatly enhanced by sodium induced clay dispersion. When clay
particles disperse within soil water, they plug macropores in surface soil by two means. First, they
block avenues for water and roots to move through the soil. Second, they form a cement like surface
layer when the soil dries. The hardened upper layer, or surface crust, restricts water infiltration and
plant emergence.
Cations and Cation Exchange Capacity

Key Points

• Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the total capacity of a soil to hold exchangeable cations.

• CEC is an inherent soil characteristic and is difficult to alter significantly.

• It influences the soil’s ability to hold onto essential nutrients and provides a buffer against
soil acidification.

• Soils with a higher clay fraction tend to have a higher CEC.

• Organic matter has a very high CEC.

• Sandy soils rely heavily on the high CEC of organic matter for the retention of nutrients in
the topsoil. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a measure of the soil’s ability to hold positively
charged ions. It is a very important soil property influencing soil structure stability, nutrient
availability, soil pH and the soil’s reaction to fertilisers and other ameliorants (Hazleton and Murphy
2007).

Base Saturation

Base saturation is a measurement that indicates the relative amounts of base cations in the soil. By
definition, it is the percentage of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium cations that make up
the total cation exchange capacity. For example, a base saturation of 25 % means that 25 % of the
cation exchange capacity is occupied by the base cations. If the soil does not exhibit an anion
exchange capacity, the remainder 75 % of the CEC will be occupied by acid cations, such as hydrogen
and aluminum. Generally, the base saturation is relatively high in moderately weathered soils that
formed from basic igneous rocks, such as the basalts of Hawaii. The pH of soil increases as base
saturation increases.

In contrast, highly weathered and/or acidic soils tend to have low base saturation.

What is Organic Matter?

Benefits

Organic matter is derived from the breakdown of plant and animal residues. It is composed of forty-
five to fifty percent carbon, along with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

Organic materials, when applied as mulches or incorporated into the soil, will slowly undergo
breakdown by soil microbes into soil humus.

Examples of organic matter include plant residues such as lawn clippings, leaves, corn stalks and
straw, manures, sludges, wood and food processing wastes, and green manures (plants grown for
the purpose of incorporation into the soil).
Organic matter and soil humus (highly decomposed organic matter) provide the following benefits to
soil health:

• Provide 90% to 95% of nitrogen in unfertilized soils; nitrogen is the key nutrient and
controlling factor for plant growth.

• Supply plant-available phosphorus and plant-available sulfur when soil humus is present
(25% or more).

• Improve soil structure by increasing aggregation of soil particles which in turn promotes
aeration, infiltration, and percolation.

• Furnish 30% to 70% of a soil’s cation exchange capacity. The higher a soil’s cation exchange
capacity, the greater its ability to hold onto nutrients until needed by the plant and microbes.

• Increase plant available water, or water available to plants in-between field capacity (water
remaining in the soil after saturated soil has drained) and permanent wilting point (when plants wilt
but cannot recover despite the addition of water).

• Act as chelates which help mobilize metal micronutrients, increasing plant-availability of

these nutrients.

• Reduce soil erosion.

• Organic matter is a carbon (food) supply for beneficial soil microbes.

• Nutrients in organic matter are not readily leached from the soil.

Composting plant residues (either fast composting or slow composting) may be desirable.
Composting will facilitate microbial decomposition of the organic matter into readily-incorporated
material.

SOIL MICRO-ORGANISMS

Bacteria

Bacteria and Archaea are the smallest organisms in soil apart from viruses. Bacteria and Archaea are
prokaryotic. All of the other microorganisms are eukaryotic, which means they have a more
advanced cell structure with internal organelles and the ability to reproduce sexually. A prokaryote
has a very simple cell structure with no internal organelles. Bacteria and archaea are the most
abundant microorganisms in the soil, and serve many important purposes, including nitrogen
fixation.

Biochemical processes

One of the most distinguished features of bacteria is their biochemical versatility. A bacterial genera
called Pseudomonas can metabolize a wide range of chemicals and fertilizers. In contrast, another
genera known as Nitrobacter can only derive its energy by turning nitrite into nitrate, which is also
known also oxidation. The genera Clostridium is an example of bacterial versatility because it, unlike
most species, can grow in the absence of oxygen, respiring anaerobically. Several species of
Pseudomonas, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa are able to respire both aerobically and
anaerobically, using nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor.

Nitrogen fixation

Bacteria are responsible for the process of nitrogen fixation, which is the conversion of atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrogen-containing compounds (such as ammonia) that can be used by plants.
Autotrophic bacteria derive their energy by making their own food through oxidation, like the
Nitrobacters species, rather than feeding on plants or other organisms. These bacteria are
responsible for nitrogen fixation. The amount of autotrophic bacteria is small compared to
heterotrophic bacteria (the opposite of autotrophic bacteria, heterotrophic bacteria acquire energy
by consuming plants or other microorganisms), but are very important because almost every plant
and organism requires nitrogen in some way, and would have no way of obtaining it if not for
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Actinomycetes

Actinomycetes are soil microorganisms. They are a type of bacteria, but they share some
characteristics with fungi that are most likely a result of convergent evolution due to a common
habitat and lifestyle.

Similarities to fungi

Although they are members of the Bacteria kingdom, many actinomycetes share characteristics with
fungi, including shape and branching properties, spore formation and secondary metabolite
production.

Antibiotics

One of the most notable characteristics of the actinomycetes is their ability to produce antibiotics.
Streptomycin, neomycin, erythromycin and tetracycline are only a few examples of these antibiotics.
Streptomycin is used to treat tuberculosis and infections caused by certain bacteria and neomycin is
used to reduce the risk of bacterial infection during surgery. Erythromycin is used to treat certain
infections caused by bacteria, such as bronchitis, pertussis (whooping cough), pneumonia and ear,
intestine, lung, urinary tract and skin infections.

Fungi

Fungi are abundant in soil, but bacteria are more abundant. Fungi are important in the soil as food
sources for other, larger organisms, pathogens, beneficial symbiotic relationships with plants or
other organisms and soil health. Fungi can be split into species based primarily on the size, shape
and color of their reproductive spores, which are used to reproduce. Most of the environmental
factors that influence the growth and distribution of bacteria and actinomycetes also influence fungi.
The quality as well as quantity of organic matter in the soil has a direct correlation to the growth of
fungi, because most fungi consume organic matter for nutrition. Fungi thrive in acidic environments,
while bacteria and actinomycetes cannot survive in acid, which results in an abundance of fungi in
acidic areas. Fungi also grows well in dry, arid soils because fungi are aerobic, or dependent on
oxygen, and the higher the moisture content in the soil, the less oxygen is present for them.

Algae

Algae can make their own nutrients through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis converts light energy to
chemical energy that can be stored as nutrients. For algae to grow, it must be exposed to light
because photosynthesis requires light, so algae are typically distributed evenly wherever sunlight
and moderate moisture is available. Algae, do not have to be directly exposed to the Sun, but can
live below the soil surface given uniform temperature and moisture conditions. Algae are also
capable of performing nitrogen fixation.

Types

Algae can be split up into three main groups: the Cyanophyceae, the Chlorophyceae and the
Bacillariaceae. The Cyanophyceae contain chlorophyll, which is the molecule that absorbs sunlight
and uses that energy to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water and also pigments that
make it blue-green to violet in color. The Chlorophyceae usually only have chlorophyll in it which
makes it green, and the Bacillariaceae contain chlorophyll as well as pigments that make the algae
brown in color.

Blue-green algae and nitrogen fixation

Blue-green algae, or Cyanophyceae, are responsible for nitrogen fixation. The amount of nitrogen
they fix depends more on physiological and environmental factors rather than the organism’s
abilities. These factors include intensity of sunlight, concentration of inorganic and organic nitrogen
sources and ambient temperature and stability.

Protozoa

Protozoa are eukaryotic organisms that were some of the first microorganisms to reproduce
sexually, a significant evolutionary step from duplication of spores, like those that many other soil
microorganisms depend on. Protozoa can be split up into three categories: flagellates, amoebae and
ciliates.

Flagellates

Flagellates are the smallest members of the protozoa group, and can be divided further based on
whether they can participate in photosynthesis. Nonchlorophyll-containing flagellates are not
capable of photosynthesis because chlorophyll is the green pigment that absorbs sunlight. These
flagellates are found mostly in soil. Flagellates that contain chlorophyll typically occur in aquatic
conditions. Flagellates can be distinguished by their flagella, which is their means of movement.
Some have several flagella, while other species only have one that resembles a long branch or
appendage.

Amoebae
Amoebae are larger than flagellates and move in a different way. Amoebae can be distinguished
from other protozoa by their slug-like properties and pseudopodia. A pseudopodia or “false foot” is
a temporary obtrusion from the body of the amoeba that helps pull it along surfaces for movement
or helps to pull in food. The amoeba does not have permanent appendages and the pseudopodium
is more of a slime-like consistency than a flagellum.

Ciliates

Ciliates are the largest of the protozoa group, and move by means of short, numerous cilia that
produce beating movements. Cilia resemble small, short hairs. They can move in different directions
to move the organism, giving it more mobility than flagellates or amoebae.

INFILTRATION

Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. Infiltration rate in soil
science is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation. It is measured in
inches per hour or millimeters per hour. The rate decreases as the soil becomes saturated. If the
precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless there is some physical
barrier. It is related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the near-surface soil. The rate of
infiltration can be measured using an infiltrometer.

Infiltration is governed by two forces: gravity and capillary action. While smaller pores offer greater
resistance to gravity, very small pores pull water through capillary action in addition to and even
against the force of gravity.

The rate of infiltration is determined by soil characteristics including ease of entry, storage capacity,
and transmission rate through the soil. The soil texture and structure, vegetation types and cover,
water content of the soil, soil temperature, and rainfall intensity all play a role in controlling
infiltration rate and capacity. For example, coarse-grained sandy soils have large spaces between
each grain and allow water to infiltrate quickly. Vegetation creates more porous soils by both
protecting the soil from raindrop impact, which can close natural gaps between soil particles, and
loosening soil through root action. This is why forested areas have the highest infiltration rates of
any vegetative types.

The top layer of leaf litter that is not decomposed protects the soil from the pounding action of rain;
without this the soil can become far less permeable. In chaparral vegetated areas, the hydrophobic
oils in the succulent leaves can be spread over the soil surface with fire, creating large areas of
hydrophobic soil. Other conditions that can lower infiltration rates or block them include dry plant
litter that resists re-wetting, or frost. If soil is saturated at the time of an intense freezing period, the
soil can become a concrete frost on which almost no infiltration would occur. Over an entire
watershed, there are likely to be gaps in the concrete frost or hygroscopic soil where water can
infiltrate.
Once water has infiltrated the soil it remains in the soil, percolates down to the ground water table,
or becomes part of the subsurface runoff process.

Process

The process of infiltration can continue only if there is room available for additional water at the soil
surface. The available volume for additional water in the soil depends on the porosity of the soil[1]
and the rate at which previously infiltrated water can move away from the surface through the soil.
The maximum rate that water can enter a soil in a given condition is the infiltration capacity. If the
arrival of the water at the soil surface is less than the infiltration capacity, it is sometimes analyzed
using hydrology transport models, mathematical models that consider infiltration, runoff and
channel flow to predict river flow rates and stream water quality.

Research findings

Robert E. Horton[2] suggested that infiltration capacity rapidly declines during the early part of a
storm and then tends towards an approximately constant value after a couple of hours for the
remainder of the event. Previously infiltrated water fills the available storage spaces and reduces the
capillary forces drawing water into the pores. Clay particles in the soil may swell as they become wet
and thereby reduce the size of the pores. In areas where the ground is not protected by a layer of
forest litter, raindrops can detach soil particles from the surface and wash fine particles into surface
pores where they can impede the infiltration process.

SOIL AND WATER

2.1.1 Soil composition

When dry soil is crushed in the hand, it can be seen that it is composed of all kinds of particles of
different sizes.

Most of these particles originate from the degradation of rocks; they are called mineral particles.
Some originate from residues of plants or animals (rotting leaves, pieces of bone, etc.), these are
called organic particles (or organic matter). The soil particles seem to touch each other, but in reality
have spaces in between. These spaces are called pores. When the soil is "dry", the pores are mainly
filled with air. After irrigation or rainfall, the pores are mainly filled with water. Living material is
found in the soil. It can be live roots as well as beetles, worms, larvae etc. They help to aerate the
soil and thus create favourable growing conditions for the plant roots.

2.1.2 Soil profile

If a pit is dug in the soil, at least 1 m deep, various layers, different in colour and composition can be
seen. These layers are called horizons. This succession of horizons is called the profile of the soil
A very general and simplified soil profile can be described as follows:

a. The plough layer (20 to 30 cm thick): is rich in organic matter and contains many live roots. This
layer is subject to land preparation (e.g. ploughing, harrowing etc.) and often has a dark colour
(brown to black).

b. The deep plough layer: contains much less organic matter and live roots. This layer is hardly
affected by normal land preparation activities. The colour is lighter, often grey, and sometimes
mottled with yellowish or reddish spots.

c. The subsoil layer: hardly any organic matter or live roots are to be found. This layer is not very
important for plant growth as only a few roots will reach it.

d. The parent rock layer: consists of rock, from the degradation of which the soil was formed. This
rock is sometimes called parent material.

The depth of the different layers varies widely: some layers may be missing altogether.

2.1.3 Soil texture

The mineral particles of the soil differ widely in size and can be classified as follows:

Name of the particles Size limits in mm Distinguisable with naked eye

gravel larger than 1 obviously

sand 1 to 0.5 easily

silt 0.5 to 0.002 barely

clay less than 0.002 impossible

The amount of sand, silt and clay present in the soil determines the soil texture.

In coarse textured soils: sand is predominant (sandy soils).

In medium textured soils: silt is predominant (loamy soils).

In fine textured soils: clay is predominant (clayey soils).

In the field, soil texture can be determined by rubbing the soil between the fingers (see Fig. 28).

Farmers often talk of light soil and heavy soil. A coarse-textured soil is light because it is easy to
work, while a fine-textured soil is heavy because it is hard to work.

Expression used by the farmer Expression used in literature

light sandy coarse

medium loamy medium

heavy clayey fine

The texture of a soil is permanent, the farmer is unable to modify or change it.

2.1.4 Soil structure

Soil structure refers to the grouping of soil particles (sand, silt, clay, organic matter and fertilizers)
into porous compounds. These are called aggregates. Soil structure also refers to the arrangement of
these aggregates separated by pores and cracks.

When present in the topsoil, a massive structure blocks the entrance of water; seed germination is
difficult due to poor aeration. On the other hand, if the topsoil is granular, the water enters easily
and the seed germination is better.

In a prismatic structure, movement of the water in the soil is predominantly vertical and therefore
the supply of water to the plant roots is usually poor.

Unlike texture, soil structure is not permanent. By means of cultivation practices (ploughing, ridging,
etc.), the farmer tries to obtain a granular topsoil structure for his fields.

When rain or irrigation water is supplied to a field, it seeps into the soil. This process is called
infiltration.

Infiltration can be visualized by pouring water into a glass filled with dry powdered soil, slightly
tamped. The water seeps into the soil; the colour of the soil becomes darker as it is wetted.
Infiltration of water into the soil

2.2.2 Infiltration rate

Repeat the previous test, this time with two glasses. One is filled with dry sand and the other is filled
with dry clay

The infiltration of water into the sand is faster than into the clay. The sand is said to have a higher
infiltration rate. The same amount of water is supplied to each glass

After one hour the water has infiltrated in the sand, while some water is still ponding on the clay

The infiltration rate of a soil is the velocity at which water can seep into it. It is commonly measured
by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that the soil can absorb in an hour.

An infiltration rate of 15 mm/hour means that a water layer of 15 mm on the surface of the soil, will
take one hour to infiltrate.

A range of values for infiltration rates is given below:

Low infiltration rate less than 15 mm/hour

medium infiltration rate15 to 50 mm/hour

high infiltration rate more than 50 mm/hour

2.2.3 Factors influencing the infiltration rate

The infiltration rate of a soil depends on factors that are constant, such as the soil texture. It also
depends on factors that vary, such as the soil moisture content.

i. Soil Texture

Coarse textured soils have mainly large particles in between which there are large pores.

On the other hand, fine textured soils have mainly small particles in between which there are small
pores .

Infiltration rate and soil texture

In coarse soils, the rain or irrigation water enters and moves more easily into larger pores; it takes
less time for the water to infiltrate into the soil. In other words, infiltration rate is higher for coarse
textured soils than for fine textured soils.

ii. The soil moisture content

The water infiltrates faster (higher infiltration rate) when the soil is dry, than when it is wet (see Fig.
35). As a consequence, when irrigation water is applied to a field, the water at first infiltrates easily,
but as the soil becomes wet, the infiltration rate decreases.

Infiltration rate and soil moisture content

iii. The soil structure

Generally speaking, water infiltrates quickly (high infiltration rate) into granular soils but very slowly
(low infiltration rate) into massive and compact soils.

Because the farmer can influence the soil structure (by means of cultural practices), he can also
change the infiltration rate of his soil.

2.3.1 Soil moisture content

The soil moisture content indicates the amount of water present in the soil.

It is commonly expressed as the amount of water (in mm of water depth) present in a depth of one
metre of soil. For example: when an amount of water (in mm of water depth) of 150 mm is present
in a depth of one metre of soil, the soil moisture content is 150 mm/m.

The soil moisture content can also be expressed in percent of volume. In the example above, 1 m3 of
soil (e.g. with a depth of 1 m, and a surface area of 1 m2) contains 0.150 m3 of water (e.g. with a
depth of 150 mm = 0.150 m and a surface area of 1 m2). This results in a soil moisture content in
volume percent of:
Thus, a moisture content of 100 mm/m corresponds to a moisture content of 10 volume percent.

Note: The amount of water stored in the soil is not constant with time, but may vary.

2.3.2 Saturation

During a rain shower or irrigation application, the soil pores will fill with water. If all soil pores are
filled with water the soil is said to be saturated. There is no air left in the soil (see Fig. 37a). It is easy
to determine in the field if a soil is saturated. If a handful of saturated soil is squeezed, some
(muddy) water will run between the fingers.

Plants need air and water in the soil. At saturation, no air is present and the plant will suffer. Many
crops cannot withstand saturated soil conditions for a period of more than 2-5 days. Rice is one of
the exceptions to this rule. The period of saturation of the topsoil usually does not last long. After
the rain or the irrigation has stopped, part of the water present in the larger pores will move
downward. This process is called drainage or percolation.

The water drained from the pores is replaced by air. In coarse textured (sandy) soils, drainage is
completed within a period of a few hours. In fine textured (clayey) soils, drainage may take some (2-
3) days.

2.3.3 Field capacity

After the drainage has stopped, the large soil pores are filled with both air and water while the
smaller pores are still full of water. At this stage, the soil is said to be at field capacity. At field
capacity, the water and air contents of the soil are considered to be ideal for crop growth

2.3.4 Permanent wilting point

Little by little, the water stored in the soil is taken up by the plant roots or evaporated from the
topsoil into the atmosphere. If no additional water is supplied to the soil, it gradually dries out.

The dryer the soil becomes, the more tightly the remaining water is retained and the more difficult it
is for the plant roots to extract it. At a certain stage, the uptake of water is not sufficient to meet the
plant's needs. The plant looses freshness and wilts; the leaves change colour from green to yellow.
Finally the plant dies.

The soil water content at the stage where the plant dies, is called permanent wilting point. The soil
still contains some water, but it is too difficult for the roots to suck it from the soil (see Fig. 37c).

Fig. 37. Some soil moisture characteristics

2.4 Available water content

The soil can be compared to a water reservoir for the plants. When the soil is saturated, the
reservoir is full. However, some water drains rapidly below the rootzone before the plant can use it
(see Fig. 38a).

Fig. 38a. Saturation

When this water has drained away, the soil is at field capacity. The plant roots draw water from what
remains in the reservoir .

Field capacity

When the soil reaches permanent wilting point, the remaining water is no longer available to the
plant

Permanent wilting point

The amount of water actually available to the plant is the amount of water stored in the soil at field
capacity minus the water that will remain in the soil at permanent wilting point.

The available soil moisture or water content

Available water content = water content at field capacity - water content at permanent wilting
point .....

The available water content depends greatly on the soil texture and structure. A range of values for
different types of soil is given in the following table.

Soil Available water content in mm water depth per m soil depth (mm/m)

sand 25 to 100

loam 100 to 175

clay 175 to 250

The field capacity, permanent wilting point (PWP) and available water content are called the soil
moisture characteristics. They are constant for a given soil, but vary widely from one type of soil to
another.