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Methods of Evapotranspiration

Preprint · March 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14533.76007

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CCS HARYANA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Hisar– 125 004

AN ASSIGNMENT ON

Methods of Evapotranspiration
AGM- 505, Soil, Water Balance Climatology (2+1)

SUBMITTED TO

Dr. Surender Singh

SCIENTIST,
DEPT. OF AGRIL. METEOROLOGY,
COA, CCS HAU, Hisar

SUBMITTED BY

DIVESH CHOUDHARY
Ph.D. (Ag. Met.) II Sem, 2011-12
Reg. No: 2011 A 02 D

DEPT. OF AGRIL. METEOROLOGY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

CCS HARYANA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

Hisar -125 004

Introduction

Evapotranspiration (ET): The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost on
the one hand from the soil surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by
transpiration is referred to as evapotranspiration (ET).

Evaporation: Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapour
(vaporization) and removed from the evaporating surface (vapour removal). Water evaporates
from a variety of surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation.

Transpiration: Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant

tissues and the vapour removal to the atmosphere. Crops predominately lose their water through
stomata. These are small openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water vapour pass

Evapotranspiration (ET): Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no

easy way of distinguishing between the two processes. Apart from the water availability in the
topsoil, the evaporation from a cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar
radiation reaching the soil surface. This fraction decreases over the growing period as the crop
develops and the crop canopy shades more and more of the ground area. When the crop is small,
water is predominately lost by soil evaporation, but once the crop is well developed and
completely covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main process.

Fig. 1 Evapotranspiration
Factors affecting evapotranspiration

Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects are

factors affecting evaporation and transpiration. The related ET concepts presented in Figure 3 are
discussed in the section on evapotranspiration concepts.

1. Weather parameters: The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are

radiation, air temperature, humidity and wind speed. The evaporation power of the
atmosphere is expressed by the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo). The reference
crop evapotranspiration represents the evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated
surface.
2. Crop factors: The crop type, variety and development stage should be considered when
assessing the evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed fields.
Differences in resistance to transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground
cover and crop rooting characteristics result in different ET levels in different types of
crops under identical environmental conditions.
3. Management and environmental conditions: Factors such as soil salinity, poor land
fertility, limited application of fertilizers, the presence of hard or impenetrable soil
horizons, the absence of control of diseases and pests and poor soil management may
limit the crop development and reduce the evapotranspiration. Other factors to be
considered when assessing ET are ground cover, plant density and the soil water content.
The effect of soil water content on ET is conditioned primarily by the magnitude of the
water deficit and the type of soil. On the other hand, too much water will result in
waterlogging which might damage the root and limit root water uptake by inhibiting
respiration.

Reference crop evapotranspiration (ET0)

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the
reference crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ETo. The
reference surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics. The use of
other denominations such as potential ET is strongly discouraged due to ambiguities in their
definitions.

The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo is a climatic
parameter and can be computed from weather data. ETo expresses the evaporating power of the
atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and does not consider the crop
characteristics and soil factors.
Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc)

The crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions, denoted as ETc, is the

evapotranspiration from disease-free, wellfertilized crops, grown in large fields, under optimum
soil water conditions, and achieving full production under the given climatic conditions.

ETc will be between 1 to 9 mm/day from cool to warm average temperature. The amount
of water required to compensate the evapotranspiration loss from the cropped field is defined as
crop water requirement. Although the values for crop evapotranspiration and crop water
requirement are identical, crop water requirement refers to the amount of water that needs to be
supplied, while crop evapotranspiration refers to the amount of water that is lost through
evapotranspiration. The irrigation water requirement basically represents the difference between
the crop water requirement and effective precipitation. The irrigation water requirement also
includes additional water for leaching of salts and to compensate for nonuniformity of water
application.

Computational approaches

There are numerous methods for computing the evapotranspiration depending upon
different approaches/principles:

1. Direct approaches
A. Field Water Balance Approach
B. Soil Moisture Depletion Approach
2. Inirect approaches
A. Empirical/ Statistical Methods
B. Micrometeorological methods
C. Remote Sensing Methods
1. Direct approaches
A. Field Water Balance Approach

The field water balance an account of all qualities of water added to, subtracted from, and
stored within the root zone during a given period of time. The difference between the total
amount added and that withdrawn must equal to the change in storage. When gains exceed
losses, storage increases; conversely, when losses exceed gains, storage decreases. Thus,

Accrelation = Gains – Losses

This general statement can be amplified as fallow:

ΔS = (P+I+U) - (R+D+E+T)
Where, ΔS = change in soil water storage in the root zone, P = Precipitation, I= Irrigation, U =
upward capillary flow into the root zone from below, R = Runoff, D = Downward drainage out
of the root zone, E = Direct evaporation from the soil surface, T = Transpiration by plants.

B. Soil Moisture Depletion Method

Soil Moisture Depletion technique is usually employed to determine the consumptive use
of irrigated field crops grown on fairly uniform soil, where the depth of groung water is such that
it will not influence the soil moisture fluctuations within root zone. This technique involves the
measurement of soil moisture of various depths in effective root zone at a number of times
throughout the crop growth period. The greater the number of measurements the more will be
accuracy. By summing moisture depletion of each of the soil layer and for each interval for the
growth period, ET can be found out as:

n
U = Ʃ Ui+CPE
i=1

where, CPE is cumulative pan evaporation between irrigation date and sampling date.

Pan Evaporation Method

Evaporation pans provide a measurement of the combined effect of temperature,

humidity, windspeed and sunshine on the reference crop evapotranspiration ETo (Fig. 2)

Fig. 2 Pan evaporation method

 Many different types of evaporation pans are being used. The best known pans are the
Class A evaporation pan (circular pan) (Fig. 3a) and the Sunken Colorado pan (square pan) (Pig.
3b).

Fig. 3a Class A evaporation pan

Fig. 3b Sunken Colorado pan

The principle of the evaporation pan is the following:

the pan is installed in the field

the pan is filled with a known quantity of water (the surface area of the pan is known
and the water depth is measured)

the water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period of time (usually 24 hours).
For example, each morning at 7 o'clock a measurement is taken. The rainfall, if any, is measured
simultaneously

after 24 hours, the remaining quantity of water (i.e. water depth) is measured
 the amount of evaporation per time unit (the difference between the two measured
water depths) is calculated; this is the pan evaporation: E pan (in mm/24 hours)

the E pan is multiplied by a pan coefficient, K pan, to obtain the ETo.

Formula: ETo = K pan × E pan

Where, ETo: reference crop evapotranspiration, K pan: pan coefficient, E pan: pan
evaporation

If the water depth in the pan drops too much (due to lack of rain), water is added (see Fig.
4a) and the water depth is measured before and after the water is added. If the water level rises
too much (due to rain) water is taken out of the pan (see Fig. 4b) and the water depths before and
after are measured.

Fig. 4a. Add water when the water depth in the pan drops too much

Fig. 4b. Take water out of the pan when the water depth rises too much
Determination of K pan

When using the evaporation pan to estimate the ETo, in fact, a comparison is made
between the evaporation from the water surface in the pan and the evapotranspiration of the
standard grass. Of course the water in the pan and the grass do not react in exactly the same way
to the climate. Therefore a special coefficient is used (K pan) to relate one to the other.

The pan coefficient, K pan, depends on: the type of pan used, the pan environment: if the
pan is placed in a fallow or cropped area, the climate: the humidity and windspeed

For the Class A evaporation pan, the K pan varies between 0.35 and 0.85. Average K pan = 0.70.

For the Sunken Colorado pan, the K pan varies between 0.45 and 1.10. Average K pan = 0.80.

The K pan is high if: The K pan is low if:

the pan is placed in a fallow area the pan is placed in a cropped area

the humidity is high (i.e. humid) the humidity is low (i.e. dry)

the windspeed is low the windspeed is high

Details of the pan coefficient are usually provided by the supplier of the pan.

If the pan factor is not known the average value could be used (see box). If more
accuracy is required, the pan factors given in Annex 1 should be applied. These values, however,
only refer to the Class A evaporation pan and the Sunken Colorado pan.

Some examples

1. Type
1 of pan: Class A evaporation pan

Water depth in pan on day 1 = 150 mm (see Fig. 10a)

Water depth in pan on day 2 = 144 mm (after 24 hours; see Fig. 10b)

Rainfall (during 24 hours) = 0 mm

K pan = 0.75

Formula: ETo = K pan × E pan

Calculation: E pan = 150 - 144 = 6 mm/day

ETo = 0.75 × 6 =4.5 mm/day

 2. Type of pan: Sunken Colorado pan

Water depth in pan on day 1 = 411 mm

Water depth in pan on day 2 = 409 mm (after 24 hours)

Rainfall (during 24 hours) = 7 mm

K pan = 0.90

Formula: ETo = K pan × E pan

Calculation: E pan = 411 - 409 + 7 = 9 mm/day

ETo = 0.90 × 9 = 8.1 mm/day

Lysimeters

A lysimeter is a measuring device which can be used to measure the amount of

actual evapotranspiration which is released by plants, usually crops or trees. By recording the
amount of precipitation that an area receives and the amount lost through the soil, the amount of
water lost to evapotranspiration can be calculated. Lysimeters are of two types: Weighing and
non-weighing.

A lysimeter is most accurate when vegetation is grown in a large soil tank which allows
the rainfall input and water lost through the soil to be easily calculated. The amount of water lost
byevapotranspiration can be worked out by calculating the difference between the weight before
and after the precipitation input.

For trees, lysimeters can be expensive and are a poor representation of conditions outside
of a laboratory as it would be impossible to use a lysimeter to calculate the water balance for a
whole forest. But for farm crops, it can represent field conditions well since it is done outside the
laboratory. A weighing lysimeter, for example, reveals the amount of water crops use by
constantly weighing a huge block of soil in a field to detect losses of soil moisture.

The University of Arizona's Biosphere 2 is constructing the world's largest weighing lysimeters
using a mixture of thirty 220,000 and 333,000 lb-capacity column load cells from Honeywell,
Inc. as part of its new Landscape Evolution Observatory project.

ET is calculated as: ET= ΔW x 0.6 + rainfall,

Where, change in weight of lysimeter. It is positive in case of loss of weight and negative in case
of gain in weight.
Example: compute the ET using the following data:
Weight of lysimeter on 20-7-1976=1851.3 kg,
Weight of lysimeters on 21-7-1976=1850.1 kg
ΔW = 1.2 kg
Rainfall = 1.5 mm
Therefore ET = 1.2 x 0.6 + 1.5 = 2.22 mm/day

Fig. 5. Lysimeter

2. Inirect approaches
A. Empirical/statistical methods
1. Thornthwaite method:

Thornthwaite method(1948) gave the following formula for computing ET:

E = 1.6 (10T/I)a (D/12) (N/30)

For the month consisting 30 days and 12 hours a day, above equation can be written as:

E = 1.6 (10T/I)a

Where, E = unadjusted PET, cm/month

T = mean air temp, 0C
I = annual heat index. It is the summation of 12 values of monthaly heat indices i.
i = (T/5)1.514
a = an empirical exponent computed by an expression,
= 6.75x10-7I3=7.71x10-5I2+1.79x10-2I+0.49239
For daily computation the equation is modified as:
PET = (K x E x 10)/30 mm/day
Where, K = adjustment factor
Limitations:

1. The calculated PET is under estimated at the time of actual maximum radiation reception
during summer and consequently out of phase in fall as well.
2. Application of the method to short time period often leads to serious errors because short-
term temperature is not a suitable measure of incoming radiation.

2. Papadakis method:

Papadakis method (1965) dor computation of daily PET can be written as:

PET = [0.5625 (emax-emin-2) x 10]/ no. of days in month

Where, PET = daily PET, mm

emax = saturation vapour pressure (mb) corresponding to daily max. temp.
emin-2 = saturation vapour pressure (mb) corresponding to dailydew point temp.
papadakis considered the value of dew point temp. as approximately equal the value of
minimum temp. -2 0C.

3. Hamon method

Hamon gave (1963) the following formula for PET estimation:

PET = 0.0055 (D/12)2 [(217 ed x 2.88)/T] 25.4

Where, D = day length, hrs

ed = actual vapour pressure, mb
T = mean air temp. 0K

4. Makkink method

Makkink proposed the following formula for PET cumputation:

PET = Rs [(s/γ)/((s/γ)+1)]+0.12

Where, Rs = solar radiation in water equivalent, mm/day

s = slope of saturation vapour pressure vs temp
γ = psychrometric contant

Limitation: This method has given good results in cold wet climates but has been not found
satisfactory in arid region.

5. Jensen and Haise method:

Jensen and Haise (1963) proposed the formula:

 PET = Rs (0.025 Ta + 0.08)
Where, Ta = mean air temp. 0C
Rs = solar radiation in water equivalent, mm/day

6. Modified Jensen and Haise method:

Chaudhary (1995) gave the following modified equation for computing PET

PET = 0.012 (T-15.4 Rs)

Where, T = mean air temperature, 0F
Rs + solar radiation in water equivalent, mm/day

Limitation: this method tends to seriously under estimate PET under advective conditions.

7. Blaney-Criddle method

Blaney-Criddle (1950) proposed the following formula for PET cumputation:

PET = (0.0173 Ta – 0.314) Kc x Ta (D/4465.6) 25.4 mm/day

Where, Ta = mean air temperature, 0F

Kc = crop coefficient
D = day length
Limitation: This method dose not account for most of the climatic parameters, which greatly
influence PET. The value of Kc varies for plant species and stage of the criop.

8. Turc method

Turc gave following formula for estimation of daily PET:

PET = 0.40 Tc (RI + 50) / [(Tc + 15)N]

Where, Tc = mean air temperature, 0C

RI = solar radiation, ly, day
N = no. of days in month

9. Stephens and Stewart method

Stephens and Stewart (1963) proposed following formula for estimation of PET:

PET = (0.0082 Ta-0.19) (RI/1500) x 25.4 mm day-1

10. Grassi method:

Grassi (1964) proposed following formula for estimation of PET:

 PET = 0.537 x 0.000675 x RI (0.62 + 0.00559 Ta) x 25.4 mm day-1

11. Linarce method:

Linarce (1977) gave the following formula for estimation of PET:

PET = [700 Tm / (100-I) + 15 (Ta-Td)] / (80-Ta)

Where, Tm = Ta + 0.006z
Z = elevation, m
Ta = mean air temp, 0C
Td = mean dew pont temp, 0C
I = laqtitude, degree

Limitation: The value of PET differ from measured values by 0.3 mm/day

B. Micrometeorological methods

1. Energy balance

The energy arriving at the surface must equal the energy leaving the surface for the same time
period. All fluxes of energy should be considered when deriving an energy balance equation. The
equation for an evaporating surface can be written as:

Rn - G - λ ET - H = 0 (1)

Where, Rn is the net radiation, H the sensible heat, G the soil heat flux and λ ET the latent heat
flux.

The latent heat flux (λ ET) representing the evapotranspiration fraction can be derived
from the energy balance equation if all other components are known. Net radiation (Rn) and soil
heat fluxes (G) can be measured or estimated from climatic parameters. Measurements of the
sensible heat (H) are however complex and cannot be easily obtained. H requires accurate
measurement of temperature gradients above the surface.

2. Penman-Monteith equation

The Penman-Monteith form of the combination equation is:

Where, Rn is the net radiation, G is the soil heat flux, (es - ea) represents the vapour pressure
deficit of the air, ρ a is the mean air density at constant pressure, cp is the specific heat of the air,
represents the slope of the saturation vapour pressure temperature relationship, γ is the
psychrometric constant, and rs and ra are the (bulk) surface and aerodynamic resistances.

3. Aerodynamic resistance (ra)

The transfer of heat and water vapour from the evaporating surface into the air above the
canopy is determined by the aerodynamic resistance:

Where, ra aerodynamic resistance [s m-1], zm height of wind measurements [m], zh height of

humidity measurements [m], d zero plane displacement height [m], zom roughness length
governing momentum transfer [m], zoh roughness length governing transfer of heat and vapour
[m], k von Karman's constant, 0.41 [-], uz wind speed at height z [m s-1].

h crop height d = 2/3 h, zom = 0.123 h

zoh = 0.1 zom
Assuming a constant crop height of 0.12 m and a standardized height for wind speed,
temperature and humidity at 2 m (zm = zh = 2 m), the aerodynamic resistance ra [s m-1] for the
grass reference surface becomes:

Limitations of micrometeorological methods:

1. These method require sophisticated and costly instruments for micrometeorological
observations.
2. Fetch ratyio is very important.
3. Similarly hypothesis should be true for use energy balance- Bowen ratio and
aerodynamic approaches.
4. Advection should be absent.
5. These methods are no valid under moisture stress conditions.
 B. Remote sensing method
1. Bartholic, Namken end Wiegand model:

Modifying the Monteith surface energy balance equation Bartholic et. al., (1970) developed
following model for ET estimation:

ETd = (Rn-G)/[1+γ (Ta-Tc)/{es(Ta)-es(Tc)}]

Where, ETd = daiy ET, mm

γ = psychrometric constant, mm of Hg 0C-1
Ta= air temperature above the canopy, 0C
Tc = canopy temperature, 0C
ea (Ta), es (Tc) = saturation vapour pressure (mm of Hg) at Ta and Tc,
respectively.

2. Brown and Rosenberg Resistance model:

Brown and Rosenberg (1973) utilized the resistance model and proposed the following
equation for estimation of LE:

LE = (Rn-G) + [ρaCp (Tc-Ta)/ra]

Where, ρa = density of air, kg m-3

Cp = heat capacity of air, J kg-1 C-1
ra = aerodynamic resistance
z = height above the ground, m
d = zero plane displacement, 0.63h
z0 = roughness parameter, 0.13h
k = Von Karman’s constant, 0.41
uz = crop height, m

3. Energy balance-regression model

Jackson et al., (1977) and Seguin et al., (1982) formulated this simple model using a few
input parameters:

ETd – Rnd = A-B (Ts-Ta)

Where, ETd = daily ET,

Rnd = daily net radiation,
Ts = surface temperature.
Ta = air temp.
A & B = air constants, and daily scale it is assumed that G is negligible.

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