BUSITEMA

UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Engineering -
Lecture notes

Abstract
This lecture material was prepared by the undersigned for the purpose of
understanding Evapotranspiration, factors affecting/influencing
Evapotranspiration, Measurements and Estimation of Evapotranspiration.
This material is intended for use by students doing Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering, Water Engineering, Hydrology and Agriculture Engineering.
The final copy is underway.

EBIC ANDREW
andrewebic@gmail.com (+256 776 64 0100)
3.1 Estimation of Evapotranspiration and Crop Factors

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Definition
The plant roots suck or extract water from the soil to live and grow. The main part of this water
does not remain in the plant, but escapes to the atmosphere as vapour through the plant's leaves
and stem. This process is called transpiration.

Transpiration happens mainly during the day time. Water from an open water surface escapes as
vapour to the atmosphere during the day. The same happens to water on the soil surface and to
water on the leaves and stem of a plant. This process is called evaporation.

The water need of a crop thus consists of transpiration plus evaporation. Therefore, the crop water need
is also called "evapotranspiration".
The water need of a crop is usually expressed in mm/day, mm/month or mm/season.

Evaporation (E)
- Process of water movement, in the form of vapor, into the atmosphere from soil, water, or
plant surfaces.
Transpiration (T)
- Evaporation of water from plant stomata into the atmosphere.
Evapotranspiraton (ET)
- Sum of evaporation and transpiration.

The influence of the climate on crop water needs is given by the reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo).
ETo is the rate of evapotranspiration from a large area, covered by green grass, 8 to 15 cm tall, which
grows actively, completely shades the ground and which is not short of water.
• Grass references are usually for grass that is maintained (by mowing) at a 12-cm height.
• Typical grass varieties used in research are alta fescue and perennial ryegrass

Potential Evaporation
• The evaporation of water requires energy
• The latent heat (in calories) required for the vaporization of one cubic centimeter (or one
gram) of water is given by the equation:
ִ λ= 595.9 -0.55T
in which λ is the latent heat of vaporization in calories per cm2; and, T is the dry air
temperature in °C. • for metric units as follows:
λ = 2.50- 0.002361 T
where λ is in MJ/kg; and, T is the dry air temperature in °C (usually, use the average air
temperature)
• Advection is heat transfer resulting principally from lateral (horizontal) movement of air
• Convection is similar, but more often associated with vertical air movement
 • The total energy available for water evaporation can be estimated by the sum of net radiation
plus advective energy
• The evaporative potential may be determined by either of the above two equations for lambda

Direct Methods for Determining ET

• Evapotranspiration can be measured directly by means of lysimeters • Lysimeters are tanks or

containers of soil in which plants are grown under conditions similar to the surrounding soil and
vegetation
• The top of a lysimeter coincides with the surrounding ground surface
• Lysimeters come in a variety of sizes and designs
• Lysimeters are used for research in crop water consumption and are found at agricultural research
stations in many countries, as well as in golf courses and other areas

• Very large lysimeters may have an access ladder to allow for inspection and maintenance, but
many lysimeters are too small for this kind of feature
• It is often difficult to notice a lysimeter because most of it is underground, and the vegetation on
the surface hides the upper edges
• Changing water content in the lysimeter is measured by weighing, by comparing applied water
with the amount of drainage, or by other suitable methods
• The ET of various grasses grown in lysimeters has been used to develop and/or calibrate
numerous equations for estimating ET0
• However, due to the wide variations in the ET of grasses and in the management and design of
lysimeters, there has been considerable variation in the calibration of equations for computing
ET0
• The emphasis on the use of lysimeters has shifted more toward the determination of crop
coefficients than reference crop evapotranspiration because equations (most notably, the
Penman-Monteith equation) have been shown to predict reference ET with excellent accuracy
for most agricultural locations around the world

Methods to determine reference crop evapotranspiration

There are several methods to determine the ETo. They are either:
• experimental or
• theoretical, using measured climatic data
Pan Evaporation Method

Evaporation pans provide a measurement of the combined effect of temperature, humidity, wind speed
and sunshine on the reference crop evapotranspiration ETo.

Many different types of evaporation pans are being used. The best known pans are the Class A
evaporation pan (circular pan) and the Sunken Colorado pan (square pan).

The Class A pan is circular, 121 cm diameter and 25.5 cm deep, made of galvanized
iron 22 gauge) or monel metal (0.8 mm). It should be set upon a level, open woodframe
platform with its bottom surface about 15 cm above the ground surface. The water level
in the pan should be maintained between 5 and 7.5 cm below the top rim.

• Evaporation pans should be surrounded by clipped grass and a fence to keep out animals (birds
may use it as a bath) and people
• Evaporation pans should have a minimum amount of upwind fetch
• The so-called fetch is descriptive of the area surrounding the evaporation pan, which may be
green (vegetated) or dry
• A green fetch would be found at a weather station in an agricultural area, for example
• A dry fetch might be found around a weather station at an airport, for example
• For ET0 calculations, a green fetch is preferred because it tends to give much more representative
results

The principle of the evaporation pan is the following:

• the pan is installed in the field
• the pan is filled with a known quantity of water (the surface area of the pan is known and the
water depth is measured)
• the water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period of time (usually 24 hours). For example,
each morning at 7 o'clock a measurement is taken. The rainfall, if any, is measured
simultaneously
• after 24 hours, the remaining quantity of water (i.e. water depth) is measured
• the amount of evaporation per time unit (the difference between the two measured water depths)
is calculated; this is the pan evaporation: E pan (in mm/24 hours)
 • the E pan is multiplied by a pan coefficient, K pan (or Kp), to obtain the ETo.

ETo = K pan × E pan

ETo: reference crop evapotranspiration

K pan: pan coefficient
E pan: pan evaporation

Determination of K pan
When using the evaporation pan to estimate the ETo, in fact, a comparison is made between the
evaporation from the water surface in the pan and the evapotranspiration of the standard grass.
Of course the water in the pan and the grass do not react in exactly the same way to the climate.
Therefore a special coefficient is used (K pan) to relate one to the other.

The pan coefficient, K pan, depends on:

• the type of pan used
• the pan environment: if the pan is placed in a fallow or cropped area
• the climate: the humidity and wind speed
For the Class A evaporation pan, the K pan varies between 0.35 and 0.85. Average K pan = 0.70.
For the Sunken Colorado pan, the K pan varies between 0.45 and 1.10. Average K pan = 0.80.

The K pan is high if: The K pan is low if:

the pan is placed in a fallow area the pan is placed in a cropped area
the humidity is high (i.e. humid) the humidity is low (i.e. dry) the
wind speed is low the wind speed is high

Details of the pan coefficient are usually provided by the supplier of the pan.
If the pan factor is not known the average value could be used. If more accuracy is required, the
pan factors given in the following table should be applied. These values, however, only refer to
the Class A evaporation pan and the Sunken Colorado pan.

PAN COEFFICIENT (K pan) FOR CLASS A PAN FOR DIFFERENT GROUND COVER AND
LEVELS OF MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND 24 HOUR WIND
PAN COEFFICIENT (K pan) FOR SUNKEN COLORADO PAN FOR DIFFERENT
GROUND COVER AND LEVELS OF MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND 24 HOUR
WIND
 1 For extensive areas of bare fallow soils and no agricultural
development, reduce K pan by 20% under hot, windy conditions; by 5-10% for moderate
wind, temperature and humidity conditions.

You can use the following formula to calculate K pan.

• For a green fetch:

Kpan=0.108-0.000331U2 + 0.0422lnF+0.1434ln(Rh)-0.000631(lnF)2 ln(Rh)
• For a dry fetch:
Kpan=0.61 + 0.00341Rh-0.00000187U2Rh-0.000000111U2F + 0.0000378U2 lnF -
0.0000332U2lnU2-0.0106lnU2lnF+0.00063(lnF)2lnU2

where, Kpan = pan evaporation coefficient

U2 = daily wind run (80 to 700 km/day)
F = upwind fetch distance of "green" or "dry" terrain (1 to 1,000 m)
Rh = average (mean) daily relative humidity (30 to
84%) In the above Eqs: don't let U2 be less than 80 nor more than
700 km/day
don't let F be less than 1 nor more than 1,000 m
don't let Rh be less than 30 nor more than 84%
• Measure wind speed using an anemometer
• The wind speed at 2 m above the ground can be estimated from the wind speed, Uz, at a height
z above the ground:
 where U2 is the extrapolated wind speed at 2-m height; z is in m; and, hc is the height
of the vegetation around the weather station in m (usually 0.05 to 0.50 m) • The mean Rh
(in percent) can be estimated as follows:

Sample Evaporation Pan Calculations

Given:

• A Class-A evaporation pan in the middle of an irrigated valley

• The valley is approximately 13 x 24 km in size, completely cropped
• The evaporation pan is surrounded by 10-cm-high clipped grass
• An anemometer at a 3-m height above the ground gives an average wind speed of 9.3 km/h over
the past 24 hours
• The minimum relative humidity for the past 24-hr period was 44%
• The maximum relative humidity for the past 24-hr period was 82%
• Pan evaporation over the same 24-h period was 8.9 mm

Solution:

• Average wind speed

or,
U2 = (8.6 km/hr)(24 hrs/day) = 206 km/day

• Kpan
The fetch is "green" because the evaporation pan is located in the middle of a valley. The size
of the valley indicates that the fetch is greater than 1 km, so use F = 1,000 m. Rh is:

Kpan = 0.108 - 0.000331(206) + 0.0422 ln(1000) +0.1434ln(63)-

0.000631(ln1000)2ln(63) = 0.801
• ETo
ET0 = KpanEpan = (0.801)(8.9 mm) = 7.1 mm

which is for the 24-h period

Example

1) Type of pan: Class A evaporation pan

Water depth in pan on day 1 = 150 mm
Water depth in pan on day 2 = 144 mm (after 24 hours)
Rainfall (during 24 hours) = 0 mm
K pan = 0.75
Formula: ETo = K pan × E pan
Calculation: E pan = 150 - 144 = 6 mm/day
ETo = 0.75 × 6 =4.5 mm/day
2) Type of pan: Sunken Colorado pan
Water depth in pan on day 1 = 411 mm
Water depth in pan on day 2 = 409 mm (after 24 hours)
Rainfall (during 24 hours) = 7 mm
K pan = 0.90
 Formula: ETo = K pan × E pan
Calculation: E pan = 411 - 409 + 7 = 9 mm/day
ETo = 0.90 × 9 = 8.1 mm/day
Evapotranspiration Equations

A list of some of the more well known ET equations:

a. Blaney-Criddle, FAO-24
b. Blaney-Criddle, SCS TR-21
c. Businger-van Bavel
d. Christiansen-Hargreaves Pan Evaporation
e. FAO-24 Pan Evaporation
f. Hargreaves
g. Jensen-Haise
h. Kimberly Penman
i. Penman
j. Penman FAO-24
k. Penman-Monteith
i. Priestly-Taylor m
Radiation Method n.
Thomthwaite
o. Turc
The Hargreaves and Penman-Monteith equations are in common use.

Classification of Methods
• Radiation methods include:
o Hargreaves o
Jensen-Haise o
Others
• Temperature methods include:
o Thomthwaite o
Blaney-Criddle o
Others
• Evaporation methods include:
o FAO pan
evaporation o
Others
• Combination methods include:
o Penman o
Kimberly
Penman o
Penman-Monteith
o Priestly-Taylor
o Others

Hargreaves Equation

• Hargreaves, et al. (1985) and Hargreaves and Samani (1985) proposed the use of an equation
for estimating ET0 from air temperature and latitude:
 in which ET0 and Ra are in the same units of equivalent water evaporation (often in mm), Ra is
extraterrestrial solar radiation.
T is the mean air temperature in °C, or the average of mean maximum and mean minimum
daily temperatures, and TR is the average daily temperature range for the period
considered (mean daily maximum minus mean daily minimum).
• T is calculated based on Tmax & Tmin, instead of hourly (or even more frequent) values, for
standardization in calculations.
• The value of TR is influenced by solar radiation, humidity, local advective energy transfer,
and the frontal temperature differences associated with storms and abrupt weather changes.
• Therefore, the above equation will not be accurate for the days of major weather changes but
usually provides very satisfactory results when T and TR are averaged over periods of five
or more days
• The equation is often applied to the calculation of weekly ET0

Don't obtain weather data from instruments located at an airport or other nonagricultural
area!

Penman-Monteith Equation

• This equation is theoretically complete in terms of energy balance, but requires a variety of
accurate weather parameters
• It is for a well-watered, hypothetical grass reference crop with crop height, hc, of 0.12 m, and
α = 0.23
• It is for a hypothetical reference crop because the calculated ET0 may not exactly match
lysimeter measurements in all locations
• Thus, you need a nearby weather station in good condition to apply this equation
• The Irrigation and Drainage Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, and the International
Commission for Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) have recommended the use of the Penman-
Monteith equation to estimate reference crop ET • This equation can be expressed as (FAO
1998):

where ET0 is in units of mm/day for a grass reference crop; Δ is the slope of the
saturation vapor pressure function (kPa/°C); γ is a psychrometric constant (kPa/°C);
Rn is net solar radiation (MJ/m2/day); U2 is the wind speed (m/s) at 2.0 m height
(above the ground surface); T is the mean daily air temperature (°C); es - ea
represents the vapor pressure deficit (VPD) of air (kPa); and, G is the soil heat flux
density (MJ/m2/day)

• Except for some brief (less than 24 h) intervals, Rn is always positive

• If U2 is in km/day, divide by 86.4 to get m/s
• VPD is an index for evaporative potential
 Vapor pressure is a partial pressure, contributing tototal atmospheric pressure.
It can be used as a measure of the water content of air.
• es is the saturation vapor pressure, and ea is the actual vapor pressure (ea < es) • Note that when
ea = es, the vapor pressure deficit is zero.
• In the above equation, the following are always true: (1) es - ea > 0; and, (2) U2 > 0
• So far, no one measures actual vapor pressure, ea, directly, but it can be estimated from dry
and wet bulb air temperatures, and in other ways
• Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) can be converted to Kelvin (K) by adding the constant
273.16 (notice the constant "273", which is 273.15 rounded to three significant digits)

Slope of the saturation vapor pressure function

• The slope of the saturation vapor pressure function, Δ, can be calculated as:

where Δ is in kPa/°C; T is the mean air temperature (°C); and, es is the saturation
vapor pressure (kPa) at temperature T. The above equation is an empiricallyderiven
one.

Saturation vapor pressure

• A single value of the saturation vapor pressure, es, can be estimated from air temperature
measurements as follows (FAO 1998):

where the vapor pressure is in units of kPa, and T is the air temperature (°C)

• The term exp( ) means e raised to the power of the term in parentheses
• For 24-hour periods the saturation vapor pressure should be calculated as the average of es at
Tmax and es at Tmin for the day (24-h period)
Actual vapor pressure

• The actual vapor pressure, ea, is estimated by multiplying the maximum relative humidity by
the vapor pressure at Tmin
• The justification is that the minimum daily air temperature is usually associated with the
maximum daily relative humidity
• Thus, ea at Tmin, multiplied by RHmax is:
 where ea is in kPa; and, Tmin is in °C

• Alternatively, using dew point temperature (if available):

where ea is in kPa;
(Rh)max is in percent; and, Tdew is the dew point temperature in °C

• Then, when the maximum relative humidity is 100%, es is equal to ea at Tmin

Dew point temperature is the temperature to which the air must be cooled to bring
it to saturation. The actual vapor pressure equals the saturation vapor pressure at
the dew point temperature. Thus, the drier the air, the larger the difference between
the air temperature and the dew point temperature.

• Most weather stations do not report values for Tdew because it takes specialized equipment,
such as a chilled-mirror device
• Chilled-mirror devices use a light source which reflects off a mirror and arrives at a sensor-
when the mirror is chilled to Tdew, water condenses on the mirror surface and the light signal
is diffused, so that the signal at the sensor is much weaker than before, indicating that Tdew has
been reached
• Chilled mirrors have been used almost exclusively in research weather stations, and are now
even less common than in previous years - instead, you can use an accurate relative humidity
sensor and estimations of es to calculate ea (see the discussion of relative humidity, below)
avoiding the need to determine Tdew
• When the air temperature drops below the dew point, water from the air condenses on blades
of grass and other surfaces
• If dew point temperature is available, use the later equation, otherwise use the former equation
• Note also that you can use a psychrometric chart to find Tdew from the dry-air temperature and
relative humidity, for example

Relative humidity

• Relative humidity is defined as:

where Rh is in percent
• Some weather stations use relative humidity sensors, of which there are various
designs, some of which are accurate to within about +2% of the true Rh
• Modern Rh sensors often use a small plate in which the electrical conductance or
capacitance varies with relative humidity - sensor output in millivolts is typically
linear with respect to Rh, so the sensors are easily calibrated
• Thus, if you measure Rh and calculate es based on dry-bulb air temperature, you can
calculate ea using the above equation

Psychrometric constant

• The psychrometric constant, γ, is calculated as:

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 where γ has units of kPa/°C; cp is the specific heat of moist air at constant pressure
(equal to 0.00101 MJ/kg/°C); P is atmospheric pressure (kPa); ε is the ratio of
molecular weights of air to water (equal to 0.622); and, λ is the latent heat of
vaporization (usually about 2.45 MJ/kg)

• Note that if P is in units of mb, then γ will have units of mb/°C

• Gamma (γ) is essentially equal to a constant coefficient multiplied by P, where
average P is a function of elevation
• The value of Ra in equivalent units of evaporation can be estimated by taking into
account the latent heat of vaporization
• Lambda (λ) is the conversion factor between MJ/m2 and equivalent millimeters of
water evaporation
• Divide the Ra value in MJ/m2/day by the value of λ to obtain equivalent mm/day of
evaporation
• For example, if Ra is 35 MJ/m2/day, the equivalent evaporation is about
35/2.45 = 14.3 mm/day

Atmospheric pressure
• The mean atmospheric pressure, P, is a function of elevation above mean sea level, and
is approximately equal to:

where P is in
kPa; and, z is the elevation above mean sea level (m)

Soil heat flux density

• The daily value of soil heat flux density, G can estimated as:

where G is in units of MJ/m2/day; Tday is the average air temperature on the day of
calculations (°C); and, T3 is the average of the average daily air temperatures of the previous
three days (°C) • Other equations for estimating G can be found in FAO Irrigation & Drainage
Paper No. 56 (see page 54 of FAO 56)
• G is positive when the soil is warming, negative when the soil is cooling
• That is, G is positive when the soil is adsorbing energy from above
• The magnitude of G is almost always small compared to Rn, and can often be considered
negligible

Solar Radiation
Different solar radiation values can be used in estimating crop ET

1. Net solar radiation (Rn)

2. Solar, or global, radiation (Rs)

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 3. Clear sky solar radiation (Rso)
4. Extraterrestrial solar radiation (Ra)

• In general, the term "radiation" refers to any process which carries energy through
space
• Some common types of radiation are:

1. Electromagnetic
2. Alpha & beta particles
3. Gravitational
4. “Cosmic” (assorted particles)
• Alpha particles are helium nuclei
• Beta particles are high-speed electrons
• Radiation as discussed with regard to the main energy source for crop
evapotranspiration is overwhelmingly of the electromagnetic variety • Below is a
glimpse of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum:

• Visible light (for humans) is in the range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 µm.
• Longer wavelengths mean lower energy (e.g. radio waves are electromagnetic
radiation of relatively low energy)
• Direct and reflected solar radiation is called "short-wave"
• Short-wave (10-3 to 10-5 cm) radiation has relatively higher energy
• Long-wave radiation is mostly in the range from 0.1 to 0.001 cm
• EM radiation emitted from the sun is much higher frequency (shorter wavelength)
than that emitted from the Earth's surface or the atmosphere
• "Long" and "short" are relative distinctions

Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation

• Extraterrestrial solar radiation is that which arrives at the outer surface

of our atmosphere
• It is a lot easier to estimate than net solar radiation at the ground
surface because albedo and atmospheric factors don't need to be
accounted for
• Then, Ra, can be calculated according to latitude and day of year
• The following equations are taken from Allen, et al. (1993), Duffie
and Beckman (1980) and London and Frohlich(1982):

15
 2 where Ra is in units of MJ/m /day; dr is the
relative distance from the earth to the sun; ωs is the sunset hour angle (rad); ф
is the latitude (rad); and δ is the declination of the sun (rad)
• Southern latitudes are given negative ф values
• The remaining values are defined as:

where J is the calendar day from 1 to 365 or 366 (J equals 1 for January 1st,
etc.), depending on whether a given year is a leap year.
• On a leap year the constant 365 in the denominator can be replaced by
366, but the difference in the results may not be significant.
• The inverse cosine argument in Eq. 4 is valid for latitudes between 55
°N and 55 °S (0.95993 < ф < -0.95993).
• For latitudes outside this range, the argument should be less than or
equal to 2.0, during the winter.
• If less than zero during the summer, it should be evaluated as [tan ф
tan δ - 2.0].

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 • The earth's orbit is only slightly eccentric (nearly circular), and the
distance from the earth to the sun varies from about 147.8 to 152.6
million km.
• The difference in sunlight intensity arriving at the earth's outer
atmosphere is about 7%, from perihelion to aphelion.
• An average daily Ra value for a month can be roughly estimated from
an equation for approximate values of J for the middle of each month.
• The equation is:
J = 15.2 +[30.4 (M-1)]
where M is the number of the month (beginning with 1 for January)
• Of course, the above equation represents a shortcut calculation and is
mostly for use when you are not using a computer.

Solar Radiation (Rs)

Solar radiation is also called global radiation. Rs is the short-wave solar radiation arriving
at the earth's surface.

where n is the actual hours of sunshine during a day (hrs); and N is the potential
number of hours of sunshine in a day (hrs)
• You can get n from a "crystal ball" (called Gunn-Belani) which burns a paper
(acts like a magnifying glass) when the sun is shining.
• Such devices are found in some weather stations, but you have to change the paper
every day, and they must be manually read.

17
 • You can get N from day of year and latitude by calculating ωs and multiplying by
24/π:

Clear Sky Solar Radiation (Rso)

• Rso is equal to Rs when n = N

• On cloudless days, the value of Rs equals Rso
• The ratio of Rs to Rso varies from about 0.33 to 1.0
• The value of Rso can usually be approximated as:

where z is the elevation above mean sea level (m)

Net Solar Radiation (Rn)

• Rso is incoming solar radiation, so you have to subtract the outgoing long-wave
radiation to obtain net radiation at the ground surface
• Rn is normally positive during the daytime and negative during the nighttime
• But total daily Rn (24-hr period) is usually positive
• Rn can be defined (in words) as the difference between incoming short-wave
radiation and net outgoing long wave radiation, relative to the ground level
• You can buy expensive instruments and calibrate them to measure Rn, or you can
estimate it based on a messy semi-empirical equation (Wright 1982; Allen 1992;
and others) calibrated in Kimberly, Idaho
• Thus, the following is somewhat subject to local calibration • Estimate Rn
as follows:

where, α = albedo (surface reflectance) σ= Stephan-Boltzmann

emissivity constant (equal to 4.903(10)-9 MJ/m2/day
°K ; or 11.71(10) cal/cm /day K4)
4 -8 2

Tmax = maximum daily air temperature (K)

Tmin = minimum daily air temperature (K)
es,dew = saturated vapor pressure at dew point temperature
Rns = net incoming short-wave radiation
Rnl = net outgoing long-wave radiation
The albedo can be estimated as:

where Cα is 96 for northern latitudes, and 276 for southern latitudes

• Use b1 = 0.044 for es, dew in mb, or b1 = 0.139 for es, dew in kPa
• When Rs/Rso > 0.7 ("not too cloudy"): a = 1.126; b = -0.07
• When Rs/Rso < 0.7 ("kind of cloudy"): a = 1.107; b = -0.06

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 • FAO Irrig & Drain Paper 56 (1998) suggests the following values:

• The equation for Rn is usually applied on a daily (24-hr) basis

• Note that es,dew = ea, because the air must be cooled to Tdew to saturate it when Rh < 100%
• Note also that °K = °C + 273.16
• Finally, if α could be equal to 1.0 (total reflectance), Rn = 0 (but this is never the case in practice)

Discussion of the above ETO Equations

• The Penman-Monteith and Hargreaves equations produce very similar values for ET0 when
compared using standard conditions for periods of five or more days and complete and reliable
climatic data
• Also, the Hargreaves equation requires much simpler climatic data and can be successfully
applied in more locations because many sites do not have sufficient data for application of the
Penman-Monteith equation
• The standardized Penman-Monteith method for ET0 is currently recommended as the reference
value by the FAO (in lieu of lysimeter data)
• This equation can be used to calculate ET0 on a daily, or even an hourly basis
• Hourly calculations of ET0 are seldom used except in research studies, and usually not in
irrigation scheduling, because the actual irrigation application depths are not so precisely known.

Blaney-Criddle Method

The Blaney-Criddle method is simple, using measured data on temperature only. It should be noted,
however, that this method is not very accurate; it provides a rough estimate or "order of magnitude"
only. Especially under "extreme" climatic conditions the Blaney-Criddle method is inaccurate: in windy,
dry, sunny areas, the ETo is underestimated (up to some 60 percent), while in calm, humid, clouded
areas, the ETo is overestimated (up to some 40 percent).

The mean daily temperature: T mean

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The mean daily percentage of annual daytime hours for different latitudes: p

CROP FACTORS

The relationship between the reference grass crop and the crop actually grown is given by the crop
factor, Kc.
ETo × Kc = ET crop

with ET crop = crop evapotranspiration or crop water need (mm/day)

Kc = crop factor
ETo = reference evapotranspiration (mm/day)

Both ET crop and ETo are expressed in the same unit: usually in mm/day (as an average for a period of
one month) or in mm/month.

Kc values generally range from about 0.2 to 1.2 for a grass reference crop, and the value for many
agricultural crops never exceeds that of grass, even during the peak use period.

The crop factor, Kc, mainly depends on:

• the type of crop
• the growth stage of the crop
• the climate
Kc and the type of crop
Fully developed maize, with its large leaf area will be able to transpire, and thus use, more water than
the reference grass crop: Kc, maize is higher than 1. Cucumber, also fully developed, will use less water
than the reference grass crop: Kc, cucumber is less than 1.
Kc and the growth stage of the crop
A certain crop will use more water once it is fully developed, compared to a crop which has just recently
been planted. Kc and the climate
The climate influences the duration of the total growing period and the various growth stages. In a cool
climate a certain crop will grow slower than in a warm climate.

The determination of the Kc values for the various growth stages of the crops involves several steps:
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 Step 1 - Determination of the total growing period of each crop
Step 2 - Determination of the various growth stages of each crop
Step 3 - Determination of the Kc values for each crop for each of the growth stages

VALUES OF THE CROP FACTOR (Kc) FOR VARIOUS CROPS AND GROWTH STAGES

The table above shows average Kc values for the various crops and growth stages. In fact, the Kc is also
dependent on the climate and, in particular, on the relative humidity and the wind speed. The values
indicated above should be reduced by 0.05 if the relative humidity is high (RH > 80%) and the wind
speed is low (u < 2 m/sec), e.g. Kc = 1.15 becomes Kc = 1.10. The values should be increased by 0.05
if the relative humidity is low (RH < 50%) and the wind speed is high (u > 5 m/sec), e.g. Kc =
1.05 becomes Kc= 1.10.

Special Cases

Alfalfa, Pasture and Clover

Alfalfa, pasture and clover are regularly cut during the year. Just after cutting they are in the "initial
stage", while just before the next cutting, they are in the "late season stage". To determine the crop water
need it is best to use an average value of the crop factor Kc.

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Bananas
The establishment of a new banana plantation takes approximately 6 months from planting to full ground
cover. One year after planting, the first harvest takes place, after which the shoots that have produced
are removed. Meanwhile young shoots have fully developed and take over the production.

Citrus
The crop factor Kc for clean cultivated citrus is 0.70 year-round. This value is applicable for large mature
trees, covering some 70% of the ground surface. If there is no weed control, a Kc value of 0.90 year-
round should be used.
Rice
For paddy rice

Sugarcane
Crop coefficients for sugarcane vary widely depending on climate and sugarcane variety. It is best to
use locally available data. If such data are not available, two tables below can be used.
The first table refers to a virgin sugarcane crop from establishment to first harvest, which is assumed to
take 18 months. The second table refers to a ratoon crop, which is the regrowth after the harvest of the
virgin crop. The regrowth is assumed to take 12 months. Sometimes, depending on local practices, a
virgin crop is followed by 2 or 3 ratoon crops.

Cacao, coffee, tea

For cacao, coffee and tea the following year-round Kc values are recommended:
• no cover crop, no shade: Kc = 0.95
• with cover crops and shade trees: Kc = 1.1
Olives
For mature olive trees the following year-round Kc values are recommended:
• wide spacing of trees: Kc = 0.4
• close spacing of trees: Kc = 0.7
Grapes
With the assumption that the grape harvest starts some 5 months after the first leaves appear, the Kc
values indicated in the table below can be used for the months starting with the first leaf appearance.
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CALCULATION OF THE CROP WATER NEED

ET crop = ETo × Kc

Crop Coefficient Values

• The figure below gives generalized crop coefficients and the growth stage, which is approximately
correct for weekly or longer calculation periods, and for basal crop coefficients

Crop (Kc)1 (Kc)2 (Kc)3

Alfalfa 0.40-0.50 1.00-1.40 0.95-1.35
Artichokes 0.90-1.00 0.95-1.05 0.90-1.00
Asparagus 0.25-0.30 0.95 0.25
Banana 0.40-0.65 1.00-1.20 0.75-1.15
Barley 0.25-0.30 1.00-1.10 0.10-0.20
Beans (green) 0.30-0.40 0.95-1.05 0.85-0.95

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Beans (dry) 0.30-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.25-0.30
Beets (table) 0.24-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.25-0.30
1
Cabbage, etc. 0.30-0.50 0.95-1.10 0.80-0.95
Cantaloupe 0.15-0.40 1.00-1.10 0.30-0.90
Carrot 0.40-0.50 1.05 0.75
Celery 0.25-0.35 1.00-1.15 0.90-1.05
2
Citrus 0.65 0.65-0.75 0.65
Corn (Maize grain) 0.20-0.50 1.05-1.20 0.35-0.60
Corn (sweet) 0.20-0.50 1.05-1.20 0.70-0.80
Cotton 0.20-0.50 1.05-1.30 0.30-0.60
Cucumber 0.20-0.40 0.90-1.00 0.70-0.80
Deciduous orchard 0.50 0.85-1.20 0.50-0.85
Deciduous orchard with cover 0.75-0.85 1.10-1.25 0.70-1.10
crop
Egg plant 0.25-0.50 0.95-1.10 0.80-0.90
Flax 0.20-0.40 1.00-1.15 0.20-0.25
Grape 0.20-0.50 0.74-0.85 0.20-0.45
Groundnut 0.30-0.50 0.95-1.00 0.50-0.60
Kiwifruit 0.30 1.05 1.05
Lentil 0.20-0.30 1.05-1.20 0.25-0.30
Lettuce 0.20-0.30 0.85-1.05 0.45
Millet 0.20-0.40 1.00-1.15 0.25-0.30
Oats 0.20-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.20-0.25
Olives 0.60 0.80 0.80
Onions (dry) 0.40-0.60 0.95-1.10 0.75-0.85
Onions (green) 0.40-0.60 0.95-1.05 0.95-1.05
Peas (fresh) 0.40-0.50 1.05-1.20 0.95-1.10
Peppers (fresh) 0.30-0.40 0.95-1.10 0.80-0.90
Pistachios 0.10 1.10 0.35
Potatoes 0.40-0.55 1.10-1.20 0.40-0.75
Pulses 0.20-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.25-0.30
Rice 1.10-1.15 1.10-1.30 1.10
Safflower 0.30-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.20-0.25
Small grains 0.20-0.40 1.10-1.30 0.20-0.35
Sorghum (grain) 0.15-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.30-0.50
Soybeans 0.30-0.40 1.00-1.15 0.45-0.55
Spinach 0.20-0.30 0.95-1.05 0.90-1.00
Squash 0.20-0.40 0.90-1.00 0.70-0.80
Sugar beet 0.20-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.70-1.00
Sugarcane 0.40-0.50 1.00-1.30 0.50-0.60
Sunflower 0.30-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.35-0.45
Tobacco 0.30-0.40 1.00-1.20 0.75-0.85
Tomatoes 0.25-0.50 1.05-1.25 0.60-0.85

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 Watermelon 0.25-0.50 1.00-1.10 0.20-0.70
Wheat 0.20-0.40 1.05-1.25 0.20-0.30

1
Includes other crucifers (e.g. cauliflower, broccoli, brussel sprouts)
2
Add 0.20 to 0.25 when there is a cover crop

Sample ETO Calculations

I. Introduction

• This example is adapted from R.G. Allen's notes (1992)

• The data are from a weather station in Kimberly, Idaho
• There are also lysimeter data from the same site, with alfalfa planted in and around the
lysimeter
• In addition, there are data from a Class A pan with 1,000 m of fetch
• We will use these data to calculate ET0 from some different equations and compare the results
to the lysimeter data
• The measured data are for a 24-hour period

II. Measure Data

III. Preliminary Calculation

• Recall that a langley is a cal/cm2

• We can generally convert from an alfalfa reference to a grass reference by dividing by
1.2
• Thus, the lysimeter-measured ET for a grass reference is about 7.92/1.2 = 6.60 mm/day

Mean daily air temperature (°C):

0.5(30.0+12.8)=21.4
Extraterrestrial solar radiation:

• For July 15, J = 31 +28+31 +30+31 +30+15 = 196

25
 • Angle Φ is positive for northern latitudes, equal to Π(42.4°)/180 = 0.740 radians

• The above Ra value is 40.78 MJ/m2/day

• Equivalents, Ra is about 973 cal/cm2 per day

Clear sky solar radiation:

• Estimate Rs0 (clear sky radiation, no clouds) as: Rso = 0.75Ra = 0.75(40.78) = 30.59 which

is also in MJ/m2/day (or, 30.59/0.0419 = 730.1 langleys/day)

Average daily vapor pressure (grass reference):

• Estimate ea as (using Tdew = 10.0°C):

where
the value "10.0" is the dewpoint temperature

• In this example, ea is equal to 12.28 mb (ten times the value in kPa)

• As calculated above, the mean air temperature over the 24-hr period is about
0.5(30.0 + 12.8) = 21.4°C
• Estimate the saturation vapor pressure, es, using another (essentially equivalent) form of
the equation:

or 2.54 kPa
• However, if you calculate es like this:

es=2.86 kPa
Net solar radiation, Rn:

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 • Rs/Rso=641/730=0.88, which is greater than 0.7, so:
a=1.126, b=-0.07
• b1=0.044
• Finally, determine Rn

or, 329 x 0.0419 = 13.8 MJ/m2/day (because there are 0.0419 MJ/m2 per cal/cm2, and
one langley is defined to be equal to a cal/cm2) Soil heat flux. G:

• This could be estimated based on the past three days' air temperatures, but in this case we
will assume it to be negligible (which it often is)

Other parameters for Penman-Monteith:

λ = 595.3 -0.55(21.4) = 583.5 cal/cm3 which is equivalent to

583.5 cal/g (1 gram per cm3 of water)

or, P=879.5 mb

Wind speed extrapolated to 2-m height (vegetation height of 12 cm around the

weather station):

which is equal to
(181.7)(1000)/24/3600 = 2.10 m/s (at 2 m height)
IV. Hargreaves Equation

• Ra is 40.78 MJ/m2/day
• λ = 2.50 - 0.002361 (21.4) = 2.449 MJ/kg
• Then, in equivalent depth of water evaporation,

• This compares to the Iysimeter value of 6.60 mm/day (error = 5.8%)

• The difference is very small considering that the Hargreaves equation is not
recommended for time periods of less than one week
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V. Penman-Monteith Equation

• Δ = 1.555 mb/°C, or 0.1555 kPa/°C

• γ = 0.584 mb/°C, or 0.0584 kPa/°C

• This compares to the same lysimeter value of 6.60 mm/day (error = 21%). The difference
is rather large; however, there are "special" versions of Penman-Monteith for alfalfa
reference, and the lysimeter did have alfalfa.
• R.G. Allen applied a different form of the equation with slightly different parameter
values and units (but for the same data set) and got ET0 = 6.42 mm/day, which of course
is much closer to the lysimeter data.
• If we put G as -5.11, we would get ET0 = 6.60 mm/day just right). But G should not be
on the same order of magnitude as Rn. Finally, we don't know really know the true value
of G in this case.
• Note that there are so many parameters, conversions, and estimations that go into
Penman-Monteith, it is easy to get a non-representative value for ET0. This equation
needs to be applied by specialists who have control over the input data and or have
intimate knowledge of the input data and weather station conditions.
VI. FAO Pan Evaporation Method

• For Kpan, use U2 = 181.7 km/day

• The site is in an irrigated agricultural area, so use the maximum value of 1,000 m for
fetch
• Compute (Rh)mean

First, get saturation vapor pressures at Tmax and at Tmin:

Recall that ea was already calculated as 12.28 mb. Now, determine

• The pan evaporation coefficient is:

Kpan= 0.108-0.000331(181.7) + 0.0422 ln(1,000)

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 +0.1434 ln(56.0)-0.000631(ln1,000)2ln(56.0) = 0.795 •

The pan evaporation was given as 8.4 mm/day, then ET0 =

KpanEpan = 0.795(8.4) = 6.68 mm/day

• This compares very well to the lysimeter value of 6.60 mm/day (error = -1.2%)
• However, the FAO pan evaporation method will not usually be so accurate

References & Bibliography

Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., and Smith, M. 1998. Crop evapotranspiration, Irrigation and
Drainage, Paper 56, FAO, Rome, Italy. 300 pages.

ASCE. 1990. Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Water Requirements. Manuals and Reports on
Engineering Practice, No. 70. American Soc. of Civil Engr., Washington, D.C. 332 pages.

Hargreaves, G.H., and Samani, Z.A. 1982. Estimating Potential Evapotranspiration. J. Irrig. and Drain.
Div., ASCE, 108(3):225-230.

Hargreaves, G.H., and Samani, Z.A. 1985. Reference Crop Evapotranspiration from Temperature.
Applied Engrg. in Agriculture, 1(2):96-99.

Hargreaves, G.H., and Allen, R.G. 2003. History and Evaluation of Hargreaves Evapotranspiration
Equation. J. Irrig. and Drain. Engrg., ASCE. 129(1):53-63.

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