Monsoon ..

What is monsoon?
South-west monsoon
North-east monsoon
Western disturbances
AAR of India : 119 cm

Hydrograph : ???

Area of hydrograph ??

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 Evapotranspiration (ET)
Transpiration
Photosynthesis
It is a process of water is the leaves
loss from plants' processthrough
by which plants use
stomatos for their metabolism during photosynthesis.
In hydrologic cycle about sunlight, water,
10% water orand carbonisdioxide
moisture added to the atmosphere by transpiration process.
for their metabolic activity. 
Evapotranspiration (ET)
Water loss through evaporation and transpiration combined is called Evapotranspiration (ET).
Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously
It is not easy to distinguish between the two processes.
When the crop is small, water is predominately lost by soil evaporation.
But once the crop is well developed transpiration becomes the main process.
Evapotranspiration rate is expressed in mm or cm per unit time.
Time unit can be an hour, day, week, month or even an entire growing period or year.
Evapotranspiration is sometimes referred to as consumptive use.
As consumptive use considers the water required for metabolic growth of a plant,
it is slightly higher than evapotranspiration.
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Evapotranspiration can be
i) potential evapotranspiration,
ii) actual evapotranspiration.
iii) monthly evapotranspiration
iv) seasonal evapotranspiration,
Factors affecting Evapotranspiration:
Following factors influence the magnitude of evapotranspiration.
i) Evaporation from the soil ix) Type of crop
ii) Temperature x) Cropping pattern
iii) Wind velocity xi) Length of growing season
iv) Relative humidity of air xii) Stage of growth of plant
v) Precipitation xiii) Nature of leaves of plants
vi) Daytime hours xiv) Method of irrigation
vii) Intensity of sunlight xv) Quantity of irrigation water
viii) Soil type and topography xvi) Quantity of readily available moisture
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Methods of determining ET:
Methods adopted for determining the ET are :
A) Direct measurements
B) Use of empirical formulae
Various direct measurements are…
i) Tank or Lysimeter method
ii) Field experimental plots
iii) Soil moisture depletion studies on plots
iv) Water balance method
Various empirical formulae are…
i) Blaney - Criddle Method
ii) Thornthwaite Method
iii) Hargreaves’ Method
iv) FAO Penman - Monteith Method

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i) Tank or Lysimeter method:

It is a special type of tank containing soil and is set on the field itself.
Lysimeter should be accommodated (buried) in the field to reproduce
the same soil conditions, moisture content, type and vegetation of the
surrounding area.
A lysimeter measures actual evapotranspiration.
Its surface area varies from 0.05 to 100 sq.m.
Its depth varies from 0.1 to 5 m.
Amount of water consumed by the plant is its evapotranspiration.
ET is expressed in linear or volumetric units.
Lysimeter studies are time-consuming and expensive.
They do NOT simulate field conditions.

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ii) Field Experimental Plots
A plot of known size is selected.
Water is added in a controlled fashion to have satisfactory growth of plants.
Applied water is measured.
During watering … surface runoff and deep percolation … are not allowed.
Applied quantity of water is measured and is equal to ET.

iii) Soil moisture studies on plots

Water is added in a controlled fashion to have satisfactory growth of plants.
Groundwater level is far away from root zone depth.
Soil samples at different depths are collected and their moisture content values, using oven-drying
method are determined before, during and after irrigation.

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iv) Water Balance Method
Water balance method is also called the ‘inflow-outflow method’.
It is suitable for large areas (watersheds) over long period.
It may be represented by the following hydrological equation;
ET = I + P + (GWi – GWf ) – O

I = Total inflow into the area for 12 months

P = Annual precipitation
GWi = Groundwater at the beginning of the year

GWf = Groundwater at the end of the year

O = Annual outflow.
This method necessitates adequate measurement of all factors, expect evapotranspiration.
Evapotranspiration is computed from the measured data.

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Empirical equations:

i) Blaney - Criddle Method

This method requires information of mean monthly temperature and day light hours which is based
on the latitude of the place.
Monthly consumptive use is obtained using
u=kf
where f = monthly consumptive use =
t = mean monthly temperature in o F
p = monthly daylight hours expressed as % of day light hours of the year.
k = empirical crop coefficient. 

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ii) Thornthwaite Method
Thornthwaite method is based on the assumption of an exponential relationship between mean monthly
temperature and mean monthly consumptive use.

where,
PET = Potential Evapotranspiration (cm/month)
t = mean monthly air temperature (°C)
I = annual heat index = Sum of 12 values of monthly heat indices (i)
i = ( t / 5 )1.514

b =

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iii) Hargreaves’ Method
Hargreaves based on his work on data from grass lysimeter, proposed the following
relationship to estimate ET,

where
The Langley (Ly) is a unit of heat transmission, used to express
PET = Potential evapotranspiration
the rate of solar radiation received by the earth.
t = mean daily temperature (°C)
Radiation is measured in SI unit called a ‘Becquerel (Bq)’.
Rs= actual incident solar radiation in Langley/day,
It is the number of photons emitted per second by a source.
where
The device used for measurement is Geiger counter.
where
S is the percent of possible sunshine hours and
Rso is the clear day solar radiation in Langley/day.

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iv) FAO Penman - Monteith Method
FAO Penman - Monteith method equation to estimate evapotranspiration is

where,
ET0 = evapotranspiration [mm day-1]
Δ = slope of vapour pressure curve [kPa°C-1]
Rn = net radiation at the crop surface [MJ m-2 day-1]
The slope of the saturation vapour pressure curve, Δ, describes
G = soil heat flux density [MJ m  day ],
-2 -1
vaporization status.
T = mean daily air temperature at 2 m height [°C]
u2 = wind speed at 2 m height [m/s]

es = saturation vapour pressure [kPa]

ea = actual vapour pressure [kPa]

es - ea = saturation vapour pressure deficit [kPa]

ɤ = psychrometric constant [kPa°C-1] (relates partial vapour pressure and temperature)

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Pr.1 The mean monthly temperatures in 0 C at a place from January to December in a year are 16.6, 18.5, 23.3, 27.6,
28.4, 25.8, 24.4, 23.8, 23.5, 23.6, 20.2 and 17.1. Compute the PET for May and Nov using Thronthwaite method.
Day light hours for the two months as percentage of day light of the year are 9.3 and 7 respectively.

Sol: As per Thornthwaite method, monthly PET is given by

where,
PET = Potential Evapotranspiration (cm/month), t = mean monthly air temperature (°C)
I = annual heat index = Sum of 12 values of monthly heat indices (i)
i = ( t / 5 )1.514

b =

Contd…
12
Month Mean Monthly
monthly Heat Index, i i = ( t / 5 )1.514
Temp in 0C
Jan 16.6 =( = 6.152
I=
Feb 18.5 =( = 7.249
Substituting the value of I in the equation for a,
Mar 23.3 10.279
Apr 27.6 13.283
= 2.70
May 28.4 13.87
Now, PET for May :
Jun 25.8 11.99
Value of ’b’ for May: b = b =
Jul 24.4 11.022
Aug 23.8 10.614
= x 365 x12 = 407.34
Sept 23.5 10.413
Therefore, b = b = = 1.1315
Oct 23.6 10.48
Therefore, PET for May = 1.6 x 1.1315 x (
Nov 20.2 8.281
= 18.3 cm
Dec 17.1 6.435
Similarly for Nov, PET is 5.55 cm.
Total = I = 120.072

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Pr. 2 For the above data, determine the PET of sugarcane crop in the moths of May and Nov using
Blaney-Criddle equation. The crop coefficient for sugarcane for May and Nov are 0.9 and 0.85.
Sol : According to Blaney-Criddle equation, monthly consumptive use (u) is obtained using
u=kf
where f = monthly consumptive use = ; k = empirical crop coefficient. 
t = mean monthly temperature in o F , p = monthly daylight hours expressed as % of day light hours of the year.
For May : t = 28.40C = 83.12 0 F ; p = 9.3%
Therefore, f = = 7.73 inches = 19.64 cm.
Then Monthly consumptive use for May = u (May) = 0.9 x 19.64 = 17.67 cm.
For Nov : t = 20.20C = 63.36 0 F ; p=7%
Therefore, f = = 4.43 inches = 11.27 cm.
Then Monthly consumptive use for Nov = u (Nov) = 0.85 x 11.27 = 9.58 cm.

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