Design of Urban Water System Module3

Design of Urban Water System 2016
Chapter-1
1. Introduction
1.1 Historical background
Everybody understands the importance of water to our lives; clean water has already
been a matter of human concern for thousands of years. It is a known fact that all major
early civilizations regarded an organized water supply as an essential requisite of any
sizeable urban settlement.
Water for drinking purposes has been appreciated by human race from times
immemorial. As a matter of fact, community life developed in the beginning only at
places where there was enough Water to sustain life. People living in the arid and semi-
arid regions had to struggle hard in search of natural springs and shallow wells. They
have to dig wells, construct cistern to store water etc. Wells were common in ancient
Egypt, Greece, Syria, Persia, and India. From sanitary point of view, wells furnish safer
drinking water than that could be obtained from surface water sources. Joseph's well at
Cairo in Egypt is one of the most ancient wells. It was excavated in solid rock to a depth
of about 90 m. Besides; wells and underground cisterns for the storage of rain Water were
built in Jerusalem. Stored water was used to be conveyed through masonry conduits and
aqueducts.
The first 17 kilometers long aqueduct was constructed by Appius Claudius about 312 B.C.
to supply water to Rome. A second aqueduct of about 60 km. length of which about 300 m
length was supported on arches, was constructed at about 270 B.C. At that time stone,
lead, and pottery were the only materials known for the construction of siphons. The
Romans constructed many works of great importance in all parts of their Empire. In Rome
different aqueducts were used to bring water of different standards for different uses. The
best quality was used for domestic purposes and the others for baths and other public
uses. In some cases water was used to be passed through artificial reservoirs to affect
purification by sedimentation.
Ethiopian Civil Service University Page 1

With the fall of Roman Empire, water supply structures got destroyed, in the ninth
century Mr. Moors constructed some important works in Spain, In 1183, a small aqueduct
was constructed in Paris. Lead pipes were used in 1235 to bring small quantities of spring
water to London. In 1412, waterworks were constructed in Germany. From 1553 to 1570
Aqueduct of Zempola was constructed by a Franciscan Monk in Mexico. In 1582 the first
pump was installed on the old London Bridge for the purpose of supplying water to the
city through lead pipes.
In 1608, pumps, operated by water power were installed in Paris. Pumps operated by
stream were installed in London and Paris both in eighteenth century. In America, Boston
was the first city to receive water supply by gravity from springs in 1652. By 1800, U.S.A.
had in all 16 water works.
Development of modern water works and sewage treatment plants began in about 1850.
But rapidity in the development came only after Germs theory of diseases became an
established fact and role of water as a disease carrier was well understood.
By 1900, most of the important cities were having public water supply systems. In 1904
water supply of London was brought under municipal management, which was
previously used to be supplied by eight separate companies. From 1850 to 1900,
considerable work such as perfection of C.I. pipes, production of pumping machinery, etc.
was done in U.S.A. [Singh 2004]

Figure1.1. Water supply coverage in the world (Source:WHO/UNICEF/WSSCC, 2000)
1.2 Water supply schemes

1.2.1 General
Since the distribution of water resource in the world is not in coherence with the demand
spatially and temporally; well planned, constructed, operated and maintained water
supply scheme implementation is becoming a prior question, especially in urban areas.
Although once-safe supplies have been rendered, environmental pollution results from
human activity.
Sewers are primarily intended to carry storm water, but when storm sewers were built, it
was not unusual to prohibit their use for household wastes. It becomes evident that
prompt removal of waterborne wastes was an important factor in public health. This, by
itself, lead us to the conclusion: a well collected, treated and disposed wastewater which
can be achieved by implementing a carefully designed, constructed and operated
sewerage system should be provided, specifically in highly dense population area.

The most important aspect of any water supply scheme is the choice of source of supply.
The source should be permanent, reliable, and should provide water with minimum
impurities. Lakes, streams, impounded reservoirs, and springs, are the surface sources;
whereas, wells, springs, and infiltration galleries, are the ground Sources.
After the selection of the source of water, the next step is to construct suitable intake
works to collect and carry water to treatment plants, for treatment. The treatment of water
depends on the source of supply, and the amount and nature of impurities present in it.
Water generally has suspended, dissolved, and colloidal impurities. Underground waters
are compulsively clear, cool, and free from bacteria. However, the treatment may be
necessary to remove hardness, iron and manganise. Surface waters may require chemical
treatment with coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation, prior to filtration through
sand fitters.
Aeration, chlorination, activated carbon processes etc. are used for the removal of tastes
and odors. Chlorination is almost always essential for disinfection. To prevent dental
carries (cavity formation) sometimes, fluorides are also added to water and removed
when excess otherwise. Corrosion is controlled by pH value adjustment, and
neutralization.
Water is carried through pipes from source to treatment plant, and then from treatment
plant to distribution system. Distribution system consists of large arterial mains,
distribution mains, miner distributors, and appurtenances, including valves, meters and
hydrants. Treated water is stored in clear water reservoirs. From there it is distributed to
the consumers through distribution system of pipes. In low level areas water will flow
directly under gravity but for high level areas, elevated tanks and pumps will have to be
installed. The complete outline of water supply Engineering involving various processes
is shown in figure 1.2

. Figure 1.2 Typical Water Supply scheme
1.2.2 Preliminary Investigation
Before any water supply project is taken up, a scheme is drawn and the different aspects
of the scheme are carefully studied from different view points. A water supply scheme for
a city is established in stages, because these schemes are very costly. Only that much work
is taken in hand at a time, for which, funds are available.
The following points should be looked into in their sequential order while considering
any public water supply scheme.
1. Source of water supply.

2. Population.
3. Financial aspects.
4. Per head water supply.
5. Quality of water.
6. Sanitary survey of the area.
7. Topography of the area.
8. Trend of development of the town
1.2.3 Essential Drawings

The following drawings are usually prepared on convenient scales
1. Contour plans.
2. Detailed drawings.
3. Line diagram.
4. Site plan.
5. Topographical map.
1. Contour plans: The contour plan of the area to be served by the project is prepared
and positions of mains, branches, valves, levels of street crossing, etc., are clearly
marked on it.
2. Detailed drawings: Detailed longitudinal sections of mains, branches, etc. should
be drawn and levels of the mains should clearly be marked on it. Sizes of the pipe
lines, and their depth below the ground, should also be clearly marked. Detailed
drawings of man-holes, inlets, pumping stations, etc. should be prepared.
3. Line diagram: A flow diagram should be prepared to indicate the sequence of
various operations.
4. Site plan: The site plan shows the location of the scheme and the area to be served
by the scheme. Sometimes, the site plan and contour plan are combined.
5. Topographical map: The topographical features of the area such as roads, source
of supply, railways, drains, depressions, hillocks, telephone and electric lines, etc.
are all shown on this map.
Drawings of water supply schemes are required for the following reasons:
a. To workout the estimated cost of the project,

b. To obtain the administrative approval of the whole project.
c. To decide the stages in which the scheme is to be implemented. .
d. To give instructions to the supervising staff during construction of various
components of the scheme.
1.2.4 Feasibility Report

A detailed report about the feasibility of the scheme along with detailed drawings is
submitted for administrative approval. The report should include the following points:

1. Land acquisition for the scheme,

2. Alignments, depths, and gradients of the pipe lines,
3. Existing water supply arrangements,
4. Financial aspects of the project,
5. Expected revenue from the scheme,
6. Present population to be served and the expected growth in population
in future two-three decades,
7. Detailed calculation and designs of various units,
8. Nature of existing industries and expected nature of new industries,
9. Quality of water available from the source,
10. Reasons to support the selection of the. Source of water,
11. Brief outline of specifications of construction works,
12. Layout and design of the distribution system,
13. Pumps and allied machinery to be used in the scheme,
14. Source of supply and standard of purification.
1.2.5 Advantages of Water Supply Schemes
 Community gets wholesome water to drink. This prevents spread of disease, and
public health is protected from water-borne diseases.
 Community gets fresh, odorless, and tasteful water to drink.
 Industries do not have to install their own water purification units as they get their
supply from public water supply schemes directly.
 Better cleanliness is possible only with adequate water supply. Flushing of WCs'
urinals etc is possible only with water supply schemes.
 Installation of water supply scheme opens new employment opportunity for the
local people.
 New business in pipes, valves, and other water supply appurtenances, is set up by
the local traders.

Chapter-2
2. Water Demands
2.1 General
While designing the water supply scheme for a town or city, it is necessary to determine
the total quantity of water required for various purposes by the city. As a matter of fact
the first duty of the engineer is to determine the water demand of the town and then to
find suitable water sources from where the demand can be met. But as there are so many
factors involved in demand of water, it is not possible to accurately determine the
actual demand. Certain empirical formulae and thumb rules are employed in determining
the water demand, which is very near to the actual demand.
Usually a compromise is sought between the two.
We need demand data for two basic reasons:

i. To manage existing systems, demand data is very important.
ii. It is a necessity to have demand data in order to plan new works to meet future
demand.
2.2 Types of Demands
While planning a water supply scheme, it is necessary to find out not only the total yearly
water demand but also to assess the required average rates of flow and the variation in
these rates. The following quantities are therefore generally assessed and recorded.
a) Total annual volume (V)

b) Annual average rates in liters per day (V/365)
c) Annual average demand per person (per capita demand)
d) Fluctuating rates of demand in flows is expressed in terms of percentage ratios of
maximum or minimum yearly, monthly, daily or hourly rates to their corresponding
average values.
The various types of water demands may be broken down into the following classes:

1. Domestic Water Demand

2. Industrial and Commercial Water Demand
3. Demand for Public uses
4. Fire Demand
5. Demand for Losses
For a well-established design of a supply scheme, the above demands be evaluated to the
at most accuracy obtainable.
1. Domestic Water Demand
This includes the water required in private buildings for drinking, cooking, bathing, lawn
sprinkling, gardening, sanitary purposes, etc. The amount of domestic water consumption
per person shall vary according to the living conditions of the consumers.
In most countries the domestic demand accounts about 50 to 60% of the total demand.
The total domestic water demand shall be equal to the total design population multiplied
by per capita domestic consumption.
2. Industrial and commercial water demand
This includes the quantity of water required to be supplied to offices, factories, different
industries, hotels, hospitals etc. This quantity will vary considerably with the nature of
the city and with the number and type of industries and commercial establishments
present in it. The use of water in industries is usually for cooling. Major industries use
their own supply (>10,000 m3/day) for reasons of not degrading the citys water supply
and cost.
In supply estimation, to include or exclude industrial demand is a problem in that if
design includes, the industry later may say that it would have its own and if it is ignored,
and industrial development may be discouraged. Hence on average a margin of 20-25 %
of the total water demand may be taken for design.
3. Public demand
This is the quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as watering of
municipal or public parks, gardening, washing and sprinkling on roads, use on public
fountains, waste water conveyance, etc. Usually the demand may range from 2-5% of the
total demand.
4. Fire demand
The quantity of water required for extinguishing fire should be easily available and
always kept stored in storage reservoirs. Fire hydrants are usually fitted to the water

mains and fire-fighting pumps are connected to these mains by the fire brigade personnel
when a fire breaks out.
This quantity is normally obtained on the basis of certain empirical formal.
These are
i. National board of fire underwriter formulas.
Q = 64 √ P (1 – 0.01√P)
Where Q = rate of flow of water in l/sec
P = Population in thousand
ii. Freeman formula.
Q = 1135.5 ((P⁄ 10) + 10)
Where Q is in lit/min
P is in thousands
iii. Kuichling formula.
Q = 3182 √P
Where Q is in lit / min
P is in thousands
5. Losses
This includes the water lost in leakage due to bad plumbing or damaged meters, stolen
water due to unauthorized water connection and others. These losses should be taken in
to account while estimating the total requirements. Losses are usually taken as high as
35% of the total consumption.
Therefore,
{Actual ¿}¿{}=¿{Total ¿}{potential ¿}¿{}+¿{Consumer ¿}¿{}+ ¿{Distribution ¿}¿{}+¿{Unsatisfied ¿}¿{}¿
Factors affecting losses and wastes
As discussed here in above, enormous amount of water is lost in leakages, wastes, thefts,
etc. The various factors, which give rise to losses and the measures to control these losses,
are summarized below.
1. Loosen joints: due to bad plumbing. Usually joints are leaky.

2. Pressure in the distribution system: higher pressure in the distribution system leads to
higher leakage losses. This happens when a scheme is designed to serve multi storey
buildings. Thus such buildings are encouraged to develop their own storage.
3. System of supply: In intermittent system of supplies, the leakage loss is reduced, as it
does not occur for the whole daylong.
4. Metering: In metered supply, wastage is considerably reduced because people become
more careful in using water as they pay for it.
5. Illegal connections: People connect their personal pipes illegally to the system.
2.3 Timely Variation in Demand
Per capita demand (q) is the annual average daily consumption of a person.
Seasonal variation: such variation occurs due to larger use of water in summer season,
lesser use in winter and much less in rainy season. This also occurs in industries, which
are involved in processing of cash crops at the time of harvesting.
Daily variation: Day to day variations reflect household and industrial activity. For
example water consumption is high on Sundays and holidays.
Hourly variation: Hourly consumption usually attains peak value between about 7 A.M.
to 10 A.M. and then again from 7 P.M. to 9 P.M.
These variations in the demand or draft should be generally assessed and known in order
to design supply pipes, service reservoirs, distribution pipes etc. To these peak values, an
allowance is given for sudden and heavy withdrawal for fire fighting.
Assessment of Normal variation
Small towns experience a more variable demand and shorter periods of draft or
consumption with greater departure from the mean. Maximum demands (monthly, daily,
or hourly) are generally expressed as ratios of their means. The ratios may vary
considerably for different communities.
Qday- max = 1.5 Q day- avg

Maximum daily consumption = 1.5 (average daily demand), i.e., .

35
30
25
20
15
10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Hours
Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-1: Hourly

variation in demand
Maximum hourly demand = 1.5 (average hourly consumption of the max day), i.e.,
Q hr- max= 1.8( Q day- max/24 )=1.8( 1.5Q day- avg/24 )=2.7 ( Q day- avg/24 )=2.7¿ {Annual Average¿ }¿ {}¿
where
Q day- avg is in l/day or m3/day and Q hr- max is in l/hr. or m3/hr.
Example: 2.1. Estimate daily consumption of IUDS campus for the following components:
Dormitory, cafeteria, offices and class rooms. Estimate and prepare also demand hourly
pattern/variation for weekdays and weekends. (Try to collect raw data as much as
possible to make your calculation: no. of students, no of offices, lounge capacity, no. of
toilets, cafeteria capacity, etc….)

Coincident draft
It is very unlikely that a fire breaks out when water is being used by consumers at the
Q hr- max
maximum hourly draft or consumption, . Hence for design purposes the total draft
(Qcd )
is not taken as the sum of the maximum hourly demand and fire demand but is
taken as the sum of maximum daily demand and fire demand or the max hourly demand
whichever is greater. The maximum daily demand, Q day-max, when added to the fire
(Qcd )
demand for working the total draft is known as coincident draft .
Consider the following simple sketches showing possible layouts of water supply
schemes.
Pipe grids
Conduit Conduit
IR SR Type III
Type I
Distribution system
Pipe grids
Conduit Conduit
F SR
IR Type I Type III
Distribution system
Pipe grids
Conduit Conduit
LLP TP HLP Conduit SR
Type I Type II Type III
Well fields
Distribution system
Rivers Pipe grids
Conduit Conduit
LLP TP HLP Conduit SR
Type I Type II Type III
Distribution system
Figure 2.2 layouts of water supply schemes.

Note: IR is Impounding Reservoir, SR is Service Reservoir, TP is Treatment Plant, LLP is

Low Lift Pump, HLP is High Lift Pump and F is Filters.
Figure 2 2: Sketches showing possible layouts of water supply schemes.
The various components of the system involved in the scheme should be designed for a
specific demand value as given in the following recommendations.
Qday- max
Source of Supply (reservoirs, rivers, wells, etc.) may be designed for or occasionally
Q day- avg
.
Pipe mains (types I and II), i.e., pipes taking water from the source to the service reservoir
Qday- max
may be designed for .
Qday- max 1.6Q day- avg
Filters and other units in the treatment plant may be designed for or ,
whichever is greater.
Pumps with one standby:
4
a) Low lift pumps may be designed for
2Q day- avg or 3 Qday- max , whichever is greater.
4
b) High lift pumps may be designed for
3Q day- avg or 3 Qday- max , whichever is greater.
Note: when pumps do not work for all the 24 hours, such as in small towns, the design
24
f=
No . of hours the pump works per day
draft or demand should be multiplied by a factor .
Q hr- max Qcd
Distribution system and type III pipes should be designed for or , whichever is
greater.
Service reservoir should be designed to handle
a. Hourly fluctuations of flow;
b. The emergency reserve;
c. The provision required when pumps satisfy the entire days demand less than 24
hours; and
d. The fire demand.
Hence the service reservoir may be designed to provide storage approximating full day
consumption.
In community, water is used for various purposes as described above. For the purpose of
estimation of total requirement of water, the demand is calculated on the average basis,
which is expressed in per capital demand (lit / clay)

i.e. per capital Demand = Q / P*365

Where Q: – is the total quantity of water required by a town per year in liter.
P: - The population of the town
Example 2-2
A water supply company has delivered an annual quantity of 80,000,000 m3 to a city of
1.2 million inhabitants. Find out the specific demand in the distribution area. In addition,
calculate the domestic consumption per capita with leakage from the system estimated at
15 % of the total supply, and billed non-domestic consumption of 20,000,000 m3/y.
Answer:
Gross specific demand can be determined as:
Qavg = (80,000,000 *1000)/ (1,200,000*365)* ≈ 183 l / c / d
The leakage of 15% of the total supply amounts to an annual loss of 12 million m3.
Reducing the total figure further for the registered non-domestic consumption yields the
annual domestic consumption of 80 – 12 – 20 = 48 million m3, which is equal to a specific
domestic consumption of approx.110 l/c/d.
2.4 Factors Affecting Per Capita Demand

The following are the main factors affecting for capita demand of the city or town.
 Climatic conditions : The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is more
than cold countries because of the use of air coolers, air conditioners, sprinkling
of water in lawns, gardens, courtyards, washing of rooms, more washing of clothes
and bathing etc. But in very cold countries sometimes the quantity of water required
may be more due to wastage, because at such places the people often keep their taps
open and water continuously flows for fear of freezing of water in the taps and use of
hot water for keeping the rooms warm.
 Size of community: Water demand is more with increase of size fo town because more
water is required in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance of parks and
gardens.
 Living standard of the people : The per capita demand of the town increases with the
standard of living of the people because of the use of air conditioners, room coolers,
maintenance of lawns, use of flush, latrines and automatic home appliances etc.
 Industrial and commercial activities: As the quantity of water required in certain
industries is much more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will
enormously increase per capita demand of the town. As a matter of the fact the water
required by the industries has no direct link with the population of the town.

 Pressure in the distribution system: The rate of water consumption increase in the
pressure of the building and even with the required pressure at the farthest point, the
consumption of water will automatically increase. This increase in the quantity is
firstly due to use of water freely by the people as compared when they get it scarcely
and more water loss due to leakage, wastage and thefts etc.
 System of sanitation: Per capita demand of the towns having water carriage system
will be more than the town where this system is not being used.
 Cost of water: The cost of water directly affects its demand. If the cost of water is
more, less quantity of water will be used by the people as compared when the cost is
low.
2.5 Design Period and Population Forecasting
Design period: The number of years from the date of design to the estimated date when
the maximum conditions of the design will be reached
Design period is related to the length of useful life of the unit, its first cost, ease and cost
of increasing its capacity and possibility of being obsolete. The design period should
neither be too long nor should it be too short and in principle it cannot exceed the useful
life of the structures and is guided by the following considerations.
 Useful life of structures;
 Ease and difficulty that is likely to be faced in expansions;
Amount and availability of additional investments likely to be incurred for additional
periods; and
The rate of interest on the borrowings and the additional money invested.
Table 2-1: commonly used design periods.
Community water wells 5 - 10
Large dams and conduits 25 - 50
Filter plants and distribution 10 - 25
system
Trunk lines, source to city 15 - 25
Pumping stations 10
Population forecasting
The design of the water supply project is done on the basis of projected population at the
end of the design period. Otherwise a present scheme will be inadequate in near feature.

Design of water supply scheme should consider functionality of the various components
now and in the future when population increases. The following population forecasting
methods may be used in the design of water supply projects.
I) Arithmetic increase method: This method of prediction of population is based
on a uniform increment of increase. The population after ‘n’ decades can be
determined by the formula.
Pn = P + n.c where
P → population at present
n→ No. of decades
c→ Constant determined by the average
of increase of ‘n’ decades
This method is generally applicable to a large and old
city.
Example 2.3: The following data have been noted from the census department.
YEAR POPULATION
1940 8000
1950 12000
1960 17000
1970 22500
Find the probable population in the year 1980, 1990 and 2000.
YEAR POPULATION INCREASE IN

POPULATIO
1940 8000 ---
1950 12000 4000
1960 17000 5000
1970 22500 5500
TOTAL 14500
AVERAGE 4833

Solution:
YEAR POPULATION
1980 22500 + 1 x 4833 = 27333
1990 22500 + 2 x 4833 = 32166
2000 22500 + 3 x 4833 = 36999
II) Geometric growth rate (Uniform Percentage) method: In this method p, constant
percentage of growth rate is assumed for equal periods of time, say, a decade.
i.e., from example 2.2
The population at the end of ‘n’ decades is calculated by
[
Pn = P 1+
IG
100 ] Where,
P → population at present
C → average percentage of
growth of ‘n’ decade
Year Population Increase in Percentage increase in
population population
1940 8000 ---
1950 12000 4000 4000 x 100 = 50%
8000
1960 17000 5000 5000 x 100 = 41.7%
12000
1970 22500 5500 5500 x 100 = 32.4%
17000
TOTAL 14500 124.1%
AVERAGE 4833 41.37%

The population at the end of various decades shall be as follows:
YEAR EXPECTED POPULATION

1980 22500 + 41.37 / 100 x 22500 = 31808
1990 31800 + 41.37 / 100 x 31800 = 49935
2000 49935 + 41.37 / 100 x 49395 = 68524
III) Incremental Increase Method: This method is improvement over the above
two methods. The average increase in the population is determined by the
arithmetical method and to this is added the average of the net incremental
increase once for each future decade. Let us do example 2.2
Solution:
Year Population Increase Incrementa

in l increase
1940 8000 --- ---
1950 12000 4000 ---
1960 17000 5000 + 1000
1970 22500 5500 + 500
TOTAL 14500 + 1500
AVERAGE 4833 750
The population at the end of the various decades shall be as follows:
YEAR EXPECTED POPULATION

1980 22500 + (4833 + 750) x 1 = 28,083
1990 22500 + (4833 + 750) x 2 = 33,666
2000 22500 + (4833 + 750) x 3 = 39,249

Design of Urban Water System
2016
IV) Curvilinear Method: This technique involves the graphical projection of

the past population growth curve, continuing whatever trends the
historical data indicate. A commonly used variant of this method includes
comparison of the projected growth to the recorded growth of other cities
of large size. The cities chosen for the comparison should be as similar as
possible to the city being studied. Geographical proximity, likeness of
economic base, access to similar transportation systems, and other such
factors should be considered.
V) Decreasing rate of increase: In this method, the average decrease in the
percentage increase is worked out and is then subtracted from the latest
percentage increase for each successive decade.
This method is applicable to average size cities growing under normal
condition.
VI) Logistic Method: It combines a geometric rate of growth at low
population with a declining growth rate as the city approaches some
limiting population. The hypothesis of logistic growth may be tested by
plotting the census data on logistic paper-on that it will appear as a
straight line if the hypothesis is valid.
Example 2.4: The Population data for a certain town is given below. Find out the
population in the year 1970 and 1980 by arithmetical, geometrical, Incremental
increases and decrease rate of growth methods respectively.
Year: 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

Population: 75,000 110,000 150,000 200,000 242,000

2016
Chapter-3
3. Water Supply Sources
3.1 Hydrologic cycle
Most of the earth’s water sources get their water from precipitation, which may fall in
the form of rain, snow etc. Rains, no doubt form the principal and the major part of the
total supplies. Since precipitation is the principal source of water on the earth and is
responsible for resultant yields of various sources of water on the earth, it is worth
discussing the hydrologic principles behind precipitation, rainfall, runoff, yields of
surface sources, etc. before discussing these sources of water.
It is the circulation of water evaporated from the sea and land surface, its transport
through the atmosphere to the land and its return to the sea via surface, subsurface
and atmospheric routes
Figure 3.1 Hydrology Cycle

2016
The source of water commonly determines the nature of collection, purification,

transmission and distribution works.
In rural water supply schemes in developing countries, treatment will not be feasible
in many circumstances. Therefore, it is necessary to consider water sources in relation
to its bacteriological quality.
3.2 Surface sources

3.2.1 Rainwater
The Evaporated water from land and water surfaces, when condenses at high altitude
in the form of clouds, starts falling in the form of rain or snow water. During its fall
from high altitude to the ground, it absorbs oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases
along with dust, smoke, fumes and bacteria etc. Therefore, rainwater contains large
amounts of impurities, the quantity of which is maximum in the first rains and
minimum in the last season rains. The quality of rainwater falling on the open land
(undisturbed environment) or fields is better than that falling on the cities or towns.
The quality of rainwater of the last season is good and can be used after little
treatment. Rainwater saturated with oxygen is soft, but flat to the taste and corrosive
in nature.
Rain is rarely an immediate source of municipal water supplies. Instead the capture of
rainwater is confined to farms and rural settlements, usually in semiarid regions
devoid of satisfactory ground or surface water. Roofs are mostly obvious choices as
catchments for rainwater harvesting and tanks located near or close to homes increase
the convenience of this system.
Advantages of rainwater collection system over the other water supply sources are:
 The quality of rainwater is high.
 The collection system is independent.
 Local materials and craftsmanship can be used in rain water system
construction.
 No energy costs are needed to run the system.
 Ease of maintenance by the owner or user.
 Convenience and acceptability of water. Valuable time is saved in
collecting water.
Some disadvantages or limitations are:
The high initial capital cost may prevent a family from buying the system.
The water available is limited by rainfall and roof area. For long dry seasons, the
required storage volume may be too high.

2016
i. Mineral free water has a flat taste which people may prefer the taste of mineral
rich water.
Rain Water Roof Catchments System (RRCS)
The feasibility of RRCS can be determined from technical, economic and social
constraints. The initial consideration of the feasibility of RRCS concerns water
availability (supply) as compared to its use or demand. If the supply exceeds the
demand, then the RRCS is feasible from the technical point of view. The RRCS must
be economically feasible to the household.
The social and community assessment is a critical step for determination of whether
the RRCS will be successful or not. The project developer must determine the extent of
community needs. This must be done in the light of traditional practices with in the
community. The role of women and children in carrying water and the amount of time
spent in this activity should be examined. User should be informed of the palatability
of rainwater.
The design stage of the project involves sizing the storage tank. A more accurate
method of sizing a tank involves an analysis of data using the mass curve technique.
First an approximation of the runoff coefficient is required. Successful use of the
technique requires approximately 10 years of data.
3.2.2 River Water
Rivers are born in the hills, when discharge of large number of springs and streams
combine together. Rivers are the only surface sources of water, which have maximum
quantity of water that can be easily taken. Mostly cities, which are situated near rivers,
discharge their used water or sewage in the rivers, therefore much care should be
taken while drawing water from these rivers. River water has self-purification action
due to which it automatically becomes clean in some distance travel from the point of
disposal of sewage.
Many studies in water quality fields indicates that the physical characteristics of water
flowing in rivers and streams have been variously defined to embrace a wide range of
parameters extending from suspended sediment concentration, turbidity and the
presence of foam, through colors, taste, odor and dissolved oxygen content, to
electrical conductivity, temperature and radioactivity.
The presence of suspended sediment or solids in river water is an important physical
characteristic. Such sediment can have both a direct effect on aquatic life through
damage to organisms and their habitat and an indirect effect through its influence on
turbidity and light penetration. Temperature affect other physical properties of river;
such as dissolved oxygen and suspended solids content, and it influences the chemical
and biological reaction which take place in the river. Several gases may be dissolved

2016
in river water, but oxygen is arguably the most significant because of its vital
importance to aquatic organisms. The nature of the solute behavior in river systems
ultimately reflects the various source and stories of dissolved materials that are
present in the drainage area. Biological processes operating with in the river channel
itself may also modify the water chemistry of the river. These include the uptake of
nutrients and silica by aquatic organisms, nitrogen fixation, nitrification of ammonia,
and denitrification by bacteria living in the river.
3.2.3 Lake and Sea Water
In mountainous regions natural basins are formed with impervious beds. Water from
springs and streams generally flows towards these ‘basins’ and ‘Lakes’ are formed.
The quantity of water in the lakes depends on its basin capacity, catchments area,
annual rainfall, porosity of the ground etc. Lakes, whenever they are abundant or
large, play a major role in local water balances. Large lakes are immense heat
reservoirs, helping to cool the surrounding area in summer and to warm it in winter.
In doing so, they contribute to high humidity in summer.
Seawater on average contains about 3.5 % salts. The percentage of lakes or land locked
lakes is usually more than the sea water, because evaporation of water from their
surfaces is much more, due to which the percentage of salt is increased in them.
In most, of the harbors situated on the coastal areas (bank of sea), water is required to
be brought from very long distances, which increase the cost of water enormously.
Water of such areas is totally unfit for domestic purposes. When there is no other
source of water near to the towns, there may be no alternative except to do the
desalination of the available water. (Desalination is the process of removing extra
common salt or sodium chloride from the water).
3.3 Subsurface Sources

3.3.1 Ground water (through Deep wells and shallow wells)
Ground water is commonly understood to mean water occupying all the voids with in
a geologic stratum. It is an important source of water supply throughout the world. Its
use in irrigation, industries, municipalities, and rural schemes continues to increase.
Cooling and air-conditioning have made heavy demands on ground water because of
its characteristic uniformity in temperature. In humid region in some parts of the
world, ground water predominates as the water sources because the high infiltration
capacity of the soil sharply reduces surface runoff.
Ground water occurs in many types of geologic formation; those known as aquifers
are of most importance. An aquifer is a formation that contains sufficient quantities of
saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells. Aquifers

2016
are generally extensive and may be overlain or underlain by a confined bed, which
may be defined as a relatively impermeable material stratigraphically adjacent to one
or more aquifers.
Most aquifers are of large aerial extent and may be visualized as underground storage
reservoirs. Water enters a reservoir from natural or artificial recharge; it flows out
under the action of gravity or is extracted by wells. Aquifers may be classified as:
Unconfined aquifer is one in which the water table in the aquifer varies according to
the slope of the terrain and depending on areas of recharge and discharge.
Confined aquifers occur where ground water is confined under pressure greater than
atmospheric pressure by overlying relatively impermeable strata. Water enters a
confined aquifer in an area where the confining bed rises to the surfaces. When the
confining bed ends underground, the aquifer becomes unconfined. Rises and falls of
water in wells penetrating a confined aquifer result primarily from changes in
pressure rather than changes in storage volumes. Hence, confined-aquifer displays
only small changes in storage and serve primarily as conduits for conveying water
from recharge areas to locations of natural or artificial discharge. The piezometric
surface of a confined aquifer is an imaginary surface coinciding with the hydrostatic
pressure level of the water in the aquifer. It should be noted that a confined aquifer
becomes an unconfined aquifer when the piezometric surface falls below the bottom of
the upper confining bed.
Wells:
A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of
tapping water. In India 75 to 85% of Indian population has to depend on wells for its
water supply.
Type of wells
Shallow Wells::are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earth’s surface. The
diameter of well varies from 2 to 6 m and a maximum depth of 7m.
Fig 3.2 Shallow Well

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Deep Wells: it obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below the impervious layer
as shown in fig 3.3
Fig 3.3 Deep Well
Quality of Ground Water

It is now generally understood that the quality of ground water is just as important as
its quantity. The quality required of ground water supply depends on its purpose;
thus, needs for drinking water, industrial water, and irrigation water varies widely.
The uniformity of ground water temperature is advantageous for water supply and
industrial purposes, and underlying saline ground water is important because they
offer potential benefits.
Mostly groundwater contains salt in solution. Ordinarily, higher concentrations of
dissolved constituents are found in ground water than in surface water because of the
greater exposure to soluble materials in geologic strata. A common geological
sequence in ground water includes bicarbonate waters near ground surface varying to
chloride water in the deepest portions of formations. Although it is not generally
recognized, most groundwater contains dissolved gases derived from natural sources.
These include co2, oxygen and nitrogen and others, which are derived from
biochemical processes including the flammable gas methane and hydrogen sulfide.
Variations in solar energy received at the earth’s surface create periodicities, both
diurnal and annual, in temperature below ground surface. The insulating qualities of
the earth’s crust rapidly damp the large temperature range found at ground surface so
that only shallow ground water displays any appreciable fluctuation in temperature.
Figure 3.4 typical wells
Types of Wells
Well 1 flowing well
Recharge Zone Well 2 Water table well
Well 3 Artesian well Well 3
Piezometric sutface
Well 2
Water table Well 1
water table
Confining stratum
Impermeable
Strata Confined Aquifer
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3.3.2 Spring Water
Spring water is a groundwater that outcrops from ground due to impervious base that
prevents percolation. Spring water is usually fed from sand or gravel water bearings
ground formation (aquifer) or fissured rocks. Best places to look for springs are the
slopes of hilly sides and river valley sand areas with green vegetation in dry season. If
properly protected and well managed, spring water proves to be good for small
community water supplies.
Types of springs.
1. Gravity springs : When the surface of the earth drops sharply the water bearing
stratum is exposed to atmosphere and gravity springs are formed as shown in
fig.3.5
 Tributaries feed the spring.
 Stable or regular discharge.
Fig 3.5 Gravity Spring
2. Surface Spring: This is formed when an impervious stratum which is supporting

the ground water reservoir becomes out crops as shown in fig.3.6
Fig 3.6 Surface Spring

2016
3. Artesian springs: When the ground water rises through a fissure in the
upper impervious stratum as shown in fig.3.5
 High quality water due to confinement.
 High discharge due to high pressure in the confinement.
Fig 3.7 Artesian Spring
3.4 Choice of water supplies
In rare conditions, where there is severe shortage of water, sea water could be used as
source. However, sea water is very saline and demands expensive treatment to
remove the salt.
The choice of source of water supply to a town or city depends on the following
factors:-
 Location: - The source of water should be as near to the town as possible

 Quantity of water: the capacity of the source should accommodate the
maximum day demand projected at the end of the design period. Source
of water should be able to meet the maximum demand in dry season
also.
 Water quality: The quality of water should be good which can be easily
& cheaply treated.
 Cost: The cost of the water supply project should be minimum (the
relative elevation of the town & sources, the distance b/n the source &
the town.)
The selection of the source of water supply is done on the above points and the source
w/c will give good quality & quantity at less cost will be selected.

2016
Small communities may be fortunate to have a choice of raw water supplies from
wells, rivers or lakes.
An evaluation of the possible alternatives and a conceptual design report should be

made before detailed engineering design commences, with reference to yield,
reliability water quality, and treatment, piping and pumping costs.
The topography of the area with respect to access roads, rail, power and waste
disposal should be studied. The cost of acquiring the necessary land and pipeline is
becoming increasingly expensive. The municipality should have as many available
alternatives as possible.
Chapter-4
4. Water characteristics and treatment
4.1 Physical, chemical and biological characteristics of
water
Pure water is a chemical compound with each of its molecules containing two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, and nothing else. However, pure water can
never be available in nature. Precipitation in the form of rain, at the instant of its
formation, contains no impurities, but during the process of formation and fall
through the earth’s atmosphere, it may dissolve some gases, traces of mineral matters
and other substances. When the precipitation reaches the earth’s surface, many more

2016
opportunities are available for the introduction of various physical, chemical and
bacterial impurities in it.
As the rainwater flows over the surface of the earth, it picks up or dissolves particles
of soil, garbage, sewage, pesticides and other human, animal or chemical waste.
The impurities which water dissolve or picks up as suspended matters may sometimes
make it more useful and potable for public uses and especially for drinking and
sometimes it may render it harmful and unfit.
For example minerals such as iron, calcium, manganese, fluoride etc in small
quantities may be useful while in large quantities it may be useless for municipal,
industrial and other uses.
Sometimes the water may contain harmful bacteria, the presence of which may cause
disease such as cholera, typhoid dysentery, gastro-entreaties, infectious hepatitis etc.
To insure safety to public health, economy and utility in industries and other uses, it
therefore becomes imperative upon planners and designers of the public water supply
schemes, to thoroughly check, analyze and treat the raw water to safe and permissible
limits, before supplying to the public.
The raw or treated water can be analyzed and checked by studying and testing its
physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics.
4.1.1 Physical characteristics of water
Colour, odor, taste, turbidity, pH values and temperatures are major physical
characteristics. They primarily affect the acceptability of water from the aesthetic
considerations. They may also be indicatives of the presence of substances'
undesirable from the health point of view.
Colour
A character of pure water concerning color is colourless. Dissolved organic matter

from decaying vegetation or some inorganic materials such as coloured soils, etc may
impart color to the water. Excessive growth of algae may also impart color to water.
The presence of color in water is not objectionable from health point of view, but from
aesthetic and psychological point of view it may be objectionable.
2016
Taste and odour
Tastes and odours, though of great importance in assessing the palatability are the
most difficult physical characteristics to measure in any numerical sense. Objection to
taste and odor in drinking water is very subjective in nature and different persons
react differently to them. Odour and taste may come from natural sources or from
man's activities. It is frequently difficult, to identify the specific cause of taste and
odor.
Dissolved organic materials or the inorganic salts, or the dissolved gases may impart
tastes and odours to the water. But for drinking purposes, the water must not contain
any undesirable taste or odour. In order to remove the taste and odour from the raw
water, the chemical composition of the water must first be ascertained, so as to
determine as to what treatment, if any, is required to make its taste and odour
acceptable for domestic use.
Odor producing materials may impart taste to water, and taste responses are often
difficult to distinguish from odour responses. However, certain non- volatile
substances dissolved in water can cause tastes without causing odours.
Turbidity
Turbidity is an expression of the optical property of water that causes light to be

scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines. It virtually affects all
uses of water. If a large amount of suspended material such as clay, silt or some other
finely divided organic materials are present in water, it will be muddy or cloudy or
turbid in appearance.
Turbidity is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal matter in the water.
The character and amount of turbidity depends upon the type of soil over which the
water has moved ground waters are less turbed than the surface water.
Turbidity is a measure of resistance of water to the passage of light through it.

Turbidity is expressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) or PPM (parts
per million) or Milligrams per litre (mg/l). Turbidity is measured by
1) Turbidity rod or Tape 2) Jacksons Turbidimeter 3) Bali’s Turbidimeter

2016
The Sample to be tested is poured into a test tube and placed in the meter and a unit of
turbidity is read directly on the scale by a needle or by digital display.
Drinking water should not have turbidity more than 10 N.T.U. This test is useful in
determining the detension time in settling for raw water and to dosage of coagulants
required to remove turbidity.
Temperature
Temperature of water at user's end depends on the temperature of water source as

well as the processes the water has undergone by way of treatment and distribution.
Generally ground water is cooler than surface water. Temperature to a great extent
determines the trends and tendencies of changes in water quality. Solubility of gases is
temperature dependent.
Temperature of water is measured by means of ordinary thermometers. The

temperature of surface water is generally at atmospheric temperature, while that
of ground water may be more or less than atmospheric temperature. The most
desirable temperature for public supply between 4.4°C to 10°C. The temperature
above 35°C are unfit for public supply, because it is not palatable.
4.1.2 Chemical characteristics of water
Chemicals that determine the chemical quality of water are considered in this part.
The chemicals, some of them,
1. Are known as toxic and may constitute a danger to health even at a very low
concentration. E.g. Arsenic, Cadmium, Cyanide, Lead, Mercury and Selenium.
2. May affect health or may interfere with the acceptability of the water depending
upon their concentration. E.g. Fluoride, Nitrate, Sulphate, Chloride, Iodine, Iron,
Manganese, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Copper and Zinc.
3. May cause hardness of water and cardiovascular diseases. This is caused by ions
principally calcium and magnesium.
4. May cause medicinal test and persistent odor problems even at a very low
concentration following their reaction with chlorine-phenolic compounds are under
this category.
2016
Hardness
Hard water is one that requires considerable amounts of soap to produce foam or
lather and it also produces scale in hot-water pipes, heaters, boilers, and other units in
which the temperature of water is increased materially.
Hardness of water varies from place to place: surface waters are softer than ground
waters. It reflects the nature of geological formation with which it has been in contact.
Hardness is caused by divalent metallic cations; such ions are capable of reacting with
soap to form precipitates and with certain anions present in the water to form scale.
Principally hardness is caused by Mg and Ca.
Hardness of water is derived largely from contact with the soil and rock formation.
Hard water originates in areas where the topsoil is thick and lime stone formations are
present. Soft waters, on the other hand originate in areas where the topsoil is thin and
lime stone formations are sparse or absent.
Hardness is commonly expressed as equivalent concentration of calcium carbonate

and is reported in mg/l of CaCO3.
Magnesium hardness, particularly associated with the sulphate ion, has laxative effect
on persons unaccustomed to it.
Lathering or foam formation does not occur until all the hardness ions are
precipitated, a process of softening; such a precipitate adheres to surfaces of tubs,
sinks and may stain clothing and other items.
Considerable economic loss comes through fouling of water heaters and hot-water
pipes from scale formation. The application of hardness data is that,
 It is useful in determining the suitability of water for domestic and industrial

uses.
 The engineer uses it as a basis for recommending the need for softening
process.
 The relative amounts of Ca and Mg hardness and of Carbonate and non-
carbonate hardness present in water are factors in determining the most

2016
economical type of softening process to use, and become important

consideration in design.
Methods of Removal of Hardness:

Boiling,Freezing,Lime addition,Lime soda process,Excess Lime treatment,Caustic soda
process,Zeolete process and Dimineralisation or exchange process.
pH
pH is a measure of acidity and alkalinity using a scale of 0 to 14, 7 being the neutral
point. An increase in the content of coloured humus substances may affect the pH
value. pH in the raw water used for public water supplies is an important factor.
Without proper adjustment of pH raw water may be corrosive and adversely affect
treatment processes. Besides, the domestic water may be affected on its taste. Testing
the pH value of water directly tells us as to whether the water is acidic or alkaline.
Generally, alkalinity is caused by the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and

magnesium; or by the carbonates or hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium and
magnesium.
Phenolic Compounds
Phenols are released into water during the metabolic processes of aquatic organisms,
particularly during the biochemical breakdown and transformation of organic
substances from dead algae. Decaying vegetation, for example, fallen leaves of some
species of trees may release phenol in water. Other sources of Phenolic compounds are
from the distillation of coal and wood, oil refineries, chemical plants, livestock dips,
microbial degradation of pesticides and human and animal wastes. Phenols are
normally present in purely domestic sewage at low concentrations. In the oil-bearing
areas the ground water often contains a higher concentration of phenols. Often a
considerable part of phenols in water comprises volatile phenols which could be
separable by steam distillation. Strong Phenolic solutions are bactericidal but phenols
at moderate and low concentrations are biodegradable.
Concentrated solutions of phenol, when ingested, give rise to severe pain, renal
irritation, shock and probably death. However, the major aesthetic problem
associated with the Phenolic compounds is their organoleptic properties in water.
2016
Even at very low concentrations they cause serious taste and odor problems in water
supplies. Phenol is not removed by conventional water treatment. When it is present
in water it can react with Chlorine added for disinfecting in the final treatment of
water and form chlorophenol, which give medicinal tastes and cause persistent odor
problems in the distribution system.
Microbiological Analysis of water
Unfortunately not all water helps human being to survive. Water from contaminated
sources causes numerous diseases and untimely deaths. The fact that human being
needs water and cannot live without it forces him to use it even for drinking purposes,
from any source, whether pure or contaminated. As a result many people suffer or die
from water related disease, which are water-borne, water-washed, water based and
diseases with water-related insect vectors.
By definition pathogens are organisms which cause disease to other organisms and
these are fungi, bacteria, protozoa, viruses, etc. Many microorganisms are found in
water, most being of no health significance. It is difficult to test for the disease-causing
species, whether viral, bacterial, fungal or protozoal, since most grow rapidly only in
their host. Such pathogens occur in a drinking water supply when there is faecal
pollution to the source. Thus, to detect a water supply, whether it is free of the above
pathogens or not, we need to test the presence or absence of each of the pathogens.
However examining for each is unlikely for pathogens are commonly found in small
number, the process of detection is time consuming and uneconomical and detection
and estimation needs selective media of pure culturing and bio-chemical test.
Hence in conventional water bacteriology, indicators are used to detect the presence of
faecal pollution and thus the pathogens in the water supply system, i.e., the presence
of indicators means the presence of pathogens.
The use of testing for indicators
 is to detect recent contamination;

 is to evaluate the efficiency of treatment systems;
 is to examine the disinfections process;
 is to choose the best source; and
 generally it serves as a quality control

2016
Criteria for Selection of Indicator Organisms
 It must be intestinal.
 It should present in reasonable number when faecal pathogens present.
 It should not preliterate in the external environment.
 It should survive longer in the external environment.
 It must be absent when pathogens are absent.
 It should be non-pathogens.
Thus the types of indicator organisms used in water quality analysis and conforming
to many of the above criteria are:
 Coli-forms
 Streptococci
 Anaerobic spore forms.
Of these, coli-forms are the most widely used indicators. Coli-forms sometimes called
bacteria-coli or Escherichia-coli are important harmless aerobic microorganisms,
which are found residing in the intestines of all warm-blooded animals, including
human beings and are thus excreted with their faeces. Since this harmless group of
organisms of coli-form group live longer in water than pathogenic bacteria, it is
generally presumed that the water will be safe and free from pathogenic bacteria, if no
coli-form bacteria are present in it.
The simplest and most recent method adopted for detecting and measuring the
presence of coli-form bacteria is to filter the water sample through a sterile membrane
of special design (i.e., 80 % porosity, pore size 5 to 10m ) on which the bacteria will
be strained, if at all present . The membrane is then put in contact with nutrients that
will permit the growth of only coli-form colony types. The process is called culturing.
After an incubation period of 24 hours, the coli-form organisms are developed in to
visible colonies, which can be easily counted. This method is called membrane
filtration technique.
In order to insure that the water is safe for drinking and is free from pathogenic
bacteria and other such organisms, it is generally necessary that on average, not more
than one coli-form colony is present in each 100ml of water.

2016
Water quality standards
Municipal water required for domestic uses particularly the water required for
drinking must be colorless, odourless and tasteless .It should be free from turbidity,
and excessive toxic chemical compounds. Harmful microorganisms must be absent.
World Health Organization (WHO) has laid down its international standards,
specifying the minimum water quality requirements.
Table 4 1 Municipal water quality standards

Types of Type of
Maximum permissible limit
characteristics impurity
Turbidity 5 to 10 mg/l
Colour 10 to 20 colour number
Physical Taste and Threshold odour number limited among
odour 1 to 3.
pH value 6.6 to 8.0
Total solids 500 to 1000mg/l
Hardness 75 mg/l to 115 mg/l
Chloride 250 mg/l
Nitrate( NO3) 45 mg/l
Iron 0.3 mg/l
Manganeze 0.05 mg/l
Lead 0.05 to 0.1mg/l
Arsenic 0.05 mg/l
Selenium 0.05 mg/l
Barium 1.0 mg/l
Cadmium 0.01 mg/l
Chemical
Chromium 0.05 mg/l
Silver 0.054 mg/l
Copper 1.0 to3.0 mg/l
Zink 15 mg/l
Magnezium 125 mg/l
Sulphate 250 mg/l
Phenolic
0.001 mg/l
substances
Fluoride 1.5 mg/l
Cyanide 0.2 mg/l
BOD Nil
2016
Types of Type of
Maximum permissible limit
characteristics impurity
Microbiologica Coli-form should not exceed more than one coli-
l bacteria form colony per 100ml. of water sample
4.2 Water treatment processes

The available raw water must be treated and purified before it can be supplied to the
general public for their domestic, industrial or any other uses. The extent of treatment
required to be given to particular water depends up on the characteristics and quality
of the available water and also up on the quality requirements for the intended use.
4.2.1 Objective of Treatment
The main objective of the treatment process is to remove the impurities of raw water
and bring the quality of water to the required standard. The objective may be
summarized as follow:
 Preventing Disease Transmission
Organisms that cause disease must be removed or inactivated to make the water safe.
Such organisms are small animals (invertebrates) and their eggs (ova), protozoa and
their cysts, bacteria that may form spores, and viruses.
Chlorine is most commonly used to inactivate such pathogens, but the effectiveness of
chlorine on some forms, for example cysts and ova is much less than on others, and
suspended material in the water may shelter the pathogens from the chlorine.
 Making the Water Acceptable
If the consumers regard the water as unsatisfactory they may use an alternative
source. The taste, appearance and suitability for washing clothes shall all be
considered.
 Protecting the distribution System
(i) Corrosion of the system can be reduced by raising the pH of the water or
adding chemicals. Corrosion reduces the life of the pipes, reduces their
carrying capacity, and produces deposits that may colour the water,
harbour animals and interfere with valves.
(ii) Depositions in pipes may result from unsatisfactory addition of chemicals,
reactions within the system or poor turbidity removal.
2016
Note that: Water is not necessarily treated when it passes through the treatment plant,
it is not enough to build a treatment work - the whole plant must be operated well
every day. Adjustments must be made in response to changes in water quality. The
performance of equipment’s must be carefully monitored, and the necessary spares
and replacements made. Supervisors, labourers and operators must understand how
to perform their tasks (training) and want to do them well (motivation).
Designs should be based on a realistic assessment of the actual operating conditions,
not on wishful thinking. The costs and availability’s of chemicals and spare parts, and
the supply of suitable personnel should have a powerful influence on the type of
processes and equipment that are selected.
4.2.2 Location of treatment plant

The treatment plant should be located
Near to the town to which water is to be supplied and near to the
source of supply. This will prevent the water quality to depreciate
after treatment.
Away from any source of pollution.

Away from the border of other countries and should be announced as a
protected area. During war time, a neighbour country may play foul
game by damaging the plant, poisoning the water.
At higher elevation if the natural topography permit.
4.2.3 Treatment Schemes

a. Slow sand Filters: Water passes slowly through a bed of sand, and as it
does; suspended, dissolved organic impurities are removed by physical
and biological processes. If the filters are well operated, chlorination is not
essential. If the turbidity of the incoming water is greater than 30 NTU,
the water should pass through a pre-treatment stage before reaching the
slow sand filter.
b. Conventional Treatment: This process relies on a chemical called a
coagulant, to coagulate (colloidal) suspended material in to flocks that are
separated from water by gravity sedimentation and rapid filtration. Even

2016
when the rapid filters are well operated, disinfection by chlorine is

essential.
c. Treatment of ground Water: Usually disinfection is not essential. Certain
gases cause tastes or odours when dissolved in water. Dissolved iron and
manganese can be precipitated and removed from ground water by
oxidation (often simple aeration), sedimentation and filtration. Other
dissolved impurities may require more sophisticated and expensive
treatment, such as reverse osmosis or ion exchange.
4.2.4 Factors Affecting the Choice of Treatment Scheme
The following factors influence the choice of treatment alternatives discussed below:
 Limitation of capital,
 Availability of skilled and unskilled labour,
 Availability of equipment, construction material, and water treatment
chemicals,
 Local codes, drinking water standards and material specifications,
 Local traditions, customs and cultural standards, and
 National sanitation and pollution policies.
The various methods and techniques, which may be adopted for purifying the public
water supplies, are:
 Screening
 Aeration
 Plain sedimentation
 Sedimentation aided with coagulation
 Filtration
 Disinfection
 Softening
 Miscellaneous treatments such as fluoridation, recarbonation,
liming, desalination etc.
It is important to note that all the above techniques may or may not be used for
treating particular water. The necessity of a few or all of these steps depends solely up
upon the quality of the available raw water. Before treating each of them in detail, let

2016
us summarize the functions served by each of these techniques in affecting

purification of raw water.
Most of the big and longer visible objects such as tree branches, sticks, vegetation; fish
animal life etc present in the raw water of surface sources can be removed by
screening. The coarse suspended materials can then be removed by letting the water
settle in sedimentation basins. The process is called plain sedimentation. The
effectiveness of sedimentation may however be increased by mixing certain chemicals
with the water so as to form flocculated precipitate which carries the suspended
particles as it settles. The process is called chemical coagulation. The finer particles in
suspension, which may avoid settling in sedimentation basins even after chemical
coagulation, may then be removed by filtering the water in through filters. This
process is called filtration. The filter water which may still contain pathogenic bacteria
is then made bacteria proof by using certain chemicals such as chlorine, etc. This
process of killing of germs is called disinfections. The resulting water though now
becomes safe, yet it may not be attractive to the tongue of the consumers. Unpleasant
tastes and odours may then, therefore have to be removed by adding certain chemical
compounds such as carbon or by using ozone. This process is called aeration. The
resulting water may sometimes be much harder than permissible and, may therefore,
have to be softened by a process called softening and even then, this water may be
given further treatment such as fluoridation, i.e. the addition of soluble fluoride for
controlling dental carries, desalination, i.e. removal of excess salt if at all present.
In the previous list of methods of treatment, the first three are called pretreatment
methods. Some of the above techniques are now discussed in detail.
4.2.5 Pretreatment of water
High turbidity water which may occur particularly during the rainy season requires
pretreatment in the form of sedimentation, storage or roughing filtration to reduce
much of the suspended solids. This is an advantage otherwise a very large
amount of chemicals may have to be employed for chemical coagulation which can
be expensive. Pre-treatment provides cheaper treatment. Slow Sand Filters require
raw water turbidity below 30NTU. High turbidity waters require pre-treatment before

2016
slow sand filtration. There is, however, a form treatment known as dynamic filtration
(although it is not very popular) which involves diverting a relatively large volume of
water out of which a small percentage (10%) settles through the slow sand filter while
the remaining is used to wash off the solids deposited on the sand top as the water
moves horizontally via the sand bed.
4.2.5.1 Intakes
Intakes are used to collect water from varies sources. The sources may be lakes,
rivers, reservoirs or canals .Proper design of the intake structure is one way of
achieving preliminary treatment. The intakes should be located in such a way that
rolling debris at the bottom is prevented from entering via the intake. Bar Screens are
provided to screen out larger size floating and suspended materials. Sometimes two
filters are provided successively for coarse and fine screening. A floating intake
ensures intake from the top and relatively clean layer. Multiple level intakes (low level
intake in the dry season and to avoid algae at the top and high level intake in the wet
season to avoid suspended solids at the bottom) are provided in lakes and reservoirs.
Depending on the source of water the intake works are classified as follows.
Figure 4.1: River Intake

2016
Figure 4.2: Lake Intake
Figure 4.3: Reservoir Intake
Figure 4.4: Channel Intake
4.2.5.2 Screening
Proper design of the intake structures is one way of achieving preliminary treatment.
Bar screens are provided to screen out large size floating and suspended materials.
Sometimes two filters are provided successively for coarse and fine screening. They

2016
are generally provided before pumps or intake works so as to exclude large sized
particles. Coarse screens are generally termed as trash racks.
Coarse screens are usually kept inclined at about 45° to 60° to the horizontal so as to
facilitate removing the suspended sediment.
Screening of water that is one form of pre-treatment is done by passing the water
through closely spaced bars, gratings or perforated plates. Screening does not change
the chemical or bacteriological quality of the water.
Purpose
 Removal of suspended and floating matter, which clogs pipes, damages pumps
etc.
 Clarifications by removal of suspended matter to lighten the load on
subsequent treatment processes
Bar screen spacing is typically between 0.5 and 5cm. Angle of inclination of bars is 60-
750 if screening are very small and 30-450 if larger amount is retained over the screen
bar.
The approach velocity to the screens should not be more than 0.1 to 0.2 m/s to effect
settling of larger bodies. And after bar screens, it should be increased to 0.3 to 0.5m/s
to avoid settling there. Between the openings the velocity should be restricted to up to
0.7m/sec to avoid forcing through the suspended solids. If regular cleaning is done an
allowance for loss of heads of up to 0.1 to 0.2m is made. However to allow for delay
and mechanical failures a loss of head allowance between 0.5 to 1.0m is made.
( )
2 2
1 v 2 −v 1
Head Loss Through Bar Screen, hl=
c 2g
Where
c=empirical discharge coefficient to account for turbulence
and eddy motion. (c=0.7 for clean bar and 0.6 for
clogged bar screen)
V2=velocity of flow through openings

2016
V1= approaching velocity of
upstream channel g=
gravitational acceleration
(9.81m/s2)
4.2.5.3 Plain Sedimentation
Pre sedimentation can also be called plain sedimentation because the process depends
merely on gravity and includes no coagulation and flocculation. Without
coagulation/flocculation, plain sedimentation can remove only coarse suspended
matter (such as grit) which will settle rapidly out of the water without the addition of
chemicals. This type of sedimentation typically takes place in a reservoir, grit basin,
debris dam, or sand trap at the beginning of the treatment process.
Plain sedimentation is a form of pretreatment that provides a low velocity of flow the
purpose of which is to settle some solids by gravity sedimentation.
The tank may be rectangular, or, to minimize the need for thicker walls trapezoidal
shape (which also facilitates settlement to the bottom) tank can be used
Table 4.2: Design parameter for plain sedimentation

Parameter Range of Values
Detention Time (Hrs.) 0.5 to 3.0
Surface loading (m/day) 20 to 80
Depth of the basin (m) 1.5 to 2.5
L/W Ratio 4:1 to 6:1
L/D Ratio 5:1 to 20:1
The basin in which the flow of water is retarded is called the settling tank or
sedimentation tank or sedimentation basin, and the theoretical average time for which
the water is retained in the tank is called detention period.

2016
All sedimentation basins have four zones - the inlet zone, the settling zone, the
sludge zone, and the outlet zone (Fig. 4.5). Each zone should provide a smooth
transition between the zone before and the zone after. In addition, each zone has
its own unique purpose. .
Figure 4.5: Zone of a settling tank
The amount of matter removed by sedimentation tank depends upon the factors.
 The velocity of flow;

 The viscosity of water; and
 The size, shape, and specific gravity of the particle.
Sedimentation basins are generally made of reinforced concrete and may be

rectangular or circular in plan. Generally rectangular ones with horizontal flow are
preferred than circular ones with radial flow. A plain sedimentation tank under
normal conditions may remove as much as 70% of the suspended solid.
Design Aspects of Sedimentation Tanks
The design aspects of sedimentary tanks are
4. Velocity of flow
5. Capacity of tank
6. Inlet and outlet arrangements
7. Shapes of tanks
8. Miscellaneous considerations.
1) Velocity of flow: The velocity of flow of water in sedimentation tanks should be

sufficient enough to cause the hydraulic subsidence of suspended impurities. It should

2016
remain uniform throughout the tank and it is generally not allowed to exceed 150mm
to 300mm per minute.
2). Capacity of tank: capacity of tank is calculated by i) detension period ii)

Overflow rate
i. Detension period: The theoretical time taken by a particle of water to pass

between entry and exit of a settling tank is known as the known as the
detention period. The capacity of tank is calculated by
C = Q x T where C → Capacity of tank
Q → Discharge or rate of flow
T → Detension period in hours

The detention period depends on the quality of suspended impurities present in
water. For plain sedimentation tanks, the detension period is found to vary from 4 to 8
hours
ii. Overflow Rate: in this method it is assumed that the settlements of a particle at
the bottom of the settlement of a particle at the bottom of the tank doesn’t
depend on the depth of tank and depends upon the surface area of the tank.

2016
3) Inlet and Outlet Arrangements
The inlet is a device, which is provided to distribute the water inside a tank, and the outlet
is a device, which is meant to collect outgoing water. These arrangements
Should be properly designed and located in such a way that they do not form any
obstruction or cause any disturbance to the flowing water.
4) Shapes of Tanks
The Following are the three shapes of settling tank.
Rectangular tanks with horizontal flow
Circular tanks with radial or spiral flow
Hopper bottom tanks with vertical flow
The following are the parameters for satisfactory performance.
1. Detention period ….. 3 to 4 hours for plain settling

2 to 21/2 hours for coagulant
settling
3 2
2. Overflow rate ……… 30 – 40 m /m /day for horizontal
flow
40-50mfor up flow
3. Velocity of flow…….. 0.5 to 1.0 cm/sec
4. Weir loading………... 3
300m /m/day
5. L:B ………………….. 1:3 to 1:4
Breadth of tank…….. (10 to 12m) to 30 to 50m
6. Depth of tank………. 21/2 – 4m
7. Dia of circular tank…. up to 60m
8. Solids removal efficiency….. 50%
9. Turbidity of water after sedimentation – 15 to 20 N.T.U.
10. Inlet and Oulet zones………. 0.75 to 1.0m
11. Free board…………………… 0.5m
12. Sludge Zone…………………. 0.5m
4.2.5.4 Coagulation And Flocculation

2016
The primary purpose of the coagulation/flocculation process is the removal of turbidity

from the water
Flock: A flock is a collection of colloidal particles held together. Flocks generally have
little strength and a density close to the density of water.
Coagulation is the process by which colloidal particles and very fine solid suspensions
initially present in a wastewater are combined into larger agglomerates that can be
separated via sedimentation, flocculation, filtration, centrifugation or other separation
methods
Coagulation is commonly achieved by adding different types of chemicals (coagulants) to

the waste water to promote destabilization of the colloid dispersion and agglomeration of
the resulting individual colloidal particles.. It may be the result of biological processes
Factors affecting coagulation:
1. Type of coagulant
2. Dose of coagulant
3. Characteristic of water
 Type and quantity of suspended matter

 Temperature of water
 pH of water
4. Time and method of mixing
The coagulation sedimentation plant sometimes called simply a coagulation plant

contains the following four units
 Feeding device
 Mixing device or mixing basin
 Flocculation tank or flocculator
 Settling or sedimentation tank
Chemicals

2016
Cost and ease of acquiring chemicals are (economy) the basis of selection of a particular
coagulating chemical after performance criteria is satisfied as verified by a jar test.
1. Alum is used widely as a primary coagulant. It is available as lumps, grains or

powder, or as a solution that is strongly acidic. The solution form is suitable if the
chemical is locally manufactured. Otherwise the shipping cost of liquid alum is
very high. The cost of importing alum can be very high. In this situation, measures
must be taken to reduce the requirement for alum. This is done for example by pre-
treating excessively turbid water, by direct filtration of low turbidity waters, the
use of coagulant aids and through optimum pH adjustment.
For optimum flock formation the pH should generally be between 6 and 8. Outside
this range other hydrolysis products are formed, some of them soluble. Acid is
formed when alum reacts with water, so to maintain the desired pH range, or to
achieve a satisfactory final pH, it is usually necessary to add an alkali. It follows
that rapid mixing is important, because regions of high concentration will have a
low pH and form unwanted products. 1 mg/lit of alum reacts with 0.39 mg/l 95%
hydrated lime as Ca(OH)2.
Alum is best fed as a solution. It is dissolved in water at a concentration of 3 to 7%

and then fed to the raw water. Solution feeders achieve 12 to 15% maximum
saturation.
2. Iron Salts: These operate over a wider pH range than alum. Iron flocks are heavier
than aluminum flocks but may be harder to remove from filter sand. The ferric
hydroxide flock does not re-dissolve at high pH values. Ferrous sulphate is
sometimes cheaper than alum because it is a by-product of steel pickling. It must
oxidise to the ferric state usually by chlorine, when the two are known as
chlorinated copperas. Ferric sulphate and ferric chloride may also be used.
pH Correction: Usually it is necessary to raise the pH, and hydrated lime is usually
preferred for this purpose on cost grounds. However lime has a low solubility and so is
usually fad as slurry that needs constant agitation to prevent settlement, and may block
feed pipes. The feed pipes are preferably rubber hoses, hammering the hose and flushing
can dislodge the clogs.

2016
Where constant agitation is not provided, sodium carbonate (washing soda or soda ash) is
used, because it dissolves readily in water. Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic soda) is not often
used because it is dangerous and costly.
Sulphuric acid is used if the pH must be lowered.
Coagulant aids Polyelectrolyte: are used to make flocks larger, tougher and denser. They
have long molecules with charged sites that link small flocks together. There are three
types: cationic, anionic, and non-ionic or ampholytic. The best type must be chosen by
experiment. Care is needed in the preparation of the solution for dosing. Polyelectrolyte
may be used to reduce the requirement for coagulant or alkali, where coagulants are not
producing a sufficiently settleable flock, or where the gravity separation process is being
up-rated. Overdosing may lead to filter clogging.
Synthetic polyelectrolyte (for example polyacrylamide) are banned in some countries,

because the monomer (an impurity is a health hazard. Elsewhere a maximum
concentration is set. Dosing rates are usually between 0.3 and 0.5 mg/lit.
Natural polyelectrolyte can be prepared from potatoes, seaweed’s and the seeds of
various trees. They may also be used as a primary coagulant.
Laboratory studies in Sudan showed that seeds from the Moringa Olifera trees act as
primary coagulant and compare favourably with alum with respect to reaction rates and
turbidity reductions.
Activated Silica produces a similar result to polyelectrolyte, but it must be prepared with
great precision.
Purified Clays may be added to water with low turbidity or high colour to add weight to
the flocks and reduce the coagulant requirement.
Feeding device
The chemical coagulant, i.e. usually alum, Al2(So4)3 .18 H2o, is first fed (either dry or in
solution form) in to the raw water through the feeding device. This mixture is thoroughly
agitated in the mixing basin. The folk gelatinous precipitate, which is formed as a result of
the chemical reaction-taking place in the mixing basin, is then allowed to consolidate in

2016
the flocculation tank. The flocculated water is then passed to the sedimentation tank,
where these flocculated
Particles settle down and be removed. This treated water then can be taken out through
the outlet of the sedimentation tank, directly to rapid gravity filters for further treatment.
Mixing devices
The desired reaction between the coagulant and the water is irreversible and takes place
in a fraction of a second, so mixing must be very fast. If not, undesired products might
form. In some treatment plants, large sums of money have been saved by improving the
mixing arrangements; often by changing the point at which the chemical is dosed to
ensure that the mixing takes place more rapidly. The sequence of dosing (if several
chemicals are used) is best determined by experimentation at the plant concerned.
Mechanical mixing
Mechanical mixing uses an impeller rotated by an electric motor. Coagulant should be
injected at the eye of the impeller for maximum turbulence. The loss of head through the
mixing is low but the disadvantages are that motor failures can affect the operation of the
whole plant, and the extra electrical equipment adds to the maintenance work. The flow
of coagulants should be visible so that it can be checked easily.
Hydraulic mixing
There are two types of mixers namely open channel and pressure conduits. This is
because of simplicity and the component parts are accessible for repair and maintenance.
The degree of mixing is lower at lower rates so the likely variation of the flow rate should
be taken in to account at the design stage. The coagulant should be injected just upstream
of the maximum turbulence. The mixing should appear violent. The most common types
of hydraulic mixers are:
 Rectangular and V-notch weirs and
 Hydraulic jump.
The following are the mostly used Coagulants with normal dose and PH
values required for best floc formation as shown in the Table

2016
Table 4.3.
Sl.No. Coagulant PH Range Dosage mg/l
1. Aluminium sulphate 5.5 – 8.0 5 – 85
Al2(SO4)3, 18 H2O
2. Sodium Aluminate, Na2Al2O4 5.5 – 8.0 3.4 – 34
3. Ferric Chloride (Fecl3) 5.5 – 11.0 8.5 – 51
4. Ferric Sulphate Fe2 (SO4)3 5.5 – 11.0 8.5 – 51
5. Ferric Sulphate FeSO47H2O 5.5 – 11.0 8.5 - 51
Coagulants are chosen depending upon the PH of water. Alum or Aluminium

sulphate is normally used in all treatment plants because of the low cost and ease
of storage as solid crystals over long periods.
Flocculation tank or flocculators

Flocculation is the growth of coagulated colloidal particles to join together to form flocks
that are large enough to settle under gravity.
As it was pointed out earlier, the best flocks form when the mixture of water and
coagulant is violently agitated; followed by a relatively slow and gentle stirring to permit
building up and agglomeration of the flock particles. From the mixing basin, the water is
therefore taken to a flocculation tank called flocculators where it is given a slow stirring
motion.
Mechanical flocculators
Rectangular tanks fitted paddles operated by electric motors are typical mechanical
flocculators. The paddles usually rotate at a speed of about 2 to 3 rpm. The usual value of
detention period for this tank ranges between 30 to 60 minutes (40 minute as the normal
average value). The clear distance between the paddles and the wall or the floor of the
tank is about 15 to 30cm. The velocity of flow through such a flocculator is unimportant,
because the paddles provide a rolling motion, which prevents the flock from settling.
Hydraulic flocculators
The relatively high cost and complexity of mechanical flocculators systems particularly
with regard to operation and maintenance render them less suitable for developing
countries. A more practical approach is to use hydraulic flocculators that do not require
mechanical equipment, nor a continuous water supply if gravity is available and which
can be built primarily from concrete, brick, wood or masonry by local labor at relatively
low cost.
The major shortcomings of hydraulic flocculators are:

2016
 No flexibility to respond to changes in raw water

 Hydraulic and consequent flocculation parameters are a function of flow
and cannot be adjusted independently.
 Cleaning may be difficult
Types of hydraulic flocculators
There are two types
Horizontal flow (around the end) flocculators
Vertical flow (over and under) flocculators
4.2.5.5 Settling or sedimentation tank

The functions, design and other details of this tank are the same as those discussed under
plain sedimentation except that here a lower value of detention time is sufficient and
greater surface loading rate is possible.
Tube settlers
Inclined plates or tubes are fixed in the tank and water is let to pass through these tubes/
plates. The settlement surface area increases and hence the efficiency of settlement. Tube
settlers are provided for upgrading the performance of existing tanks and reducing the
size of new tanks and for this best angle of inclination is 400.
Storage
Storage is very effective for high turbidity water. The detention time is greater than for
plain sedimentation tanks. For extremely turbid waters where annual average turbidity
>1000 NTU storage provides the best pretreatment.
Advantage:
 Natural sedimentation,
 Attenuation of sudden water quality fluctuation,
 Reduction in the number of pathogenic bacteria,
 Improved reliability of supply,
 Excessively turbid water can be diverted away.
The storage can be in the form of ponds or lagoons which are natural or excavated in the
ground or in the form of man-made earth dams, rock fill dams or in some cases gravity
dams.
4.2.5.6 Filtration

2016
Filtration is a process by which water from the sedimentation tank is allowed to pass
through beds of granular material such as sands or filters which is required to remove
further the suspended discrete particles or flocculated material and bacteria.
Filtration theory
The filters purify water under four different processes. These processes or actions are
summarized below:
i. Mechanical straining: Suspended particles greater in size than the size of

voids between filter grains could not pass through the voids.
ii. Flocculation and sedimentation: Suspended particles between filter grains for
a gelatinous mass and get filtered there in the void space.
iii. Biological metabolism (slow sand filters): Certain microorganisms and
bacteria are generally present in the voids of filters. These organisms utilize
organic impurities as algae, plankton etc for their food and convert it to
harmless compounds by the processes of biological metabolism. These
harmless compounds so formed generally form a layer on the top, which is
called schmutzdecke or dirty skin. This layer further helps in absorbing and
straining out the impurities.
iv. Electric charges: this is transport of particles by electric double layer forces,
due to surface changes of the particle and the filter.
Filter material
Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as a filter media. This filter sand is supported
by the underneath gravel bed. The selection of the correct effective size (d10) is very
important. Too smaller grain size will lead to very frequent clogging of filters and will
give low filtration rates. Similarly too large size will permit the suspended particles and
bacteria to pass though it without it being removed. The gravel which may be used below
the sand should be hard durable, free from impurities, properly rounded and should have
a density of about 1600 kg/m3.
Types of filters
Two types of filter:
1. Gravity filter system

2016
i. Rapid Sand Filter (SSF)

ii. Slow Sand Filter (RSF)
2. Pressure filter system
1. Rapid Sand filters
Rapid sand filters are filters, which treat water at a rate of at least 1m3 per m2 of bed
surface per hour. The rate of filtration of rapid sand filters is about 30 times higher than
slow sand filters. Rapid sand filters require smaller area compared to slow sand filters.
Unlike slow sand filters where only the top layer is active in filtering the water, in rapid
sand filters, the entire depth of the filter is active in filtering the water and due to high rate
of filtration, the filter becomes dirty very quickly and thus cleaning is done by back
washing the entire media of sand almost every day.
Rapid sand filters need prior coagulation-flocculation processes for high turbidity river
water thus very frequent back washing may be avoided. Back washing usually tends to
segregate the filter material i.e. the top layer will be occupied by fine sand while the
coarse sand will occupy the lower layers.
Operation
The water from coagulation sedimentation tank enters the filter unit through inlet pipe
and uniformly distributed on the whole sand bed. Water after passing through the sand
bed is collected through the under drainage system in the filtered water well. The outlet
chamber in this filter is also equipped with filter rate controller. In the beginning the loss
of head is very small. But as the bed gets clogged, the loss of head increases and the rate
of filtration become very low. Therefore the filter bed requires its washing.
Backwashing
Rapid gravity filter is washed by sending air and water upwards through the bed. The
first operation is to allow the sand bed to drain until the water lies a few inches above the
top of the bed. Now wash water is sent back upward through the filter beds. This forced
movement of wash water and compressed air (if any) will agitate the sand particles, and
thus removing the suspended impurities from it.

2016
The entire process of backwashing and remoistening filtered supplies takes about 15
minutes, and thus the filter unit remain out of operation for this much time. The amount
of water required for washing a rapid gravity rapid sand filter may vary from 1-5 % of the
total amount of filtered water.
Fig 4.6 Rapid Sand Filter
2. Slow sand filters
Slow sand filters are widely used for small rural supplies and for large cities. For example
all the water supplied to London from surface sources is treated by slow sand filters.
Slow sand filters normally which utilize affluent from plain sedimentation, are used
relatively for clearer waters. Slow sand filters occupy a comparatively larger area. The
filter system consists of a supernatant water layer from the top (about 1 to 1.2m) then a
sand medium of depth about 1m, followed by a gravel support of stratified gradation
(down from fine to coarse), supported from the bottom by a filter, under-drain, which can
be built of concrete tiles, bricks or perforated lateral pipes (For small filters). Slow sand
filters require only a labour force for cleaning which is a cost option in developing
countries. Larger filters, however, may require a large labour force for cleaning purposes.
The slow sand filters are effective in removal of 98 to 99% of bacteria of raw water and
completely all suspended impurities and turbidity is reduced to 1 N.T.U. Slow sand filters
also removes odours, tastes and colours from the water but not pathogenic bacteria
2016
which requires disinfection to safeguard against water-borne diseases. The slow sand
filter requires large area for their construction and high initial cost for establishment. The
rate of filtration is also very slow.
Operation
The water from sedimentation tanks enters the slow sand filter through a submersible
inlet. This water is uniformly spread over a sand bed without causing any
disturbances. The water passes through the filter media at an average rate of 2.4
to 3.6m3/m2/day. This rate of filtration is continued until the difference between the water
level on the filter and in the inlet chamber is slightly less than the depth of water above
the sand
Figure 4.7: Slow sand filter
Advantages of slow sand filters
Good removal of pathogens: Slow sand filters are very effective in removing bacteria and
viruses, cercariae, and cysts. Chlorination is usually specified as a precaution and in case
of operator error, but if the chlorination fails the treated water should still be satisfactory
in quality.
No chemical pretreatment necessary. The dosing of chemicals involved and maintenance

of mixing and dosing equipment, the regular purchase and storage of chemicals, and

2016
daily monitoring of water quality to determine the required dosing rate. Slow sand filters
do not require chemical pretreatment so operation is there by considerably simpler.
Slow sand filters do not need sophisticated equipment or design. For example horizontal
flow sedimentation tanks need care full design in the inlet zone, and the back washing of
the rapid filters makes exacting requirements of under drains. Therefore, there is a smaller
requirement for foreign exchange for equipment and consultancy, training for operation
and maintenance is essential, but level of skill required is less than for a conventional
treatment plant.
Local sand may be suitable. A higher non-uniformity coefficient is acceptable for slow
sand filters, and so it is more likely that local sources of sand will be used resulting saving
on foreign exchange or sieving.
Disposal of sludge is easier because no chemical sludge are produced
Disadvantages of Slow sand Filters
Only low turbidity water can be treated. If turbid water is fed to the filters, it will soon
become clogged with mineral. The acceptable peak value of turbidity is quoted to be 20
NTU by some and up to 50 NTU by others. If the raw water turbidity is higher,
pretreatment should be incorporated.
A large area of land is required. However the area required for the Chemical
pretreatment, sedimentation and sludge treatment should also be included with the area
for the rapid filters for the purpose of comparison.
Algae can reduce the intervals between cleaning to an uneconomic level
Color of vegetable origin is not removed by slow sand filters. Chemical coagulation is
more effective.
Cold weather may cause problems with ice formation and slower biological activity.
Cleaning of large filter beds requires a large labor force unless mechanical cleaning is
practiced.
The following comparisons with rapid sand filters emphases the difference between the
two types of filters.

2016
Table 4.4
Slow sand filters Rapid sand filters

Filtration rate (m/h) 0.1- 0.4 5 - 20
Effective size of sand 0.15 -0.4 0.6 - 1.0
(mm)
NC of sand 1.7 - 3.0 1.3 -1.5
Penetration On the surface only Deep
Of suspended matter
Method of cleaning Scrapping of top layer Upward flow of water

of sand (and perhaps air)
Time between cleaning 30-150 1-3
(days)
Requirements Low turbidity Chemical coagulation
For influent
Fundamental process Biological Physical

Economic aspects Big, unskilled labor Complex design and
required equipment
Water loss Water wasted during Water used for washing
maturation
3. Pressure Filter
Pressure filter is type of rapid sand filter in closed water tight cylinder through which the
water passes through the sand bed under pressure. All the operation of the filter is similar
to rapid gravity filter; expect that the coagulated water is directly applied to the filter
without mixing and flocculation. These filters are used for industrial plants but these are
not economical on large scale.
Pressure filters may be vertical pressure filter and horizontal pressure filter. Backwash is
carried by reversing the flow with values. The rate of flow is 120 to 300m3/m2/day.

2016
Figure 4.8: Vertical Pressure filters
Exercise
1) Design a slow sand filter for a community of 40,000 populations. The per capita water
demand of the water supply is 180lit/capita per day and the rate of filtration is
150lit/m2/hr. maximum day factor = 1.8.
2) Design a rapid sand filter to treat water for 240,000 population, the per capital
water consumption of the town is 200lit/head/day. The filter works all the 24hrs. Assume
rate of filtration as 100lit/m2/min and maximum day factor is 1.8.
4.2.5.7 Disinfection
The process of killing the infective bacteria from the water and making it safe to the user
is called disinfection. The water which comes out from the filter may contain some disease
– causing bacteria in addition to the useful bacteria. Before the water is supplied to the
public it is utmost necessary to kill all the disease causing bacteria. The chemicals or
substances which are used for killing the bacteria are known as disinfectants.
Requirements of Good Disinfectants
 They should destroy all the harmful pathogens and make it safe for use,.
 They should not take more time in killing bacteria
 They should be economical and easily available
 They should not require high skill for their application
2016
 After treatment the water should not become toxic and objectionable to the
user.
 The concentration should be determined by simply and quickly
Methods of Disinfection
Disinfection of water by different physical and chemical methods
A. Physical Methods
1. Boiling: Boil the water for 15 to 20 minutes and kills the disease causing
bacteria.
This process is applicable for individual
homes.
2. Ultra-Violet Rays: Water is allowed to pass about 10cm thickness

by ultraviolet rays. This process is very costly and not used at water
works. Suitable for institutions.
3. Ultrasonic Rays: Suitable for institutions.
B. Chemical Methods
1. Chlorination: Using chlorine gas or chlorine compounds.
2. Bromine and Iodine: It is expensive and leaves taste and odour.
3. Potassium Permanganate: This method is used for disinfection of dug well

water, pond water or private source of water.
4. Ozone: Very expensive process leaves no taste, odour or residual.
5. Excess Lime Treatment: Needs long detension time for time interval and
large lime sludges to be treated.
 Chlorination
Chlorination is the addition of chlorine to kill the bacteria Chlorination is very widely
adopted in all developing countries for treatment of water for public supply. Chlorine
is available in gas, liquid or solid form (bleaching powder)
Advantages of Chlorine

2016
Chlorine is manufactured easily by electrolytes of common salts (NaCl)

It is powerful oxidant and can penetrate the cell wall of organism and its contents.
Dosage can be controlled precisely
can be easily detected by simple orthotolidine test
Does not form harmful constituents on reaction with organics of inorganics in
water
Leaves required residue in water to neutralize recontamination later.

Chapter -5
5 .Collection and Distribution of Water
Collection and distribution of water deals with the transport of water from the
source through the treatment plant to the consumers. It requires intake structures,
transmission lines, distribution pipe networks and other essential accessories.
After treatment, water is to be stored temporarily and supplied to the consumers

through the network of pipelines called distribution system. The distribution
system also includes pumps, reservoirs, pipe fittings, instruments for measurement
of pressures, flow leak detectors etc. The cost of distribution is about 40 to 70% of
the total cost of the entire scheme. The efficiency of the system depends upon
proper planning, execution and maintenance. Ultimate air is to supply potable
water to all the consumers whenever required in sufficient quantity with required
pressure with least lost and without any leakage.
5.1 Intakes, pipes and appurtenances

5.1.1 Surface water Intakes
Intakes are structures constructed at the entrance to the conduit and thus helping in
protecting the conduit from being damaged or clogged by ice, trash, debris etc.
Intakes are provided whenever water is withdrawn from a surface source such as a
lake, a river or a reservoir.
The structure should enable withdrawal of the best quality water as well as
exclusion of fish, floating and suspended matters from getting into the conveyance
system.
To locate the positions of intakes, the following variations should be considered.

1. Variation in water level,

2. Navigation requirements,
3. Local current and patterns of sediment deposition and
scour,
4. Spatial and temporal variations in water quality, and
5. The quantity of floating debris.
In general, the following notations may be considered in locating intakes.
1 River intakes should not be on curved reach of the river.

2 The intake should be able to draw water at all levels.
3 Lake water quality changes considerably along the depth at
different seasons hence the intake should be able to draw
water at all levels.
4 The site for intakes should be as near as possible to treatment
plant.
5 The intake should be located at a place where it can draw
water even during the driest periods of the year.
Impounding reservoirs: They are subject to wide variation in depths and thus
require intake structures that will permit withdrawal over a wide range of
elevations. It is normally not satisfactory to locate a single inlet at the bottom, since
the water quality in reservoirs varies with both time and depth. The quality is best
close to the surface.
The lower levels of deep impoundments are normally cool and change very little in
temperature during the year. The surface, on the other hand, varies in temperature
with the air and, during most of the year, is warmer than the lower levels. The
water temperature decreases slowly with depth, until at some level where wind
driven mixing currents become ineffective, it decreases rapidly to the uniform
bottom temperature in a short vertical distance. The water at bottom of an
impoundment is normally low in dissolved oxygen and high in organic matter. It is
desirable to avoid drawing this water into the intake; hence the optimum elevation
for withdrawal is likely to change during the year.
Lake Intakes: They should be located as far as possible from sources of pollution,
and one should consider wind and current effects on the motion of contaminants.
In particular, winds may stir-up sediment from the bottom that may be carried to
the intake if it is located in shallow water or too close to the bottom. The inlet
velocities should be determined to avoid trapping excessive quantities of floating
material, sediment, ice, or fish. Sufficient depth should be given to prevent
blocking of the intake by ice jams which may fill the lake to the bottom in shallower
depths. Accumulations of ice have been removed by forcing compressed air
through the blocked openings, but this technique is not always successful.
Preventive measures generally involve heating the screens and the air within the
structure to dip them a temperature slightly above the freezing point of water.
River Intakes: They should be designed, when possible, to withdraw water from
slightly below the surface to avoid both sediments in suspension at lower levels and
floating debris. River intakes must be below low water level and above the bottom
so that materials being carried in traction will not cover them. These requirements
often dictate that the intake opening be in the main channel, which may be quite far
from the normal tank.
Shore intakes may be constructed when the main channel of the river is at or near
the bank. Low diversion dams may be built upstream to ensure that the total flow
goes past the inlet during low river stages, thus minimizing silting of the channel.
Screens are particularly desirable in river intakes, since large quantities of

suspended material might otherwise enter the structure. In some areas, water-
logged plant material may be carried below the surface and be drawn into the inlet
- as may fish which venture too close. Automatically cleaned bar screens or
movable fine screens are frequently necessary to prevent this material from
clogging pumps.
Design Criteria for intakes
o Design capacity = Q max-day

o Intake velocity should be ≤ 8 cm/s

o vertical positions intake ports should be such that

o Good quality water is withdrawn.
o Locate the top intake port at a distance not less than 2 m from the
normal water level and the bottom port at least 1 m above the bottom
Intake design
o Volume of sump -detention time. A detention time of at least 20min is

recommended.
o At least two sumps - to avoid interruption of service.
o Height (with a freeboard about 0.5m)
o Location of the bottom of the sump should be >1.5m below the lowest
stream level or > 1m below stream bed.
Example 5.1: River Intake design
Given the following information proportion a suitable river intake.
Daily demand 5000 m3
Pump capacity: 50 l/s (Working 8 hr/day
River bank
HFL 1209.1m
LWL 1202.5
1200.1
Solution:
Capacity of each pump daily = 8x3600x50/1000=1440 m3
o Number of pumps = 5000/1440 = 3.47 ≅ 4

o Hourly flow of each pump = 5000/(4x8)=156.24 m3/h

o Take detention time, Td = 20 min
o capacity = Td x Q = (20/60)x 156.24 = 52.08 m3
1209.1-1202.5=6.6 m
1.5 m
o Effective height of sump = 6.6 + 1.5 = 8.1

o Free board = 0.5
o Total sump height = 8.6 m
5.1.2 Pipes
Pipes used for water supply works are made from the following materials:
 Prestressed Concrete,
 Asbestos Cement,
 Ductile iron,
 Cast iron,
 Steel,
 Reinforced Concrete,
 Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP), and
 Polyethylene, low or medium density.
Other types (i.e., Copper for plumbing systems) also exist, but these are rare.
Prestressed Concrete Pipes
They are primarily used for bulk transmission of water under pressure, but they are
also suitable for conveying slurries and sludge’s, sewage’s, some trade effluents and
brine.
Advantages: Include its ability to resist corrosion, ability to withstand back-fill

loads at depths up to 4m cover and normal super-imposed loads with no fear of
damage. Its resistance against corrosion renders it good flow characteristics.
Adaptability to custom design, for example, high strength can be derived by simply
increasing the number of prestressing wires and the pipes can be cast to any
required size.
Disadvantages: Heavy weight, higher transportation cost, difficulty of cutting,

fitting and making extensions or connections. Reliability can be lessened by the
longer time spent in making repairs should a burst occur.
Asbestos Cement
It is used for smaller diameter mains in distribution systems and occasionally in

trunk and reinforcing mains. Advantages include: Freedom from internal and
external corrosion, maintenance of carrying capacity, lighter weight than
corresponding ductile iron pipes, low initial cost. Disadvantages: Possibility of
fracture under high impact loads, requirement of uniform bedding. Soft water
sometimes leaches lime from asbestos cement and location can be difficult unlike
metal pipes.
Ductile Iron Pipes
They are suitable for all water mains laid in almost any ground conditions and
locations subject to suitable corrosion protection.
Advantages: Higher strength and ability to deform under heavy external loading.
Disadvantages: Pipe wall's subject to external corrosion and internal tuberculation

unless suitable protection is provided. They are expensive.

Steel Pipes
They are used mainly as trunk mains and also in distribution systems under any
ground conditions subject to corrosion protection.
Advantages: Suitable for laying on ground subject to subsidence or in heavy traffic

area, light weight compared to ductile iron pipe, availability in longer length,
suitability for self-supporting spans.
Disadvantages: Pipes' subject to corrosion unless suitable protection is provided.

Pipe may deform ovally there by allowing polluted water in to the pipe. Failure due
to excessive deformation under vacuum pressure is possible. In densely built urban
areas stray currents may induce corrosion unless cathodic protection is provided.
They are expensive.
UPVC Pipes (Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride pipes)
They are widely used for distribution mains suitable in circumstances where
ground movement and corrosive soil limit the use of pipes of other materials.
Advantages: Inert, light weight, therefore, handling is easier.
Disadvantages: Impact strength affected by higher temperature, burst under

pressure surges, therefore, limited use as trunk main.
MDPE Pipes (Medium Density Polyethylene pipes)
They are widely used for service pipes and use also in distribution systems.
Advantages: Inert, flexible, light weight, and has the required structural strength
without being brittle. They are suitable for use where ground movement is expected
and corrosive soils are present and where long ducts and flexibility in bedding are
required.
Disadvantages: Fatigue in weld areas, permeability, other factors need to be studied

yet.

GRP (Glass Reinforced Plastics)
Used for large diameter pipelines for the conveyance of raw and potable water and
sewage and industrial effluents.
Advantages: Light weight compared with steel and concrete pipes of similar sizes
making transportation cost less and good flow characteristics. They can be laid in
chemically unsuitable ground.
Service Pipes
 Lead Pipes:
Advantages: Ductile material easily laid and jointed.
Disadvantages: Lead poisoning especially in low pH water.
 Copper Pipes:
Advantage: Stronger and able to withstand high internal pressure, durable.
Disadvantages: Expensive and can be stolen away.
 Steel Pipe:
They are widely used and are cheaper than copper pipes. They are stronger;
however, they have to be galvanized in corrosive soil environments.
 Plastic (uPVC) pipes:
Advantages: Corrosion free, flexible, lightweight and therefore easy to deal with.
Disadvantages: Hot water cannot be carried through them especially in plumbing

systems.
5.1.3 Pipe Appurtenances

A. Joints for Pipelines

 Welded Joints: For steel pipes of larger diameter. They are cheaper for diameters
of 600 mm and above. The butt weld type is rigid plain welding for suitable for
all ground conditions. The joints are as strong as the pipes themselves. The
socket and spigot type allow some movement (2o) therefore is more flexible, but
it is more costly. The joint is water tested after it has been made.
For uPVC, welding involves the solvent rigid joint and for PE pipes heat welding.
The advantage of heat welding is that it allows the pipe to be laid following a curve
with not much difficulty and unnecessary excavation works. Electro fusion is also a
successful method of jointing PE pipes.
 Flanged Joints: Used for exposed pipe work in pumping stations, treatment
plants, in x-connection chambers and in spanning gaps where disconnection
should be easy but with rigid joint. Advantage: Provide a secured rigid joint that
can be dismantled later on. The disadvantage lies in the joint lacking flexibility.
The same advantage and disadvantage apply to welded joints besides the labour
requirement for welding.
 Viking Johnson Couplings: Mostly used with steel pipes. Allow flexibility with a
bend of 6o. The advantage is that it allows movement due to ground settlement
or thermal expansion and contraction. Moreover it can join one type of pipe
(steel) with another.
 Push in joints: Used for Prestressed concrete, ductile iron, uPVC, and GRP pipes.
Rubber ring forced in to sealing position by pressure of water, pushing spigot in
to socket of next pipe. It permits lateral deflection and longitudinal trust.
 Simplex joints: Used to join asbestos cement pipes, as the ends of these pipes are
usually plain.
 Victual couplings: Holds or clamps the pipes together and prevents them from
moving away from each other. Special uses are to connect venturi meters to
mains that permit removal for cleaning while holding tube in position.
 Gland Joints: Rubber ring forced in to position by bolts screwed in to socket.
Mainly used for gas mains and are suspended by push-in type joints.
 Tyton Joints: A chamfered spigot end drives itself in to rubber ring and socket
of next pipe. Simplicity of jointing together with flexibility is its advantages.
B. Valves
Valve types: Valves in water works may be listed as stop valves, non-return valves,
flow control valves, pressure control valves, energy dissipaters, and air valves. The
following types of stop valves are common:
 Sluice valves: a gate shut down in to the pipe line

 Butterfly valves: pivoted disc turned 90o to block the flow of water.
 Streamline Valves: A cone moved longitudinally or expanded in
diameter to stop annular flow around the cone.
 Screw down plug valves that consist of a plug or diaphragm that is
forced on to a circular seating through which the water is flowing (used
only for small pipes or heads).
Sluice Valves: A wedge shaped gate is lowered in to a groove cast in the body of
the valve. Sluice valves are difficult to open against unbalanced heads and special
provisions such as bypass or ball-bearing collars may be necessary. Opening sluice
valves on large diameters' mains may take as long as one hour, although an
advantage, this time must be allowed for during shut downs. Sluice valves that
remain shutting for a long time are difficult to open. To certain extent dirt collected
in the groove of open gates prevents full closure. A sluice valve is not good for flow
control. It may result in pitting and erosion if left open partially. Repair requires
that main is emptied. They can be expensive to buy. Sluice valves must be regularly
operated to ensure they open and close properly.
Butterfly Valves: It is easy to operate butterfly valves against unbalanced heads.

They have better characteristics as flow control devices than sluice valves. Disc
position indicators are useful to indicate to the operator when the discs are fully
shut.
Streamline Valves: They are efficient, easy to operate and give very good control of
water flow. They have a low frictional resistance when wide open.

Screw-down Valves: They are made in smaller sizes. The body of the valve is so
cast that water must pass through an orifice that is normally arranged in the
horizontal plane. A jumper is forced down to the orifice shutting the flow of water.
The same principle applies to ball valves, plug valves, pressure control valves,
hydrant valves and others. The size of the orifice enables control of high pressure in
domestic taps. Their seating needs renewal and they cause a considerable loss of
pressure even when wide open.
Non-Return Valves: It consists of a flat disc within the pipeline pivoted so that it is
forced open when the flow of water is in one direction and forced shut against a
seating when the flow tries to reverse. The seating is arranged slightly out of
perpendicular. These valves must close quickly. They can cause a significant head
loss if especially single door is provided.
Pressure Reducing Valves: Maintains a preset pressure in the main downstream of

the valve irrespective of the pressure upstream. They should be sized so that their
full open size is more than adequate for the desired maximum flow.
Pressure Sustaining Valves: They operate to keep the pressure upstream of the
valve to a given amount. This valve is used to prevent excessive flow downstream
to reduce the pressure upstream.
Constant (variable) Flow Control Valves: An orifice plate in the main upstream of
the valve measures the flow and creates a deferential pressure. The valve adjusts to
maintain a constant pressure (thus flow) across the orifice. Variable flow valves
work by adjusting the differential pressure up on signal of pressure received
upstream.
Air valves: Air moves slowly in pipes. Therefore, before a pipeline is filled with
water, there must be means of releasing air from it. Once the pipe is full, the
aperture must close. Air release valve is designed to meet this condition. The valve
contains a ball below a circular orifice. As long as there is air below the orifice the
ball will be floating. When the water begins to fill the ball will rise and close the
orifice. The valve can be single orifice or double orifice.

Pumps, pressure reduction can release air in to pipes. Air collects at high points and
at changes of gradient. When filling a main it is common to open fire hydrants long
the length of the main to be filled, shutting them only when they discharge water.
They serve as air release devices. At the same time hydrants permit the discharge of
dirty water to waste as well as water sampling.
It is not necessary to put air valves in distribution mains since air will be released
via service pipe connections. Air valves should be provided in the following
positions:
At high points (also high relative to the slope of the hydraulic gradient), Where a
failing pipeline steepens or where a rising pipeline flattens, and At (2 km) intervals
on long lengths of a pipeline where there is no hydrant to permit filling.
Additionally, the size of the air valve must be sufficient; sluice valve shall be
provided below to isolate the valve only for repair. Care should be taken to prevent
flooding of the valve with rising water table.
Washouts: A washout is a branch pipe from a main, taken from the invert of that
main at its lowest point leading to some convenient point for emptying or release.
Washouts are used for emptying a main and for removing dirty or stagnant water.
They discharge the washout water by gravity to the nearest watercourse. They are
provided at every low point on trunk mains and at the end of spur mains. Principal
feeder mains and small mains where there is no fire hydrant can be provided with
washouts. It operates to keep the pressure upstream of the valve to a given amount.
C. Hydrants
Hydrants are for fire fighting. They are special tee branches set in a main with
special connections on the branch, on to which the fire brigade’s stand pipes may be
quickly fastened. The valve is also quick opening. Before laying any new main, it
the duty of the water authority to inform the fire brigade so that the latter can
decide where any hydrants are to be fixed.
5.1.4 Canals, Aqueducts and Tunnels

The water is conveyed from the source to the treatment plant and supply by gravity
or by pumping. Free flow conduits must be laid under a slope in order to follow the
hydraulic grade line. Pressure pipelines can be laid up and down hill as long as
they remain a sufficient distance below the hydraulic grade line.
Water transmission conduits require a considerable capital investment. A careful

consideration of all the technical options and their costs is necessary when selecting
the best solution in a particular case.
5.1.4.1 Canals
Canals largely have a trapezoidal cross-section. Open canals have a danger of

contamination and thus never convey treated water. There is always a loss of water
in canals and velocities shall not exceed the scouring limits of the channel.
5.1.4.2 Aqueducts and Tunnels
Aqueducts are water conveying structures used to cross-large valleys. While

Tunnels are flow passages through mountainous landscapes, which are applied,
when other transmission routes are impossible or otherwise are uneconomical.
These flow about three quarters full at the design flow rate. Tunnels for free flow
transmission are generally horseshoe shaped for structural reasons. Tunnels are
lined to reduce head loss and infiltration seepage.
Advantages of aqueducts over pipes
 The possibility of using local material,

 Larger life of masonry than metal conduits, and
 Lower loss of carrying capacity with age.
Disadvantages of aqueducts over pipes
 Repair and maintenance is high, and

 Surface interference with drainage systems.

5.2 Distribution systems
After the water has been properly treated and made safe and wholesome, it has to
be supplied to the consumers in their individual homes. The water has, therefore, to
be taken from the treatment plant to the roads and streets in the city, and finally to
the individual houses. This function of carrying water from the treatment plant to
the individual homes is accomplished through a well-planned distribution system.
5.2.1 Lay out of water supply distribution systems
In small towns and cities, the distribution mains generally take off from the
treatment plant itself and distribute the water into the different sections, while in
the case of larger cities; the total area is divided into zones, and each zone being
served with a separate distribution reservoir and a separate distribution main. The
distribution pipes are generally laid on one side of the road below the footpaths at
about 2 m above and 2 m away (horizontally) from sewer pipes. Thus, generally
layouts will follow the layouts of the road. Depending upon the local conditions
and orientation of roads, there are four types of layouts of pipe networks.
1. Dead end system or branch system

2. Grid iron system
3. Ring system
4. Radial system
Dead end system: In the dead end system, also called branch system or tree system,
there is one main supply pipe from which originates a number of sub main pipes.
Each sub main then subdivides in to several branch pipes called laterals. From
laterals, service connections are given to the consumers. It may have to be adopted
for older towns. The water supply mains have then to be taken along the main
roads, and branches take off wherever needs, thus resulting in the formation of a
number of dead ends.
Advantages:

 The distribution network can be solved easily, and it is possible to easily and
accurately calculate the discharges and pressures at different points in the
system
 Lesser numbers of cut-off valves (that is, sluice valves) are required.
 Shorter pipe lengths are needed, and the laying of pipes is easier.
 It is cheap and simple and can be extended or expanded easily.
Disadvantages:
 If damage occurs or repair is taking place in a main or in a sub-main pipe, a

considerable area may be without water.
 There are numerous dead ends in this system, which prevent the free
circulation of water.
 It can give only limited supplies for fire fighting and may sometimes prove to
be a serious handicap.
Gridiron systems: In this system, which is also known as reticulation system, the
mains, sub mains and branches are interconnected with each other. In a well-planed
city or a town, the roads are generally developed in a gridiron pattern, and the
pipelines in such places can follow them easily. Thus it is suitable for well-planned
towns and cities.
Advantages:
 The discharge to be carried by each pipe, the friction loss and the size of the
pipe reduced.
 In case of repairs, very small area will be devoid of complete supply.
 There are no dead ends and then there is continuous water circulation.
During fire, more water can be diverted towards the affected point from various
directions by closing and manipulating the various cut-off valves.
Disadvantages:
 It requires more length of pipe lines, and a larger number of sluice valves
(that is, sluice valves).
 It has high cost of construction.
 The design is difficult and expensive.
Ring systems: In this system, a closed ring, either circular or rectangular, is formed
by laying feeder mains around the distributing area instead of through the area.
The distribution area is divided into rectangular or circular blocks. This system is
very suitable for well-planned towns and cities having well planned roads. The
advantages as well as the disadvantages of this system are the same as gridiron
systems. Sometimes, this system is used as a “looped feeder placed centrally
around a high demand area” along with the grid iron system, and will improve the
pressure at various points. It is also known as Circular System.

Radial systems: If a city or a town is having a system of radial roads emerging from
different centers, the pipelines can be best laid in a radial method by placing the
distribution reservoirs at these centers. In this system, water is therefore taken from
the water mains, and pumped into the distribution reservoirs placed at different
centers. This method ensures high pressure and efficient water distribution.

5.2.2 Distribution Mains

The network of distribution mains is nearly always the most expensive item in a
water supply project. In addition to the heavy capital investment, the cost of its
upkeep generally represents a large proportion to the annual maintenance budget.
The water supply designer is, therefore, required to give considerable thought and
care to the design of the most efficient distribution system. This entails an accurate
prediction of flow rates and pressures in various pipe components. The water
demand depends upon the population, its per capita requirement, in turn,
depending upon the local needs, people’s habits and standard of living, the
industrial or commercial importance of the city and similar factors.
‘Dead-end’ mains are undesirable features since frequent flushing is usually

necessary in order to prevent any tendency to stagnation. Distribution systems in
urban areas are generally best laid out on a gridiron or ring main pattern, mains
being interconnected at distances not exceeding about 600 m. With this
arrangement, water can be fed to any point in the system by more than one route,
thus providing greater flexibility in meeting the demand and also enabling repairs
to be carried out with the minimum disruption to supply. In the design of a new
supply network the topography of the land is very often a controlling factor, and
due regard must be paid to the fact that frictional resistance causes a loss in
pressure head. In urban areas where the ground contours vary by more than 60 m
it may be advantageous to divide the supply network into pressure zones. Pipe
mains are arranged in such a manner so us to avoid excessive pressures in the low-
lying areas. Pressure relief valves and booster pumps are employed to obtain the
desired pressure. The standard pipe sizes for distribution mains range from 100 to
1800 mm in diameter. The frictional losses should be limited from 1 to 10 m per
km, although higher losses are sometimes unavoidable with the smaller pipe sizes.
Losses of this order are associated with velocities lying between 0.6 and 2m/s,
representing a range, which is usually found to be satisfactory from both economic
and operational points of view.
5.2.3 Methods of distribution

The main aim of a distribution system is to develop adequate water pressure at
various points of the consumer’s taps. Depending upon the level of the source of
water and the city, topography of the area, and other local conditions and

considerations, the water may be forced in to the distribution system in the

following three ways:
1. By gravitational system,
2. By pumping system, and
3. By combined and gravity and pumping system.
2 Gravitational system: In this system, water from the high-leveled source is

distributed to the consumers at the lower level, by the mere action of gravity
without any pumping. This method is the most economical and reliable since no
pumping is involved at any stage. However, it needs a lake or a reservoir as a
source of supply. Such a system can be adopted for cities, which are situated at
the foothills, and the source of supply is available somewhere in the hill at
sufficient elevation of the city. High pressure for fire fighting may require use of
motor pumping trucks, and low-lying areas may need to be isolated to prevent
excessive pressure. The gravitational system is designed so as to leave only the
minimum permitted available head to the consumers, and the rest is consumed
in frictional and other losses.
3 Pumping without storage system: In the pumping system, the treated water is
directly pumped into the distribution mains without storing it anywhere. High
lift pumps are required in this system, which have to operate at variable speeds
so as to meet the variable demand of water. A continuous attendance is needed
at the pumping station, so as to ensure the desired flow in the distribution
system. This method is, therefore, generally not used as a distribution system. It
is the least desirable method of distribution, since it provides no reserve flow in
the event of power failure and pressures will fluctuate substantially with
variations in flow. Since the flow must be constantly varied to match an

unpredictable demand, sophisticated control systems are required. Peak water
uses and thus peak power consumption’s are likely to coincide with periods of
already high power, increasing power costs. Systems of this kind have the
advantage of permitting increased pressure for fire fighting, although individual
users must then be protected by pressure reducing valves.
4 Combined gravity and pumping system: In this system, the treated water is
pumped at a constant rate and stored into an elevated distribution reservoir,
from where it is distributed to the consumers by the mere action of the gravity.
Sometimes the entire water is first of all pumped into the distribution reservoir
and then distributed among the consumers. Many a times it is pumped into the
distribution mains and reservoirs simultaneously. The excess water during low
demand period gets stored in the reservoir and gets supplied during high
demand periods. The pumps work at a constant rate, which is adjusted in such a
way that the excess quantity of water stored in the reservoir during low
consumption nearly equals the extra demand during high consumption. This
type system is invariably and almost universally adopted because of its
following advantages.
The pumps are worked at uniform rate and thereby operating them to their rated
capacities with high efficiency.
The method is quite reliable because even during the power failure, certain amount
of water can be supplied from the storage or service reservoir.
The method enables the pumps to run for short period of time in small towns.

5.2.3.1 Pressure in the distribution system

From the time the water enters the distribution mains, and up to the time it comes
out of the consumers taps, water head is constantly lost in overcoming friction of
the pipes (hl) and also in the fittings meters, valves etc. The net available head at a
consumers reach is thus reduced by these losses. This net available head or effective
head (H) is the most important pressure that is required in water supply system.
It is therefore that the pressure should be maintained as high as possible so as to

give higher flows and also to serve the upper storey consumers. And generally the
choice of the proper value of the design pressures to be maintained in the
distribution pipes is a matter of cost versus convenience. The greater the design
pressure the costlier it will be but it will cause convenience to the consumers. And
under ordinary conditions, it will be enough to design the distribution system for a
minimum pressure head of 14 meters so as to raise three storey buildings and
overcome frictional resistance of house connection pipes. In hilly areas where there
may be wide variations in the elevations of various houses, it is desirable and
economical to divide the town or the city in to a number of zones at different levels
(with differences of 30m or so); and then feeding each zone by a separate
distribution reservoir.
Working Pressure, Design Pressure and Test Pressure
Working pressure: It is the actual maximum pressure including abnormal

conditions such as water hammer to which the pipe will be subjected during its
operation.

Design pressure: It is the maximum pressure for which the pipe has been
designed. This is equal to the product of the working pressure and a suitable
multiplier factor, usually 2, to cover any abnormal increase in pressure in the
pipeline due to unforeseen conditions.
Test pressure: It is the maximum pressure, which the pipe can withstand without
any leakage when tested for hydrostatic pressure. This pressure usually has a value
of 1.5 times the working pressure.
5.2.3.2 Design of Distribution Networks

In the design of a new supply network the topography of the land is very often a
controlling factor, and due regard must be paid to the fact that frictional resistance
causes a loss in pressure head. In urban areas where the ground contours vary by
more than 60 m it may be advantageous to divide the supply network into pressure
zones. Pipe mains are arranged in such a manner so us to avoid excessive pressures
in the low-lying areas. Pressure relief valves and booster pumps are employed to
obtain the desired pressure.
Depending upon the various factors such as the relative levels of the different zones
of the city, the layout of the roads, etc., the type of the distribution network to be
adopted is first of all, decided. Any one, among the four important types of the
network, any one or more commonly a combination of the two or more, may be
adopted for a particular town or a city.
Sizes of pipes: After the layout plan of the distribution pipes and the locations of
other appurtenances (such as values, hydrants, etc.) is finalized, the sizes of the
pipes are computed.
The pipe diameter is to be determined on the basis of least cost design. There are
two alternatives. One is to use larger diameter for the trunk mains and smaller
diameter for local mains. The other alternative is to provide smaller trunk main
with higher head loss and larger diameter for the local mains with less head loss.
The latter is preferred some times because the cost of installing larger local mains is
not much greater.
The peak factors are estimated by subtracting the amount of leakage. The peak
factor is not constant. It varies in accordance with the population served by the
main or the total flow served by the main.

Head loss and velocity limits are specified to maintain minimum pressure and to
avoid disturbance of deposits. The size of the mains is affected also by the number
of valves provided. Smaller distance between cross-connection means fewer
diameters for the mains.
The standard pipe sizes for distribution mains range from 100 to 1800 mm in
diameter. The frictional losses should be limited from 1 to 10 m per km, although
higher losses are sometimes unavoidable with the smaller pipe sizes. Losses of this
order are associated with velocities lying between 0.6 and 2 m/s, representing a
range which is usually found to be satisfactory from both economic and operational
points of view.
Strictly speaking, the distribution mains should be designed for carrying the
maximum hourly draft of the maximum day, or for the coincident draft with fire,
whichever is more. However, for normal cases, the distribution pipes are designed
for a maximum demand of 3 times the average; and the service pipes in the streets
are designed for 2 times the average. The minimum size of the distribution pipes is
kept 10 cm and that of the service pipes as 19 mm (¾”), except when the pressure is
very high when it may be kept as 13 mm (½”).
Design considerations
o Design flow: Peak hour demand or maximum day demand + Fire demand, whichever
is greater
o Minimum main sizes: generally, 150mm; high value districts, 200mm; major
streets, 305mm; domestic flows only, 100m; small communities, 50-75 mm
o Velocity: typical values – minimum = 0.6-1 m/s; maximum = 2 m/s
o Pressure: should be within acceptable ranges; while exactly what constitutes a
satisfactory pressure depends upon system-specific considerations, a typical
minimum value is 140 kPa. Absolute maximum allowable pressures are dictated
by the pressure ratings of the pipes and appurtenances used and regulatory
requirements. Unnecessarily high pressures are wasteful in terms of the extra
costs of the equipment and energy required to produce them, and the increased
volume of water lost to leakage. For most small water systems there is no
compelling need for the maximum pressure to exceed 410 kPa.
Hydraulic analysis
Hydraulic analysis of a water supply distribution network is concerned with the
determination of discharges and head losses in each pipeline, and pressure heads at
critical points. Network analysis is not only important for designing new systems,
but also for monitoring and upgrading existing systems. The following are the
applications of network analysis.
o To assess the capacities of existing systems,

o To control pressure and reduce pumping cost,
o Design of new systems,
o Water quality monitoring, and
o Investigation of the effect of damage to main, storage tank locations, and
other scenarios.
Commonly used hydraulic analysis methods include Hardy cross method and
Computer programs. The Hazen-William equation is widely used to determine the
head loss in a pipe.
( )
0. 54
2 . 63 hf
Q=0. 278 CD
L
Where, Q = flow rate in m3/s
C = coefficient of roughness
D = pipe diameter, m
hf = friction head loss, m
L = equivalent length of pipe, m
Some values of roughness coefficient for Hazen-William equation for different pipe
materials is given in table 5-1 below.
Table 5-1. Values of Coefficient C for Hazen William formula
Pipe material C
Asbetos cement 140
Ductile iron
Cement lined 130 to 150
New, unlined 130
5-yer-old, unlined 120
20-year-old, unlined 100
Concrete 130
Copper 130 to 140

Plastic 140 to 150

PPR 130
New welded steel 120
New riveted steel 110
Design procedures
Simple Distribution System
Requirements: The sizes of the pipes should ensure availability of water at the end
points (terminals) of the pipes, with the minimum allowable pressure at the time of
maximum demand.
o Assign the required demand at each node or dead end
o Estimate the discharge flowing through the pipes
o Assume possible pipe diameters
o Calculate the head loss through that pipe
o Find the residual pressure at the end of the pipe.
o Compare this terminal pressure with the desired minimum and maximum
pressures.
o If the required condition is not satisfied, then repeat steps (ii) through (vi)
until the required conditions are met.
Complex pipe Networks
The Hardy Cross Method can be used to make hydraulic analysis of complex
interconnected pipelines following the steps below.
o Assign the required demand at each node

o Assume the best distribution of flow that satisfies continuity by careful
examination of the network. The flow entering a node must be equal to the flow
leaving the same node
o Calculate the head loss, hf, in each pipe. The algebraic sum of the heads around a
closed loop must be zero. For a loop, take head loss in the clockwise flows as
positive and in the anti-clockwise flows as negative
o Calculate the correction factor for each loop by

ΔQ=−
∑ rQ o|Qo|n−1 =− ∑ hf
∑ rn|Qo|n−1 n ∑ hf
Qo
Where,
ΔQ = Correction discharge for the assumed dischargeQo ,
r = Constant depending on pipe,
Qo = assumed flow in a pipeline,
n = 1.85 to 2 normally, depending on equation used. n = 1.85 for Hazen-William eqn
o Apply the correction discharges to the assumed flows. The corrected discharge,
Q, now becomes Q = o + ΔQ
Q
o Repeat the above computations with the corrected flows until the corrections for
each pipe are negligible.
o Velocities of flow and pressure levels must be within acceptable ranges.
Computer programs
The use of hydraulic analysis models has become common due to their important
advantages over that of manual methods. The advantages include
o Models relieve engineers from tedious and iterative calculations and enable
them focus on important aspects of the design
o Models better incorporate the complex real world system
o Models allow investigation of alternative designs over a wider range of
conditions
There are a number of computer programs that can readily be used to perform
complex pipe network analysis (e.g EPANET, WaterCAD). Models should be
calibrated and verified before application. Important features of a typical hydraulic
analysis model are briefly presented below.
Representation. The various elements of a water distribution system are

represented as network of links or nodes in the model.
Element Representation
Pipe Link

Reservoir, storage tanks, pumps, valves, controls, and Node

Junctions (intersection points, dead ends, water withdrawal
and injection points)
Skeletonization. This refers to selecting and including those pipe network parts
that have significant impacts in the behavior of the system. Criteria such as pipe
diameter, nodal discharge, points with known condition (e.g. pressure head), type
of element, etc. may be used to skeletonize the system.
Demand allocation. Water withdrawal rate at each node can be estimated manually
or automated systems using GIS. One useful method follows:
 Using land use or zoning maps estimate the water demand for each type of
land use
 Overlay the water distribution system map over the land use map and
E G
determine the applicable demand at each node
Area served by
 Major water users should be considered separately and
Area served by applied to the closest
node B
nodes B D node G
A C F
Area served by
node A
System inputs. Input requirements vary from system element to element as

indicated in the table below.
Element Input
Reservoir Hydraulic grade line and water quality
Storage tanks Water levels (min, max, overflow,
initial)

Junctions Elevation
Pipes Nominal diameter, length, coefficient
Pumps Characteristic curve
Model outputs. Outputs of a typical model run may include flow rate, head loss,
velocity in each pipe, pressure at each node, residual chlorine, etc.
Example5.2: For the distribution network shown below determine the flow in each
pipe and the pressure at A.
Pipe Diam., mm Length, m
P-1 355 1000
P-2 405 2000
P-3 305 2000
P-4 205 1000
P-5 405 2000
P-6 205 2000
P-7 205 1000
P-8 300 150
300m Elev.
15m3/min 5m3/min P-8
P-2 B P-5 250m Elev.
P-7
P-1 P-4
3
5m /min 10 m3/min
5m3/min
A
P-3 P-6
Example: 5.3. Find the flow distribution in the gravity supply system through
the following pipe network shown below. Use Hazen – Williams formula (C= 100).
If the pressure at point A is 490.5 KPa, find the pressures at points B & C. Assume
all pipe junctions are at the same elevation. Length and diameter of pipe is given.
250l/s

45 l/s F 2000m, 250mm A 2000m, 250mm B

45l/s
10000m, 200mm 10000m, 250mm 1000m, 200mm
E 2000m, 150mm D 2000m, 100mm C
5.3 Distribution Reservoirs

Reservoirs also called service reservoirs or distribution reservoirs are the storage reservoirs,
which store the treated water for supplying water during emergencies (such as during fires,
break-downs, repairs, etc.) and also to help in absorbing the hourly water demand. The
main functions served by the distribution reservoirs are:
They absorb the hourly variations in demand and allow the water treatment units to
operate at a constant rate.
They help in maintaining constant pressure in the distribution mains.
The water stored in the reservoirs can be supplied during emergencies, such as break down
of pumps, heavy fire demand, etc.
Types of Distribution reservoirs
The distribution reservoirs, depending up on their elevation with respect to the ground,
may be classified into the following types.
Surface reservoir: These are circular or rectangular tanks, constructed at ground level or
below the ground level. They are, therefore, also called ground reservoirs. In general they
are constructed at high points in the city. If a city has more than one high point more than
one reservoir may be provided. Usually service reservoirs are two in number or may have
two compartments if it is single for reasons of operation of the other when one is in repair.
Elevated reservoirs: Elevated reservoirs are rectangular, circular or elliptical overhead

tanks erected at a suitable elevation above the ground level and supported on towers hence
the name water tower. They are constructed when the pressure requirement necessitate

considerable elevation above the ground. They are adopted in general for flat towns where
there is no pronounced higher point. Water towers made of RC are these days preferred to
steel-to-steel tanks, because they are cheaper don’t corrode and require less maintenance.
With regard to economy these surface reservoirs are very costly and hence and hence not
designed for capacities of more than 6 to 8 hours of the average daily supply of the city.
Storage capacities of distribution reservoirs
The total storage capacity of distribution reservoirs is the summation of:
Balancing storage: The balancing storage can be worked out by utilizing the hydrographs
of inflow and outflow either by mass curve method or by using an analytical tabular
solution.
Breakdown storage: The break down storage or often called emergency storage is the
storage preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps, the
electricity or any other mechanism driving the pumps. A value of about 25% of the total
storage capacity of the reservoir or 1.5 to 2 times the average supply may be considered as
enough provision for accounting this storage.
Fire storage: This provision takes care of the requirements of water for extinguishing fires.
This demand depends on the nature of the city and hence the margin that may be left for
fire fighting depends merely on the designer’s intention.
Location of Distribution reservoirs
 They should be located in the heart of the city so as to command the maximum area
all around. Also they should preferably place as close as possible to the points of the
heaviest demand.
 They should be located at optimum elevation so that adequate pressure is
maintained in the distribution system.
 With respect to the position of the pumping station and the distribution area, the
reservoirs may be located in two different ways, i.e.,

 They can be placed between the two; and

 They can be placed at the farther end of the area served.
In the former case, the elevation of the reservoir has to be high and the water to be
supplied will always pass through the reservoir while in the latter case the
elevation can be low and the supply can be made available directly from the pumps
as well as from the reservoir, during high demand. The length of the rising main
carrying the water from the pump to the reservoir will be less in the former case,
and vice versa. Since the pipe length in the latter case is more, the head loss will be
more. Thus the total head against which pumping has to be done will remain the
same on both cases.

Example 5.4.
A small town with a popn of 1600 is to be supplied water at 150 Lpcd. The demand
of water during different period is given in the following table:
Time h 0–3 3-6 6-9 9-12 12-15 15-18 18-21 21-24

Demand 20 25 30 50 35 30 25 25
in
1000
liters
Determine the capacity of a service reservoir if pumping is done 24hrs at Constant
rate.
Solution
Total water Demand = 150 * 1600 = 240,000 lit/day
For constant rate of pumping rate = 240,000/24 = 10,000 lit/hr
For 3hr - pumping rate = 30,000 lit
1. Analytically

Time Pumping Cum Demand Cum Surplus Deficit

(hrs) Pumping Demand
0-3 30,000 30,000 20,000 20,000 10,000
3-6 30,000 60,000 25,000 45,000 15,000
6-9 30,000 90,000 30,000 75,000 15,000
9-12 30,000 120,000 50,000 125,000 - 5,000
12-15 30,000 150,000 35,000 160,000 - 10,000
15-18 30,000 180,000 30,000 190,000 - 10,000
18-21 30,000 210,000 25,000 215,000 - 5,000
21-24 30,000 240,000 25,000 240,000 - 0
i. For Balancing storage = Max. Surplus + Max. Deficit = 15,000 +
10,000 = 25,000 lit
Let’s take 3hr pumping rate
ii. For Break down storage = 3* 10,000 lit/hr = 30,000 lit
Let’s take 5 lit/cap
iii. For Fire reserve = 5 lit/cap * 1600 = 8,000 lit
: - Total capacity of reservoirs = 25,000 + 30,000 + 8,000 = 63,000 lits
2. Mass curve method

 It is a graph of cum.demand & cum. supply Vs Time.
Balancing strange = 18000 + 6,000 = 24,000
For Bread down = 30,000
For Five reserve = 8,000
Example 5.5
Design a service reservoir if Qdaymax is 2400 m3. Two pumps are working at
constant rate of 150 m3/hr. Determine for how many hours pumping should be
done
Step 1. Determine pumping hours
Pumping hour = Qdmax/(2 x pumping capacity)
= 2400/(2 x 150)
= 8 hrs. for each pump

Step 2. Determine reservoir capacity
Balancing requirement
Pumping is done for a total of 16 hrs = 2400 m3
But demand for 16 hrs. is 2400 x 16/24 = 1600 m3
Excess that needs to be stored = 2400-1600 = 800 m3
Emergency requirement = 0.25 x 800 = 200 m3
Ignore fire demand = 0
Total reservoir volume = 1000 m3
Provide 2 reservoirs of each 500 m3
Take depth of 3.0 m
X-sectional area = 500/3.0 = 166.67 m2
Taking circular tank diameter = 14.57 m
Example 5.6
A water supply system is proposed to be designed for a small town which has a
maximum daily demand of
515 m3/d. Estimate storage requirements if pumping is done for 12 hrs only (from 4
to 16). Use the following demand variation data.
Time (hr) 0-4 4-8 8-12 12-16 16-20 20-24

Demand as % of 6.7 9.2 20.8 28.3 25 10
total daily
demand
5.4 Pumps

Pump is a mechanical machine. It is used for lifting water or any fluid to higher
elevations or at higher pressures. The operation of lifting water or any fluid is called
pumping. Pumping may be adopted for following purposes in a water supply
scheme.
1. To increase the water pressure at certain points in the distribution system.

2. To lift treated water to elevated storage tanks, so that it may flow
automatically under gravity into distribution system.
3. To lift raw river water or lake water to carry it to treatment plant.
4. To lift water available from wells to an elevated storage tank in stages.
5. To pump water directly into the distribution system.
6. To take out water from basins, sumps, tanks etc.
5.4.1 Types of pumps

(A) Classification based on mechanical principle of operation
(i) Displacement pumps
(ii) Centrifugal pumps
(iii) Air lift pumps
(iv) Miscellaneous pumps
(B) Classification based on type of power required

(i) Steam engine pumps
(ii) Diesel engine pumps
(iii) Electrically driven pumps
(C) Classification based on the type of service called for

(i) Low lift pumps
(ii) High lift pumps
(iii) Deep well pumps
(iv) Booster pumps
Selection of a particular type of pump
o Capacity of pump
o Number of pump units required
o Suction conditions
o Lift (total head)

o Discharge conditions and variations in load
o Floor space requirement
o Flexibility of operation
o Starting and priming characteristics
o Type of drive required
o Initial costs and running costs.
Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal Pumps are rotodynamic pumps which convert Mechanical energy into
Hydraulic energy by centripetal force on the liquid. Figure 5.1 shows a typical
centrifugal pump. Centrifugal pumps are classified in to three categories: Radial
flow, mixed flow, and axial flow.
Radial Flow - a centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed wholly by

centrifugal force.
Mixed Flow - a centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed partly by

centrifugal force and partly by the lift of the vanes of the impeller on the liquid.
Axial Flow - a centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed by the

propelling or lifting action of the vanes of the impeller on the liquid.
The discharge of a centrifugal pump is fixed by the design of the impeller and by
the speed of rotation. Typical operating curves for a centrifugal pump are shown in
Fig. 5.3.
Every centrifugal pump and axial flow pump has operating characteristics, which
depend on its design and speed of operation. A typical characteristics curve is
shown below. These are the curves obtained by plotting at constant speed, the
variation of the head efficiency, and break horsepower against the corresponding
rate of discharge. These curves provide clues for selecting a pump
As the discharge increases the head produced decreases. The maximum discharge
being limited by a certain minimum head, below which the pump will not work.

The maximum efficiency is obtained at a particular discharge. This discharge at

which the efficiency of the pump is being maximum is known as normal discharge,
rated discharge or rated capacity of the pump.
The brake horsepower required from the motor to drive the pump increases with
the increase in discharge.
Figure. 5.1 Centrifugal pumps (Volute pump)

Figure 5.2. Centrifugal pump with horizontal shaft installed in a dry well or dry pit.
Figure 5.3. Characteristics of centrifugal pump
Priming of centrifugal pumps: Priming consists in filling the pump casing with
water so that air trapped in the pump does not hinder its operation and reduce its
efficiency.
Advantages of centrifugal pumps
 Compact in size;
 Steady discharge;
 Highly durable and sustain high pressure; and
 Simple mechanism of operation.
Disadvantages
 Priming;
 The discharge from such a pump varies with the head of water; and
 For high heads, the efficiency is low.
Pumping terms
The key performance parameters of centrifugal pumps are capacity, head, BHP
(Brake horse power), BEP (Best efficiency point) and specific speed. The pump
curves provide the operating window within which these parameters can be varied
for satisfactory pump operation. The following parameters or terms are discussed
in detail in this section.
Head
A Centrifugal pump imparts velocity to a liquid. This velocity energy is then

transformed largely into pressure energy as the liquid leaves the pump. Therefore,
the head developed is approximately equal to the velocity energy at the periphery
of the impeller this relationship is expressed by the following well-known formula:
Where H = Total head developed in meter.

v = Velocity at periphery of impeller in meter per sec.
g = 9.81 m/Sec2
We can predict the approximate head of any centrifugal pump by calculating the
peripheral velocity of the impeller and substituting into the above formula. A
handy formula for peripheral velocity is:
RPM × D
v=
60

D = Impeller diameter in meter
v = Velocity in m/sec
Suction Lift exists when the source of supply is below the center line of the pump.
Thus the Static Suction Lift is the vertical distance in meter from the centerline of
the pump to the free level of the liquid to be pumped.
Fig.5.4 Suction Lift. Showing Static Heads in a Pumping System Where the Pump
is Located above the Suction Tank. (Static Suction Head)
Suction Head exists when the source of supply is above the centerline of the pump.
Thus the Static Suction Head is the vertical distance in meter from the centerline of
the pump to the free level of the liquid to be pumped.

Fig. 5.5 Suction Head. Showing Static Heads in a Pumping System Where the
Pump is Located below the Suction Tank. (Static Suction Head)
Static Discharge Head is the vertical distance in meter between the pump centerline
and the point of free discharge or the surface of the liquid in the discharge tank.
Total Static Head is the vertical distance in meter between the free level of the
source of supply and the point of free discharge or the free surface of the discharge
liquid.
Friction Head (hf) is the head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the
pipe and fittings. It is dependent upon the size, condition and type of pipe, number
and type of pipe fittings, flow rate, and nature of the liquid.
Velocity Head (hv) is the energy of a liquid as a result of its motion at some velocity
V. It is the equivalent head in meter through which the water would have to fall to
acquire the same velocity, or in other words, the head necessary to accelerate the
water. Velocity head can be calculated from the following formula:
V2
hv =
2g

The velocity head is usually insignificant and can be ignored in most high head
systems. However, it can be a large factor and must be considered in low head
systems.
Pressure Head must be considered when a pumping system either begins or

terminates in a tank which is under some pressure other than atmospheric. The
pressure in such a tank must first be converted to meter of liquid. A vacuum in the
suction tank or a positive pressure in the discharge tank must be added to the
system head, whereas a positive pressure in the suction tank or vacuum in the
discharge tank would be subtracted. The following is a handy formula for
converting mm of mercury vacuum into meter of liquid.
Vacuum , mm of Hg × 1.13
Vacuum , meter of liquid =
Sp. Gr.
The above forms of head, namely static, friction, velocity, and pressure, are
combined to make up the total system head at any particular flow rate. Following
are definitions of these combined or "Dynamic" head terms as they apply to the
pump.
Total Dynamic Suction Lift (hs) is the static suction lift minus the velocity head at
the pump suction flange plus the total friction head in the suction line. The total
dynamic suction lift, as determined on pump test, is the reading of a gauge on the
suction flange, converted to meter of liquid and corrected to the pump centerline*,
minus the velocity head at the point of gauge attachment.
Total Dynamic Suction Head (hs) is the static suction head plus the velocity head at
the pump suction flange minus the total friction head in the suction line. The total
dynamic suction head, as determined on pump test, is the reading of the gauge on
the suction flange, converted to meter of liquid and corrected to the pump
centerline*, plus the velocity head at the point of gauge attachment.
Total Dynamic Discharge Head (hd) is the static discharge head plus the velocity
head at the pump discharge flange plus the total friction head in the discharge line.
The total dynamic discharge head, as determined on pump test, is the reading of a
gauge at the discharge flange, converted to meter of liquid and corrected to the
pump centerline*, plus the velocity head at the point of gauge attachment.

Total Head (H) or Total Dynamic HEAD (TDH) is the total dynamic discharge head
minus the total dynamic suction head or
TDH = hd + hs (with a suction lift)

TDH = hd - hs (with a suction head
Capacity
Capacity (Q) is normally expressed in liter per minute (lpm). Since liquids are
essentially incompressible, there is a direct relationship between the capacity in a
pipe and the velocity of flow. This relationship is as follows:
Q
Q  60  A V or V 
60  A
Where
A = area of pipe or conduit in square meter.
V = velocity of flow in meter per second.
Q = Capacity in liter per minute
NOTE: On vertical pumps the correction should be made to the eye of the
suction or lowest impeller.
Power and Efficiency
The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and the weight of
the liquid pumped in a given time period. The pump capacity in lpm and the
liquid specific gravity are normally used in the formulas rather than the actual
weight of the liquid pumped.
Let H be the total head (TDH) against which water is to be lifted by the pump.
Suppose pump lifts W kg water.
Therefore work done by the pump = W x H m-kg/sec =  x Q x H m-kg/sec
Where  = density of liquid in kg/m3 (1000 kg/m3 for water)
Q = water discharge in m3/sec
Pump input or brake horsepower (BHP) is the actual horsepower delivered to
the pump shaft. Pump output or hydraulic horsepower (WHP) is the liquid
horsepower delivered by the pump. These two terms are defined by the
following formulas.

Q  TDH  Sp. Gr.

WHP 
75
Q  TDH  Sp. Gr.
BHP 
75  Pump Efficiency
The brake horsepower or input to a pump is greater than the hydraulic

horsepower or output due to the mechanical and hydraulic losses incurred in the
pump. Therefore the pump efficiency is the ratio of these two values.
WHP Q × TDH × Sp. Gr .
Pump Efficiency = =
BHP 75 × BHP
Specific Speed and Pump Type

Specific speed (Ns) is a non-dimensional design index used to classify pump
impellers as to their type and proportions. It is defined as the speed in
revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar impeller would operate
if it were of such a size as to deliver one liter per minute against one meter head.
The understanding of this definition is of design engineering significance only,
however, and specific speed should be thought of only as an index used to
predict certain pump characteristics. The following formula is used to determine
specific speed:
Where
N = Pump speed in RPM
Q = Capacity in lpm at the best efficiency point
H = Total head per stage at the best efficiency point
Example 5.7. Population of a city is 120000 and rate of water supply per head per
day is 200 liters. Calculate the BHP of motor to raise the water to an overhead tank
50 m high. Length and diameter of the rising main is 200 m and 40 cm, respectively.
Assume motor efficiency 90 % and the of the pump 60 %. Take f = 0.01 and peak
hourly demand as 1.5 times the average demand.

2 Displacement pumps
These pumps work on the principle of mechanically inducing vacuum in a chamber
and thus sucking in a certain volume of water, which is then mechanically
displaced and forced out of the chamber. The commonest types of displacement
pumps are reciprocating pumps.
Reciprocating pumps
The simplest types of reciprocating pumps which are in common use are hand
pumps. In a hand pump, a piston or a plunger reciprocates in a closed vertical
cylinder. This is moved up and down by hand. On the up stroke a vacuum gets
created in the cylinder, below the piston, there by pending the check valve v1at the
base of the pump, thus withdrawing water into the space below the piston.
Simultaneously the water above the piston is forced out of the spout. On the down
stroke, the heck valve v1 gets closed and the piston valve v2 gets opened, thus
permitting water to inter the cylinder above the piston. On the next up stroke, the
piston valve v2 closes and the water above the piston comes out of the spout, and at
the same time check valve v1 opens, permitting water to enter the space above the
piston. The cycle is thus continued and continuous supplies of water can be
obtained.
Advantages
 Discharge is independent of head (discharge depends only on speed of the

pump);
 High efficiency is possible provided valves and the packing are in good
condition; and
 Durable and flexible.
Disadvantages
 Initial cost is very high;

 They are not compact thus consume large space;
 Maintenance costs are large; and
 Not suitable for water having high sediments.
 Performance Characteristics of pumps

Chapter -6
6. Urban Sewerage system
6.1 Introduction
Every Community produces both liquid and solid wastes. The liquid portion,
wastewater or sewage, is essentially derived from the water supply of the
community after it has been fouled by a variety of uses. From the standpoint of
generation, wastewater or sewage may be defined as a combination of the liquid or
water carrying wastes removed from soil, industries and commercial
establishments, together with such groundwater, surface water and storm water as
may be present.
What will happen if untreated wastewater is allowed to accumulate?
 The decomposition of the Organic materials it contains can lead to the

production of large quantities of malodorous gases.
 Untreated wastewater usually contains numerous pathogenic or disease
causing microorganisms that dwell in the human intestinal tract or that may
be present in certain industrial waters.
 It also contains nutrients NO3 and NO2, which can stimulate the growth of
aquatic plants, and may contain toxic compounds, e.g., Eutrification of lakes.
For the above-mentioned reasons, the immediate and nuisance free removal of
wastewater from its source of generation, followed by treatment and disposal, is
not only desirable but also necessary in an industrial society.
Sewer refers to a conduit or channel intended to convey sewage. Sewage is defined

as a liquid waste produced in residences, commercial establishments, and
institutions; discharged from industries, it may or may not be mixed with any
surface, subsurface or storm water.

Sewerage is the branch of engineering which deals with the collection, treatment
and disposal of liquid wastes. Sewerage works or sewage works include all the
physical structures required for that collection, treatment and disposal.
The waste products of a society including the human excreta had been collected,
carried and disposed of manually to a safe point of disposal, by the sweepers, since
time immemorial. This primitive method of collecting and disposing of the
societies’ wastes are mixed with sufficient quantity of water and carried through
closed conduits under the conditions of gravity flow. This mixture of water and
waste products, thus automatically flows up to a place, from where it is disposed
of, after giving it suitable treatments; thus avoiding the carriage of wastes on heads
or carts. The treated sewage effluents may be disposed of either in a running body
of water, such as a stream, or may be used for irrigating crops.
6.2 Waste Water Collection and Transportation System

The liquid waste or sewage has an adverse effect both to the community and to the
environment. To convert these potentially hazardous sewages into non-harmful
effluent there should be a proper collection and transportation as well as treatment
and disposal systems.
The liquid wastes must be collected and conveyed from domestic, commercial,
industrial and storm water sources.
The pattern of collection systems mainly depends on the following factors:
 The topographical and hydrological features of the area

 The location and method of treatment work
 The type of sewerage system employed (whether combined separate or
partially separate systems)
 Area to be served.
The following are most common among the various patterns of collection system:
A. Perpendicular Pattern: In this pattern sewers carrying storm water are laid in
such a way as to seek the shortest possible path to the natural watercourses.
This can be achieved if and only if the sewers are laid perpendicular to the
natural watercourse.
 Suitable for separate systems and partially separate system.

 Not suitable for combined system.

 Treatment is difficult due to many outlets
 Pollutes the water of natural course.
B. Interceptor Pattern: This pattern is an improvement over the perpendicular
pattern. In this pattern sewers are intercepted by a large size sewer, which is
laid all along the water carrying sewage to a common point, where it can be
disposed of with or without treatment. Overflows should be provided when
the quantity of storm water is large:
C. Radial Pattern: This type of pattern can be employed if the sewage is to be
disposed of on land or water body with or without treatment
 Large number of outlets is provided
 Sewers are laid radically outwards from the canter of the city.
Suburbs can be severed by relatively small and short lines of sewers, which make
it economical.
 Large number of disposal works is the disadvantage.

D. Fan Pattern: If the city is situated near the river, which is on one side of it
only, the sewer can be laid in such a way that the whole sewage flows to a
common point where one treatment plant is located. The converging sewers
from a fanlike shape, hence its name. Having a single unit treatment is its
advantage whereas the main trunks are very large and development of the
suburbs is restricted due to increase of loads are the disadvantage.
E. Zone Pattern: In the interceptor pattern only one single large size-intercepting
sewer is used to collect and convey the entire sewage, due to which it is over
loaded. This over-loading can be removed by providing more number of
interceptors of each zone. This type of pattern is most suited to slops areas as
hills than flat areas.
6.3 Types of Sewerage Systems
Two major sewerage systems are well known.
Combined system: a system composed of combined sewers. A combined sewer

carries both domestic with or without industrial and storm sewage.
Separate system: a system composed of sewer that segregates the storm water from
sanitary sewers. A sanitary sewer carries sanitary sewage and is designed to
exclude storm sewage, infiltration, and inflow. Industrial waste may be carried in
sanitary sewers, depending upon its characteristics. A storm sewer carries storm
sewage and any other wastes that may be discharged into the streets or onto the
surface of the ground.
Sometimes, a part of drainage water especially that originating from the roofs or
paved courtyards of buildings, is allowed to be admitted into the sewers; and
similarly sometimes, the domestic sewage coming out from the residences or
institutions, etc., is allowed to be admitted into the drains, the resulting system is
called a partially separate system.
In the modern days, 'separate system' is generally preferred to a 'combined system'

although each individual case should be decided separately on merits, keeping the
following points into consideration:
A separate system will require laying two sets of conduits; whereas, a combined
system required laying only one set of bigger sized conduits, thus making the
former system costlier. Moreover, the separate conduits cannot be laid in congested
streets and localities, making it physically unfeasible.
The sewer pipes in the combined system are liable to frequent silting during the
non-monsoon season (when the flows in them are quite less) unless they are laid at
sufficiently steeper slopes, which, in turn, will make them deeper, requiring more
excavation and pumping, thereby making them costlier.
In a combined system, the less-foul drainage water gets mixed with the highly foul
sewage water, thus necessitating the treatment of the entire flow, needing more
capacity for the treatment plant, thereby making it costlier. Whereas, in the separate
system, only the sewage discharge is treated and the drainage discharge is disposed
of without any treatment.
In case, flooding and backing up of sewers or drains occur due to excessive rains,
more flow and unsanitary conditions will prevail in case of combined sewage than
in the case of storm drainage alone.
Since the sewer lines are generally laid deep and at steeper slopes, as compared to
storm water surface, drains, pumping of sewage and often no pumping of drainage
is required in a separate system. Whereas, the entire discharge will have to be

pumped, if the sewage and drainage discharges are mixed together; thereby
making the combined system more costly.
The economy of the two systems must be worked out for each individual project,
and the economical system be adapted, if physically feasible.
A house sewer is a pipe conveying wastewater from an individual structure to a

common sewer or other point of disposal. A lateral sewer is a common sewer
collects flow from one or more laterals as well as house sewers. A main or trunk
sewer collects flow from several sub-mains as well as laterals and house sewers.
Force mains are pressurized sewer lines, which convey sewage from a pumping
station to another main or to a point of treatment or disposal. An intercepting sewer
intersects other sewers to separate the dry weather flow, which they may carry. A
relief sewer is a sewer, which has been built to carry a portion of the flow in a
system with otherwise in adequate capacity. An outfall sewer is a sewer, which
carries the collected waste to a point of treatment or disposal. Manholes are
provided in every sewer pipe at a suitable interval, so as to facilitate their cleaning
and inspection. In the sewers, which carry the drainage discharge either solely or in
combination with sewage, inlets called catch basins are provided to permit entrance
of storm water from street gutters.
6.4 Design Sewage Quantity Estimation

The sewage discharge which has to pass through a sewer must be estimated
as correctly as possible; otherwise the sewers may either prove to be
inadequate, resulting in their overflow, or may prove to be of too much of
size, resulting in unnecessary wasteful investments.
Theoretically speaking, the quantity of sewage (i.e., domestic sewage + industrial

sewage) that is likely to enter the municipal sewers under design should be
equal to the quantity of water supplied to the contributing area, from the water-
works. But in actual practice, this is not the precise quantity which appears as
sewage, but certain additions and subtractions do take place from it, as
explained below:
(i) Additions due to unaccounted private water Supplies
The accounted water supplied to the public through the public distribution system
(the records of which are easily available from the water-works office), is not

necessarily the only water consumed by the public. Some private wells and tube
wells may sometimes be used by the public for their domestic needs; and
similarly, certain industries may utilize their own sources of water. This extra
quantity of water used by the town is generally small, unless there are large
industrial private water uses. This quantity can, however, be estimated by actual
field observations.
(ii) Additions due to infiltration. Whenever, the sewer pipes are laid below the
ground water-table, certain amount of ground water generally seeps into them,
through their faulty leaky joints or cracks formed in the pipes due to bad materials
or poor construction. The quantity of the ground water entering these sewer
pipes Depends mainly upon the height of the water-table above the sewer
invert level and the nature and extent of faults and fissures present in the sewer
pipes. However, if the ground water- table is well below the sewer, the infiltration
can occur only after rain, when water is moving down through the soil. In that case,
the infiltration quantity will depend upon the permeability of the ground soil. , the
exact quantity of ground water infiltrating into the sewer pipes cannot be estimated
precisely only certain nominal allowance, based upon some experimental results
(iii) Subtractions due to water losses. The water lost, due to leakage in the
distribution system and house connections of the water supply scheme, does
not reach the consumers, and hence, never appears as sewage.
(iv) Subtraction due to water not entering the sewerage 'system. Certain amount of
water may be used by the public and industries for such uses which may not
produce any sewage at all. For example, the water used in boilers for steam
generation; the del' sprinkled over the roads, streets, lawns and gardens; the
water used for automobile washings; the water consumed in industrial products,
such as beverages, etc., the water used in air cooling etc., does not normally
produce any sewage.
The net quantity of sewage produced will be equal to the accounted quantity of
water supplied from the water-authority plus the additions due to unaccounted
private water supplies and due to infiltration minus the subtractions due to water
losses and due water not entering the sewerage system. This net value may vary 70
to 130 percent of accounted water supplied from the water authority.
6.4.1 Types of Sewage

As it was stated on the term definition of sewage, it consists of liquid wastes

produced in residences, commercial establishments, and institutions; liquid wastes
discharged from industries, and any subsurface, surface, or storm water that enters
the sewers.
Domestic sewage consists of liquid wastes originating from urinals, latrines,

bathrooms, kitchen sinks, washbasins, etc., of the residential, commercial or
institutional buildings. This sewage is generally extremely foul, because of the
presence of human excreta in it.
Industrial sewage consists of liquid wastes originating from the industrial

processes of various industries, such as dyeing, papermaking, brewing, etc. The
quality of the industrial sewage depends largely upon the type of industry and the
chemicals used in their process waters. Sometimes, they may be very foul and may
require extensive treatment before being disposed of in public sewers.
If the water requirements for the industries are known, wastewater flow projections
can be based on water flow projections. For industries without internal reuse
programs about 85-95% of the water used in the various operations and processes
will probably become wastewater. For large industries with internal water reuse
programs separate estimates must be made. Average domestic wastewater
contributed from industrial activities may vary from 30 - 95 l/capita/d.
Storm sewage is flow derived from rainfall events and deliberately introduced into
sewers intended for its conveyance. The run-off resulting from the rainstorms was
used to be called storm sewage, but the modern approach is to call it storm
drainage or simply drainage, so as to differentiate it from sewage, which is much
fouler as compared to drainage, and requires treatment before disposal.
Variations in Sewage Flow and their Effects on the Design of Various

Components of a Sewerage Scheme
The f1ows in these sanitary sewers, though fluctuate seasonally, monthly,

daily, as well as hourly, with the water consumption*, yet they are sometimes
delayed and less pronounced (Fig. 6.1)

Fig.6.1. Hourly variation of sewage flow compared to that of water supply.
For areas of moderate sizes, such as involved for branch sewers, the maximum
daily or hourly sewage flows, can be expressed as:
Maximum daily flow = 2 times the average daily flow
Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily
= 3 times the average daily
The quantity of sewage that is likely to pass through a sewer (Q') at the end of the
design period, can be easily computed by multiplying the per capita production of
sewage (q') by the expected population at the end of the design period.
The per capita sewage that is produced in a community can be easily estimated by
assuming it as 70 to 130 percent of the per capita water supplied to the public.
However, it should also be kept in mind that the future increase in population may
also increase the per capita water demand, and consequently increasing the per
capita production of sewage.
The consumption of water in summer is more than in winter or rainy season, and
this change in consumption of water directly affects the quantity of sewage.
Practically it has been seen that the ratio of maximum to average flow of sewage is
among 1.5 to 1.0. Similarly the ratio of average to minimum is among 1.2 to 1.0. In
special cases due allowance should be made for it.
There is also change in the sewage quantity if the city has seasonal industries such
as sugarcane crushing, fruit canning, brewing, etc.

The quantity of sewage also changes from day to day. On the closing days of
market, offices, industries, the quantity of sewage shall be more due to cloth
washing, house washing, etc., therefore, the variation in the sewage quantity also
depends on the local conditions.
The magnitude of the variation in the sewage quantity varies from place to place
and it is very difficult to predict. Empirical formulae may be used for determining
peak rates of flow for sewer design.
5
M=
i. Babbit’s formula P1/6
14
M =1+
ii. Harmon’s formula 4 + P1/2 where M = the ratio of peak rate to average
rate and P = population in thousands.
Table 6.1: Common Values of Hourly Variation in Sewage Flow.
Ratio of Max ./ Avg.

Types of Sewer
flow
Small size sewers including laterals 4
Sewers up to 25 cm in diameter 4
Branch sewers up to 50 cm in 3
diameter
Main sewers up to 100 cm in 2

diameter
Trunk sewers up to 125 cm in 1.5

diameter
The flow in the sewers is minimum during nights. The effect of this flow is
maximum in the laterals connected direct to the houses and minimum to the main
trunk sewer. It will be seen that the minimum flow in laterals is below 30% of
average flow while in trunk sewers it may be 60-70% of the average. The overall

variation in the sewage is maximum in the smaller size sewers and goes on
reducing as the size of the sewer increases.
6.4.2 Basic design considerations

Preliminary investigations
Comprehensive preliminary investigations of the area to be sewered are required

not only to obtain the data needed for design and construction but also to record
pertinent information about the local conditions before construction begins. These
are
 Maps and other drawings of the area;
 Locations of streets, alleys, railways public parks and buildings, ponds,
streams, drainage ditches and other features and structure which may be
influenced or influence the sewer systems;
 A bench mark on each block of every street;
 If possible contours at suitable intervals, high and low points and changes in
surface slopes;
 Local rainfall and runoff data if any otherwise measurements in the field
should be taken;
 Character of the soil in which the sewers are to construct; and
 Local wages of unskilled and skilled labor.
Designing a sanitary sewer involves:
The estimation of waste flow rates for the design data and evaluation of any local
conditions, which may affect the hydraulic operation of the system;
The selection of the hydraulic -design equation, alternative sewer pipe materials
and minimum and maximum sizes, minimum and maximum velocities and slopes;
The evaluation of alternative alignments or designs;
1. The evaluation of the use of curved sewers;
2. The selection of appropriate sewer appurtenances; and
3. A review of the need for sewer ventilation.
Design flow:

The total wastewater is composed of Waste water from residential, commercial and
institutional sources, industrial waste water and infiltration; and Peak Hourly flow
and peak infiltration allowances for the entire service area are used for the design of
new sanitary sewers.
Hydraulic design equation: Manning equations are commonly used.
n = 0.013 is used to analyze well-constructed existing sewer and to design new

sewers.
n = 0.015 is used to analyze older existing sewer.
Sewer Material and sizes
To avoid clogging sewers not less than 200 mm (8 in) should be used. Obviously the
smallest sewers should be larger than the building sewer connection in general use.
In no case less than 100 mm (4 in) is used.
Minimum and Maximum Velocity:
 The usual practice is to design the slope for sanitary sewers to ensure a
minimum velocity of 0.6 m/s with flow at one half- full or full depth.
To prevent deposition of mineral matter such as sand and gravel a mean velocity of
0.75 m/s is generally adequate in sanitary sewers.
 In depressed sewers (Inverted siphons) where access for cleaning is difficult the
minimum velocity should be about 0.9 m/s.
 The erosive action of the material suspended in wastewater depends not only on
the velocity, at which it is carried along the invert of a sewer but also on its
nature. In general, maximum mean velocities of 2.5 to 3.3 m/s at the design
depth of flow will not damage the sewer.
Alternative alignments and designs
Often two or more alternative pipeline routes may be possible for a given it will be
necessary to prepare design details for each alternative and to make comparative
cost estimates before a decision can be reached.
Design Procedures

Layout the sewer: draw a line to represent the proposed sewer in each street or
alley to be served. near of on the line; indicate by an arrow the direction in which
the wastewater is to flow. Except in special cases, the sewer should slope with the
surface of the street. It is usually more economical to plan the system so that the
wastewater from any street will flow to the point of disposal by the most direct
(and, consequently; the shortest) route. In general, the laterals connect with the
mains and these; in turn connect with the trunk sewer, which leads to the point of
discharge or to an intercepting sewer.
Locate the manholes: Locate a manhole at:
 Changes in direction;
 Changes in slope;
 At pipe junctions with the exception of building connections;
 At the upper end and ends of all laterals for cleansing and flushing the lines;
and
 At intervals from 90 to 120 m or less, as required. Give each manhole an
identification number.
Establishing the limits of the service area: Sketch the limits of the service areas.
Search the limits of the service area for each lateral. If a single lateral will be
required to accommodate an area larger than can be served by the minimum size of
sewer with the minimum slope the area should be subdivided further. Where the
streets are laid out assume that the limits are midway between them. If the street
layout is not shown on the plan, the limits of the different service areas cannot be
determined as closely and the topography may serve as a guide.
Determine the area of each service area. Measure the area of each service area by
using a scale, and enter the value on the map.
 Summarize the basic design criteria.
Design period (usually saturation period used);
Population density;
Residential wastewater flow (Obtain the peaking factor);
Infiltration allowances;
Inflow allowances

Hydraulic design equation;

Minimum pipe size ;
Minimum velocity; and
Minimum cover.
Prepare tabulation form to record the data and steps in the compilations for each
section of sewer between Manholes.
N.B. If sewer changes direction in a manhole without change of size, a drop of 30
mm is to be provided in the manhole. If the sewer changes size, the crowns of the
inlet and outlet sewers are to be at the same elevation. Branches coming into
manholes shall have their crowns at the same elevation as that of the large sewer.
Drop manholes will be used only if the invert of the branch would be 0.6 m or more
above what its location would be when following the rule just started.
6.5 Sewer pipes and Appurtenances
6.5.1 Pipe Materials
The liquid waste or sewage has an adverse effect both to the community and to the
environment. To convert these potentially hazardous sewages into non-harmful
effluent there should be a proper collection and transportation as well as treatment
and disposal systems.
The liquid wastes must be collected and conveyed from domestic, commercial,
industrial and storm water sources.
Pipe Materials
Pipe materials used to transport water may be used for carrying sewage but less
expensive materials such as clay, concrete and plastic are commonly used. Steel and
cast iron pipes are used under unusual loading conditions or for mains under
pressure.
Clay sewer pipes: made of clay or shale are used in many countries in sizes up to
1070 mm (42) diameter. They are resistant to mineral of bacterial corrosion
especially if vitrified (NaCl added in the burning process).

Concrete sewer pipes: Precast concrete pipes may be used for small form drains
and for sanitary sewers where corrosion is not a problem in sizes ranging from 100
to 600mm diameter. Precast concrete pipes greater than 600mm diameter are
reinforced. Reinforced concrete pipes can be obtained in sizes ranging from 300 mm
to 4500 mm. Cast-in-situ concrete pipes may be used when larger sizes are required.
They can be semi-elliptical, Horseshoe, rectangular or egg-shaped etc.
6.5.2 Sewer Appurtenances
These are manholes, street inlets, catch basins, junctions, sand, grease and oil traps,
inverted siphons, overflow structures, etc, are the major sewer appurtenances,
which are required for proper functioning of sewer systems.
i. Manholes: are used to allow a means of access into a sewer system for
inspection, repair and cleaning. They are placed at changes in direction, pipe
size, grade and elevation, and at junctions. They are also required on straight
sections at intervals of 100 m to 150 m for sewers up to 1 m in size, and at large
spacing or none, for pipes large enough for a man to enter.
Where laterals or sub mains join in a deeper sewer, excavation will be saved by
keeping the upper sewer at a reasonable grade and making a vertical drop at the
manhole. This is known as a Drop manhole and construction is as shown in fig
below. Note that if the sewage drops in the vertical pipe, the sewer line intersects
the manhole wall so that the branch can be rodded for cleaning. If the drop is less
than 0.6 it is usually cared for by increasing the sewer grade instead of using a drop
manhole.
ii. Street Inlets: An inlet is an opening into a storm or combined sewer for
entrance of storm runoff. These inlets discharge into the storm sewer or into
catch basins that are intended to intercept or settle out the refuse and sediments
flushed from the street surfaces. Street inlets are placed at intersections and
where these are far apart, inlets are placed at intervals of 100 to 150 m.
iii. Catch Basins: These are inlets with a Basin, which allow debris to settle out.
Catch basins were formerly considered necessary to prevent stoppages of storm

and combined sewerage with sand and grit. Present practice, however,
emphasizes good self-cleaning sewer grades with simple inlets.
iv. Sand, Oil and Grease Traps: Sewage from large kitchens may contain Grease,
and from garages it may contain Grease, oil and sand. Waste lines from such
sources are provided with traps so that the lines will not be clogged-with
proper cleaning regularly.
6.6 Wastewater Treatments and Disposal

6.6.1 Types and Methods of Treatment
Wastewater collected from urban areas and from different industries must ultimately be
returned to receiving water bodies or to the land. The complex question of which
contaminants in wastewater must be removed is to protect the environment and to what
extent must be answered specifically for each case. This requires analyses of local
conditions and needs together with the application of scientific knowledge, engineering
judgment based on past experience, and consideration of federal, state and local
requirements and regulations.
The main objectives of wastewater treatment are:
 To stabilize the unstable organic material in to simple and stable inorganic
compounds
 To reduce the bacteria content of the wastewater and hence reduce the chances of
infection or environmental pollution
 To remove nutrients (e.g., phosphorous and nitrogen) which cause eutrophication
and excessive algal growth
 To separate toxic or excessive or unwanted components (e.g. heavy metals) from
industrial waste water prior to discharge in to the receiving waters or combining
with domestic sewage.
Wastewater Treatment Standards
Effluents from different establishments should be treated before being discharged to
receiving bodies so that it should be:
 Free from materials and heat in quantities, concentrations or combinations which are
toxic or harmful to human, animal, aquatic life.
 Free from anything that will settle in receiving waters forming putrescence or
otherwise objectionable sludge deposits, or that will adversely affect aquatic life.
 Free from floating debris, oil, scum and other materials in amounts sufficient to be
noticeable in receiving waters;

 Free from materials and heat that alone, or in combination with other materials will
produce color, turbidity, taste or odour in sufficient concentration to create a
nuisance or adversely affect aquatic life in receiving waters;
 Free from nutrients in concentrations that create nuisance growths of aquatic weeds
or algae in the receiving waters.
The overall rationale for wastewater treatment is to maintain the natural ecological balance
of the environment like in receiving water and ground water catchments. Another is the
need to maintain receiving waters, which can allow continued proper use in the long run as
source of domestic water, irrigation water source and recreational water and tourist
attraction.
The characteristics of wastewater can be subdivided into three main groups. These are
i. Physical properties
ii. Chemical properties
iii. Biological properties
Of the three groups of properties the chemical constituents are the most diverse and very
expensive to get rid off. There are six main groups of contaminants of wastewater, which
can be identified in practice, these are:
1. Organics; Biodegradable and refractor: The discharge of waste water containing a lot
of organics into any receiving water leads to oxygen depletion which can be depicted
by monitoring the pattern of dissolved oxygen consumption and re aeration of the
receiving water and presenting it in the form of dissolved oxygen sag curve.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
When a readily degrade able organic matter (sewage) is discharged to a stream a natural
process of self-purification is initiated. All surface waters contain bacteria and other
microorganisms, which are capable of attacking the complex chemicals of pollution and
utilizing them as sources of energy and of new cellular material. These microorganisms are
essentially aerobic in nature that they require oxygen, dissolved in water in order to carry
on their metabolic processes. As the aerobic bacteria use this dissolved oxygen, the limited
amount available at any time in water is decreased. The decrease in the dissolved oxygen
level as the result of bacterial activity is directly related to the amount of pollution added.
Basically BOD is an attempt to utilize the natural phenomenon to quantify water pollution.
Thus BOD is a measure of the dissolved oxygen required by purifying organisms in a
definite volume of liquid in order to break down the available organic material.
2. Suspended solids and floating matter: The immediate problem of suspended solids
of sewage origin is their unpleasant appearance. When suspended solids settles at
the bottom of the receiving waters, they result in sludge deposits which often lead
to anaerobic conditions which is fatal for aquatic microorganisms.
3. These include inorganic constituents like chlorides, calcium, sodium, sulfates etc.
may have to remove if the sewage treatment plant effluent is to be reused, e.g., for
irrigation.
4. Pathogens and viruses: Cholera, typhoid, gastro enteritis, dysentery, tuberculosis,
various parasitic protozoan diseases and many others are water borne and many of
the causative micro-organisms are able to exist in surface water for extended
periods.
5. Phosphorous, Nitrogen, and Carbonate limiting nutrients for growth. For example
when wastewater with an excess of P and N is discharged in to an aquatic
environment an excessive growth of algal blooms in the receiving water can be
expected. The resulting effect is eutrofication of reservoirs or lakes.
6. Industrial by-products: Commercial and industrial activities can result in to
discharge of toxic compounds in wastewater. These include heavy metals like Pb,
Hg, As, Cd, Cr, etc. which can be toxic to both fish and human beings. These can in
the long run accumulate in the food chain and lead to health hazards as observes in
the Japanese minima cases which originated from discharge of sewage with high
mercury levels to the sea without any form of treatment. Example of food chain:
Algae -Protozoa- Fish- Human beings.
Three main groups of wastewater treatment can be identified, these are: Physical processes,
which include screening, greet removal, sedimentation, filtration and aeration. Chemical
processes, which include pH neutralization, coagulation, precipitation, ion exchange.
Biological processes including lagoons, waste stabilization ponds, oxidation ditches,
activated sludge, trickling filters. The treatment operations can be further classified
according to the stages and/or extent of treatment involved or the quality of effluent
expected to be produced.
1. Preliminary Treatment: Preliminary consists solely in separating the floating
materials (like dead animals, tree branches, papers, pieces of rags, wood, etc.) and
also the heavy settle-able inorganic solids. It also helps in removing the oils and
greases, etc. from the sewage. This treatment reduces the bio-chemical oxygen
demand (BOD) of the wastewater, by about 15 to 30%. The processes used are:
screening for removing floating papers, rags, clothes, etc.; Grit chambers or Detritus
tanks for removing grit and sand; and skimming tanks for removing oils and
greases.
2. Primary Treatment: Primary treatment consists in removing large suspended
organic solids. This is usually accomplished by sedimentation in settling basins. The
liquid effluent from primary treatment, often contains a large amount of suspended
organic material, and has a high BOD (about 60% of original). The organic solids,
which are separated out in the sedimentation tanks (in primary treatment), are often

stabilized by anaerobic decomposition in a digestion tank or are incinerated. The

residue is used for landfills or soil conditioners.
3. Secondary Treatment: Secondary treatment involves further treatment of the
effluent, coming from the primary sedimentation tank. This is generally
accomplished through biological decomposition of organic matter, which can be
carried out either under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. In these biological units,
bacteria will decompose the fine organic matter, to produce clearer effluent.
The treatment reactors, in which the organic matter is decomposed (oxidized) by aerobic
bacteria are known as aerobic biological units; and may consist of:
 Filters (intermittent sand filters as well as trickling filters);
Aeration tanks, with the feed of recycled activated sludge (i.e. the sludge, which is settled
in secondary sedimentation tank, receiving effluents from the aeration tank); and
 Oxidation ponds and Aerated lagoons.
Since all these aerobic units, generally make use of primary settled sewage; they are easily
classified as secondary units.
The treatment reactors, in which the organic matter is destroyed and stabilized by
anaerobic bacteria, are known as anaerobic biological units and may consist of Anaerobic
lagoons, Septic tanks, Imhoff tanks, etc. Out of these units, only anaerobic lagoons make
use of primary settled sewage, and hence, only they can be classified under secondary
biological units. Septic tanks and Imhoff tanks, using raw sewage, are, therefore, not
classified as secondary units.
The effluent from the secondary biological treatment will usually contain a little BOD (5 to
10% of the original) and may even contain several milligrams per liter of DO.
The organic solids/sludge separated out in the primary as well as in the secondary settling
tanks, will be disposed of by stabilizing them under anaerobic process in a sludge digestion
tank.
4. The Final or Advanced Treatment: This treatment is sometimes called tertiary
treatment, and consists in removing the organic load left after the secondary
treatment, and particularly to kill the pathogenic bacteria. This treatment, which is
normally carried out by chlorination, is generally not carried out for disposal of
sewage in water, but is carried out, while using the river stream for collecting water
for re-use or for water supplies. It may, however, sometimes be adopted, when the
outfall of sewage is very near to the water intake of some nearby town.
The sewage treatment is, therefore, usually confined up to secondary treatment only. Well
in fact, various physical, chemical and biological processes are available for treatment,
depending upon the particular requirements. The choice of the treatment methods depends
on several factors, including the disposal facilities available. Actually, the distinction
between primary, secondary and tertiary treatment is rather arbitrary, since many modern
treatment methods incorporate physical, chemical and biological processes in the same
operation.
Different types of wastewater treatment plants may contain different combinations of
treatment units. These combinations can also be changed and some other combination
made, depending upon the local needs. The topography and the geology will influence the
choice of the units to be adopted.
Waste stabilization ponds
Waste stabilization ponds are defined as large shallow lagoons earthen embankments
(sometimes lined) in which the long retention period provided allows treatment to take
place by entirely natural processes involving algae and microorganisms present in the
wastewater (mainly bacteria). In comparison to other conventional sewage treatment
techniques WSP have the following advantages:
 Low investment, operation and maintenance costs;
 Have a high ability to remove pathogenic bacteria from sewage;
 Have been reported to account for BOD removal of up to 99%;
 Can effectively treat a wide variety of industrial and agricultural wastes; and
 Can achieve any desired degree of purification at the lowest costs and with
minimum of maintenance by relatively low skilled care takers.
The main disadvantage of WSP is their very high land requirements. On the other hand,
WSP cannot cope with strong sewage, which originates from chemical industries without
any form of pretreatment because some quality parameters (e.g. PH) would inhibit
biological activities or kill most active microorganisms.
As regards the general layout of waste stabilization of WSP systems, primary WSP will be
the first after preliminary treatment. These will be followed by secondary WSP, which are
usually followed by tertiary WSP. The general order of the ponds is that preliminary
treatment which can also include septic tanks is followed by anaerobic WSP which is
located upstream of one or two facultative WSP. The final stage will be a series of
maturation WSP (at least two). These are provided with equal potential time to ensure
good treatment efficiency.
Anaerobic WSP: It is usually located as the first WSP unit immediately downstream of the
screens and grit chambers. It can be used as a pretreatment unit for strong sewage. It
therefore removes settle able solids and also brings about partial BOD removal (especially
the settle able portion). It provides modest retention times to sewage. It is also
implemented to save on land usage in municipal wastewater treatment plant especially if
sewage has high organic suspended solids.

1. Facultative WSP: The most applications of these types of WSP is as a second unit
downstream of Anaerobic WSP. The long retention times provided in this ponds brings
about the following effects:
 Aerobic and an aerobic decomposition of biodegradable organic substances.
The removal of BOD is the major function of these WSP.
 During the course of retention, bacterial removal takes place though to a lesser
extent than in the maturation WSP
 These are fully aerobic WSP, which can either be employed to polish the
effluent of a conventional sewage treatment plant or as a final treatment
process in a series.
2. Maturation WSP: The following are the purposes served by maturation WSP.
 To bring about a substantial die-off of the pathogenic bacteria. This is the main
and most common purpose
 To lower further the concentration of BOD;
 To oxidize any remaining Ammonia to Nitrate; and
 To lower the concentration of the soluble nutrients in wastewater (e.g.
phosphorous).
6.7 Disposal Techniques and Methods

The raw sludge that is collected at the bottom of the sedimentation tank during primary
treatment is evil smelling and objectionable, it has a high water content (95 to 98%), it is
difficult to pump, it resists dewatering techniques, and disposal is often difficult. Disposal
of the sludge is simplified if it can be rendered less objectionable, and if it can be
conditioned to dewater more readily.
The study of the sources of disposal is important because the amount of treatment required
to be given to sewage depends very much upon the source of disposal, its quality and
capacity to tolerate the impurities present in the sewage effluents, without itself getting
potentially polluted or becoming less useful.
There are two general methods of disposing of the sewage effluents:
1. Disposal in water, known as disposal by dilution; and
2. Disposal on land.
Disposal by dilution is more common of these two methods.
6.7.1 Disposal by Dilution

Disposal by dilution is the process whereby the treated sewage or the effluent from the
sewage treatment plant is discharged into a river stream, a large body of water, such as a
lake or sea. The discharged sewage, in due course of time, is purified by what is known as
self-purification process of natural waters. The degree and amount of treatment given to
raw sewage before disposing it of into the river-stream in question will definitely depend
not only upon the quality of raw sewage but also upon the self-purification capacity of the
river stream and the intended use of its water.
The dilution method for disposing of the sewage can favorably be adopted under the
following conditions:
 When sewage is comparatively fresh (4 to 5 hours old), and free from floating and
settle-able solids, (or are easily removed by primary treatment);
 When the diluting water (i.e. the source of disposal) has high dissolved oxygen
(DO) content.
 Where diluting waters are not used for the purposes of navigation or water supply
for at least some reasonable distance on the downstream from the point of sewage
disposal.
 Where the flow currents of the diluting waters are favorable, causing no deposition,
nuisance or destruction of adequate life. It means that swift forward currents are
helpful, as they easily carry away the sewage to the points of unlimited dilution. On
the other hand, slow back currents tend to cause sedimentation resulting in large
sludge deposits.
 When the outfall sewer of the city or the treatment plant is situated near some
natural waters having large volumes.
When sewage is discharged into a natural body of water, the receiving water gets polluted
due to waste products, so forever, because the natural forces of purification, such as
dilution, sedimentation, oxidation-reduction in sun-light, etc., go on acting upon the
pollution elements, and bring back the water into its original condition. This automatic
purification of polluted water, in due course, is called the self-purification phenomenon.
However, if the self-purification is not achieved successfully either due to other causes, the
river water itself will get polluted, which, in turn, may also pollute the sea where the river
outfalls.
The various natural forces of purification, which help in effecting self-purification process,
are dilution and dispersion, sedimentation, sunlight, oxidation and reduction.
6.7.2 Disposal on Land

Wastewater may be discharged to the land either for disposal or for treatment prior to
discharge to surface waters. Although plants, microscopic forms in the upper layers of the
soil, and the soil matrix itself have the ability to treat ordinary domestic wastes and many
industrial wastes to a very high degree, ordinarily some treatment is provided before land
application. The reasons for this include reduction in stress on the soil system,
minimization of nuisance conditions, and the need to store the wastewater for extended
periods of time when local conditions, and the need to store the wastewater for extended
periods of time when local conditions are unfavorable for disposal.
Land disposal may be broadly classified into slow rate, rapid infiltration, overland flow,
wetland, and subsurface techniques. Slow rate, rapid infiltration, and subsurface
techniques depend on moving the water downward through the soil and are thus limited
by infiltration and percolation capacity. Percolation capacity is a function of the soil
characteristics while infiltration depends upon the degree of clogging at the point of
application. If dogging is minimized, percolation will limit the rate at which liquid can be
applied.
There is no single system, which is best suited to the disposal of all wastewaters. The
engineer must investigate each system, which is physically practicable to determine
cheapest technique that is environmentally and socially acceptable.
Stream disposal is the commonest technique as it was mentioned previously and is
generally cheapest, provided water quality standards do not require advanced treatment.
Land disposal is often socially and politically desirable, and may be economical in water-
poor areas where suitable land is available and stream standards are restrictive. Land
systems may also require somewhat less skill in operation, which can be a significant factor
in ensuring protection of the environment-viewed simply as a disposal technique in areas
where substantial storage is required, land disposal is generally quite expensive in
comparison to discharge to surface waters.
Chapter-7
7. Urban Drainage System
7.1 Introduction
Drainage systems are needed in developed urban areas because of the
interaction between human activity and the natural water cycle. This
interaction has two main forms: the abstraction of water from the natural cycle to
provide a water supply for human life, and the covering of land with impermeable
surfaces that divert rainwater away from the local natural system of drainage.
These two types of interaction give rise to two types of water that require drainage.
The first type, wastewater, is water that has been supplied to support life, maintain
a standard of living and satisfy the needs of industry. After use, if not drained
properly, it could cause pollution and create health risks. Wastewater contains
dissolved material, fine solids and larger solids, originating from WCs, from
washing of various sorts, from industry and other water uses.
The second type of water requiring drainage, storm water, is rain water (or water
resulting from any form of precipitation) that has fallen on a built‐up area. If storm
water were not drained properly, it would cause inconvenience, damage, flooding
and further health risks. It contains some pollutants, originating from rain, the air
or the catchment surface.
Urban drainage systems handle these two types of water with the aim of
minimizing the problems caused to human life and the environment. Thus urban
drainage has two major interfaces: with the public and with the environment.
The public is usually on the transmitting rather than receiving end of services from
urban drainage (‘flush and forget’), and this may partly explain the lack of public
awareness and appreciation of a vital urban service.
The primary aim of drainage design is to limit the amount of water flowing along
the gutters or ponding at the sags to quantities that will not interfere with the
passage of traffic for the design frequency. This is accomplished by placing inlets at
such points and at such intervals to intercept flows and control spread. The most
serious effects of an inadequate carriageway drainage system are:
 damage to surrounding or adjacent property, resulting from water

overflowing the carriageway curbs and entering such property,
 risk and delay to traffic caused by excessive ponding in sags or excessive
spread along the carriageway,

 Weakening of base and subgrade due to saturation from frequent ponding

of long duration.
In many urban areas, drainage is based on a completely artificial system of

sewer: pipes and structures that collect and dispose of this water. In contrast,
isolated or low‐income communities normally have no main drainage. Wastewater
is treated locally (or not at all) and storm water is drained naturally into the
ground. These sorts of arrangements have generally existed when the extent of
urbanization has been limited. However, the recent thinking – towards more
sustainable drainage practices – is encouraging the use of more natural drainage
arrangements wherever possible.
So there is far more to urban drainage than the process of getting the flow from one
place to another via a system of sewers. For example, there is a complex and
fascinating relationship between wastewater and storm water as they pass
through the system, partly as a result of the historical development of urban
drainage. When wastewater and storm water become mixed, in what are called
‘combined sewers’, the disposal of neither is Efficient’ in terms of environmental
impact or sustainability. Also, while the flow is being conveyed in sewers, it
undergoes transformation in a number of ways. Another critical aspect is the fact
that sewer systems may cure certain problems, for example health risks or
flooding, only to create others in the form of environmental disruption to natural
watercourse elsewhere.
Overall, urban drainage presents a classic set of modern environmental

challenges: the need for cost‐effective and socially acceptable technical
improvements in existing systems, the need for assessment of the impact of those
systems, and the need to search for sustainable solution. As in all other areas of
environmental concern, these challenges cannot be considered to be the
responsibility of one profession alone. Policy‐makers, engineers, environment
specialists, together with all citizens, have a role. And there roles must be played in
partnership. Engineers must understand the wider issues, while those who seek to
influence policy must have some understanding of the technical problems.
7.2 Types of system: Piped or natural

Rain that has run off impermeable surfaces and traveled via a piped drainage
system reaches a river far more rapidly than it did when the land and its

drainage was in natural state, and the result can be flooding and increased
pollution. Rather than rely on ‘end of pipe solutions’ to these problems, the recent
trend has been to try to move to a more natural means of drainage using the
infiltration and storage properties of semi natural features.
Of course, artificial drainage systems are not universal anyway. Some isolated
communities in developed countries, and many other areas throughout the world,
have never had main drainage.
So, the first distinction between types of urban drainage system should be between
those that are based fundamentally on pipe networks and those that are not.
Definitions
1. Sewage is the liquid waste from a community and generally conveyed by a

sewer. Sewage again is differently classified depending on its nature and
sources.
 Domestic sewage is that which originates in the sanitary conveniences of a
dwelling, business house or institutions.
 Industrial waste is the liquid waste produced from industrial processes, as
dying, brewing, papermaking etc.
 Sanitary sewage is a combination what is produced by domestic sewage
together with industrial waste.
 Storm water is the liquid flowing in sewers during or following a period of
rainfall and resulting there from. Some underground water may find its
way through joints into sewerage system is termed as infiltration.
Of all these sewage, sanitary sewage contains organic matters and other pollutants
that are harmful in nature. Storm water may be as high as twenty times that of
sanitary sewage in quantity, but qualitatively it is much harmless in nature and less
polluted.
2. Sewer is a pipe or conduit, generally closed but normally not flowing full,used
for carrying sewage. Types of sewer can be enumerated as follows.
 Sanitary sewer is one, which carries sanitary sewage and excludes storm
sewage as far as possible.
 Storm sewer carries storm water only, including surface runoff and street
wash.

 Combined sewer is designed to carry all types of sewage, such as

domestic sewage, industrial wastes, and storm water.
3. Sewerage System: ‐ is the system of sewers including all appurtenances
required for sewage disposal. A sewerage system will consist of mainly:
collection work
Treatment works if any
Disposal works.
Collection works are provided for collecting sewage from different points of
occurrence and conveying sewage to any desired points with the help of a sewer
system. Different types of sewers needed are house connections or sewer from
individual house to public sewers, laterals, and the sewer receives the house
connections. Laterals will be single sewer and it will not receive sewage from any
other sewer excepting house connections. Two or more laterals will form a sub
main. More than one sub mains meeting together will form the main sewer. When
more than one main meet and form ultimately a single sewer directed to the
treatment unit is known as trunk sewer.
Sewage treatment covers any artificial process to which the sewage is subjected in
order to remove or alter its objectionable constituents so as to render it less
dangerous or offensive.
Sewage disposal applies to the act of disposing of sewage by any method may be to
a body of water or on land. It may be done with or without any previous treatment
of the sewage. The last stretch of trunk sewer carrying sewage to the disposal point
is known as outfall sewer.
Invert: is the lowest point of the inside surface of the sewer or drain at any cross-
section.
4. Storm drain: A storm drain is that portion of the storm drainage system that
receives runoff from inlets and conveys the runoff to some point where it is then
discharged into a channel, stream, or piped system. A storm drain may be a
closed‐conduit, open‐conduit, or some combination of the two. For cross‐
drainage this would include the culvert under the road and to the discharge
point.
Storm drains are used to convey water from the inlets to an acceptable outlet. Storm
drains comprise a drainage system usually consisting of one or more pipes
connecting two or more drop inlets. Cross drain pipes ʺhydraulically designedʺ to
function as a culvert or culverts is an exception to that statement. Storm drains
should have adequate capacity so that they can accommodate runoff that enters the
system.
The storm drainage system for sag vertical curves should have a higher level of
flood protection to decrease the depth of ponding on the carriageway and
bridges.
Storm drains shall be designed to protect the carriageway from flooding at the
appropriate return period. Reserve capacity shall be available at critical locations
such as vertical curve sags and at bridge approaches. Where feasible, the storm
drains are to be designed to avoid existing utilities. Attention to the storm drain
outfalls is necessary to minimize the potential for erosion.
7.3 Effect of urbanization on Drainage

Let us consider further the effects of human development on the passage of
rainwater. Urban drainage replaces one part of the natural water cycle and, as with
any artificial system that takes the place of a natural one, it is important that the full
effects are understood.
In nature, when rainwater falls on a natural surface, some water returns to the
atmosphere through evaporation, or transpiration by plants; some infiltrates the
surface and becomes groundwater; and some runs off the surface (Fig. 7.1(a)).

Fig 7.1 Effect of urbanization on fate of rainfall
The relative proportions depend on the nature of the surface, and vary with time
during the storm. (Surface runoff tends to increase as the ground becomes
saturated). Both groundwater and surface runoff are likely to find their way to a
river, surface runoff arrives much faster. The groundwater will become a
contribution to the river’s general base flow rather than being part of the increase in
flow due to any particular rainfall.
Development of an urban area, involving covering the ground with artificial

surfaces, has a significant effect on these processes. The artificial surfaces increase
the amount of surface runoff in relation to infiltration, and therefore increase the
total volume of water reaching the river during or soon after the rain (Fig. 1.2 (b)).
Surface runoff travels quicker over hard surfaces and through sewers than it does
over natural surfaces and along natural streams. This means that the flow will both
arrive and dies away faster, and therefore the peak flow will be greater (see Fig 1.3).
(In addition, reduced infiltration means poorer recharge of groundwater reserves.)

Fig. 7.2 Effect of urbanization on peak rate of runoff
This obviously increases the danger of sudden flooding of the river. It also has
strong implications for water quality. The rapid runoff of storm water is likely to
cause pollutants and sediments to be washed off the surface or scoured by the river.
In an artificial environment, there are likely to be more pollutant on the catchment
surface and in the air than there would be in a natural environment. Also, drainage
systems in which there is mixing of wastewater and storm water may allow
pollutants from the wastewater to enter the river. Much of this water has not been
made particularly ‘dirty’ by its use. Just as it is a standard convenience in a
developed country to turn on a tap to fill a basin, it is a standard
convenience to pull the plug to let the water ’disappear’. Water is also used as the
principal medium for disposal of bodily waste, and varying amounts of bathroom
litter, via WCs.

In a developed system, much of the material that is added to the water while it is
being turned into wastewater is removed at a wastewater treatment plant prior to
its return to the urban water cycle. Capture itself would be capable of treating some
types of material, bodily waste for example, but not to be removed will depend in
part on the capacity of the river to assimilate what remains.
So the general effects of urbanization on drainage, or the effects of replacing natural

drainage by urban drainage, are to produce higher and more sudden peaks in river
flow, to introduce pollutants, and to create the need for artificial wastewater
treatment. While to some extent impersonating nature, urban drainage also
imposes heavily upon it.
Man’s influence on the hydrological cycle creates many urban runoff problems, and
engineering solutions are required to control the unwanted effects of
development. The interactions between local developments, sub catchment
drainage and natural watercourses are complex, and must be considered as a
whole in order to co‐ordinate and maximize the benefit of any measures to
control runoff whilst at the same time achieving environmentally acceptable
solutions.
The most obvious effect of urban development on the hydrological behavior of a

catchment is the increase in impervious area which produces larger quantities of
canalized runoff, which occur within shorter times leading to higher peak flow rates
and increased flow velocities in surface water sewerage and culverted
channels. The infilling and obstruction of the natural floodplain reduces
available storage and conveyance capacity of the river valley. Other effects
include the lowering of the local water table as a result of reducing pervious area
which will limit soil moisture recharge. This will affect stream base flows and water
resources.
7.4 Urban drainage and public health

In human terms, the most valuable benefit of an effective urban drainage system is
the maintenance of public health. This particular objective is often overlooked in
modern practice and yet is of extreme importance, particularly in protection against
the spread of disease.
Despite the fact that some vague association between disease and water had been
known for centuries, it was only comparatively recently (1855) that a precise like
was demonstrated. This came about as a result of the classic studies of Dr, John
Snow in London concerning the cholera epidemic sweeping the city at the time.
That disease such as cholera is almost unknown in the industrialized world today is
in major part due to the provision of centralized urban drainage (along with the
provision of a microbiologically safe, potable supply of water).
Urban drainage has a number of major roles in maintaining public health and
safety. Human excreta (particularly faeces) are the principal vector for the
transmission of many communicable diseases. Urban drainage has a direct role in
effectively removing excreta from the immediate vicinity of habitation. However,
there are further potential problems in large river basins in which the downstream
discharges of one settlement may become the upstream abstraction of another. In
the UK, some 30% of water supplies are so affected. This clearly indicates the vital
importance of disinfection of water supplies as a public health measure.
Also, of particular importance in tropical countries standing water after rainfall can
be largely avoided by effective drainage system. This reduces mosquito habitat and
hence the spread of malaria and other disease. Whilst many of these problems have
apparently been solved, it is essential that in industrialized countries as we
look for ever more innovative sanitation techniques, we do not lose ground in
controlling serious diseases. Sadly, whilst we may know much about waterborne
and water related diseases, some rank among the largest killers in societies where
poverty and malnutrition are widespread. Millions of people around the world
still lack any hygienic and acceptable method of excreta disposal.
7.5 Sustainable urban drainage system

Sustainable drainage is a concept that includes long term environmental and social
factors in decisions about drainage. It takes account of the quantity and quality of
runoff, and the amenity value of surface water in the urban environment.
Many existing urban drainage systems can cause problems of flooding, pollution or
damage to the environment and are not proving to be sustainable. (Source:
www.uwtc.tay.ac.uk)
SUDS are designed to rely on natural processes that allow them to:
 Drain surface water runoff into the drainage systems by gravity

 Attenuate the flow reducing the risk that flooding may occur

 Provide time for the natural processes of sedimentation, filtration and

biodegradation which reduces pollutant loads in the surface water
runoff.
 Fit into their environmental setting, adding to local amenity and / or
biodiversity
Sustainable Drainage
Drainage systems can be developed in line with the ideals of sustainable

development, by balancing the different issues that should be influencing the
design. Surface water drainage methods that take account of quantity, quality and
amenity issues are collectively referred to as Sustainable Drainage Systems (SUDS)
These systems are more sustainable than conventional drainage methods because
they:
 Manage runoff flow rates, reducing the impact of urbanization on

flooding.
 Protect or enhance water quality
 Are sympathetic to the environmental setting and the needs of the local
Community
 Provide a habitat for wildlife in urban watercourses. They do this by:
 Dealing with runoff close to where the rain falls
 Managing potential pollution at its source now and in the future
 Protecting water resources from point pollution (such as accidental spills)
and diffuse sources.
 They may also allow new development in areas where existing sewerage
systems are close to full capacity, thereby enabling development within
existing urban areas.
 Urban drainage is moving away from the conventional thinking of
designing for flooding to balancing the impact of urban drainage on flood
control, quality management and amenity.

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems Technology
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) are an alternative approach to

conventional design and implementation that replicates natural drainage and deals
with runoff where it occurs, e.g. from roads, roofs, car parks, etc.
This is a cost effective way of reducing pollution, taking down the risk of
flooding considerably and improving environment by introducing improved
methods of surface water drainage design that can infiltrate water back into the
ground locally (i.e. where it falls).
The technology used in SUDS includes the introduction the following into the water
drainage system:
 Porous pavements to roads and car parks

 Infiltration trenches to roads, car parks and available drainage systems
 Infiltration basins as storage tanks
 Permeable conveyance systems or French drains
 Swales to slow surface water flows
 Passive treatment systems such as filter strips, detention basins, retention
ponds and wetlands.
Types of SUDS
Porous pavements
These are an alternative to conventional paving, which allows water to permeate

through the paved structure rather than draining off it.

This porous pavement is used mostly in car parking bay, the surface runoff
permeates through the porous pavement and will be held in a reservoir structure
under the pavement for subsequent infiltration or delayed discharge to the natural
watercourse. Pollutants removal has proven to be very high due to the infiltration
of the water and the subsequent absorption into the subsoil.
This system is suitable for overspill car parks, emergency vehicle service routes and
occasional use access roads.
Infiltration trenches
These are trenches usually filled with stone, designed to promote infiltration of
surface water into the ground
Infiltration basins
Dry basins designed to promote infiltration of surface water into the ground
Permeable conveyance systems
These are basins lined with a material that is itself impervious to water but, has
voids formed through the surface allowing water to infiltrate through the sub base
through a pattern of voids
Swales
Shallow vegetated channels designed to conduct and retain water, but to permit
infiltration. The vegetation filters biological particulate matter.
Filter strip
A vegetated area of gently sloping ground designed to drain water evenly from
impermeable areas and filter out silt and other particulates
Detention Basin
A vegetated depression, normally dry except after storm events, constrains water
temporarily to attenuate flows. May allow infiltration of water to the under ground
Retention Pond

A pond where surface run off is detained to allow for settlement and biological
treatment of some pollutants
Wetlands
Includes ponds that have a high proportion of emergent vegetation in relation to

other ponds. This provides benefit to wildlife and adds beauty to the
treatment area. The creation of this increasingly rare habitat provides great
benefit to wildlife and adds interest and beauty to the treatment area. Any
pollutants left in the water are broken down by this natural system.
Advantages & Disadvantages of SUDs
The main problems caused by the traditional drainage system were as follows:
 Flooding
 Soil erosion
 Pollution
 Reduction of steam flows
 Water supply shortages
But has the development of SUDS improved the environment? Has the
implementation of SUDS affected the environment around us?
Advantages
Pollution trapping and degradation‐By trapping pollutants found on roads and

next to developments we can hinder the amount of pollutants flowing into the
drains and therefore into the water supply. This heightens the water quality in the
area and makes the treatment of the water easier.
Decrease in surface run off‐ By using permeable paving surfaces, water from roads
and car parks can leach down into the ground water system without clogging
up drains with leaves and other debris and causing water build up and flooding.
Also by using swales surface run off can be decreased.
Improvement of local beauty‐Developments of new ponds and planting new

vegetation is a sure way of improving the way an area looks. Areas that have had
some sort of SUDS development made on them have had the land prices go up.

Enhancement of local ecology‐ by introducing more vegetation and water sources

into an area, new species of wildlife can be found. In the majority of new SUDS
developments a high increase in new wildlife was found.
Reduction in loads in the local drainage systems‐ by using permeable paving less
water needs to go through the normal drains but enters the rivers through
groundwater. Also by using infiltration trenches/basins and swales on roadsides
less water is forced into one particular drain and so less pressure is put on the more
traditional system.
Disadvantages
Though it is seen that SUDS are better for the environment, there are some ways in
which they require more maintenance and technology. SUDS have been carefully
monitored over the last 20 years to see what limitations the scheme has. They are as
follows:
 Energy required for pumping (although good design could eliminate this
problem)
 Energy for digging drains and pipes, and soak ways, trenches, basins, etc.
 Use of metals
 Water pollution from contaminated run‐off when treatment is ineffective
 Use of plastics and chemicals in permeable surfaces (e.g. reinforced grass)
 Use of weed killers on surfaces
 Problems with soak ways in industrial areas
 Maintenance needs
 Reproduction of productive areas of nature where permeable surfaces other
than grass/vegetation used

Chapter-8
8. Drainage System Planning
8.1 Drainage system Planning
Urban Drainage Systems are generally networks of sewers which carry urban
wastewater and rainwater to one or more terminal points, where it is treated and/or
discharged to the environment.
Drainage systems are needed in developed urban areas because of the interaction
between human activity and the natural water cycle. This inter-action has two main
forms: the abstraction of water from the natural cycle to provide a water supply for
human life, and the covering of land with impermeable surfaces that divert
rainwater away from the local natural system of drainage. These two types of
interaction give rise to two types of water that require drainage. wastewater and
stormwater
Storm drainage design is an integral component in the design of highway and

transportation networks. Drainage design for highway facilities must strive to
maintain compatibility and minimize interference with existing drainage
patterns, control flooding of the roadway surface for design flood events, and
minimize potential environmental impacts from highway related storm water
runoff. To meet these goals, the planning and coordination of storm drainage
systems must begin in the early planning phases of transportation projects.
System planning, prior to commencement of design, is essential to the successful

development of a final storm drainage design. Successful system planning will
result in a final system design that evolves smoothly through the preliminary and
final design stages of the transportation project.
8.1.1 Design Objectives

The objective of highway storm drainage design is to provide for safe passage of
vehicles during the design storm event. The drainage system is designed to collect
storm water runoff from the roadway surface and right‐of‐way, convey it along and
through the right‐of‐way, and discharge it to an adequate receiving body without
causing adverse on‐ or off‐site impacts.
Stormwater collection systems must be designed to provide adequate surface

drainage. Traffic safety is intimately related to surface drainage. Rapid removal of
stormwater from the pavement minimizes the conditions which can result in the
hazards of hydroplaning. Surface drainage is a function of transverse and
longitudinal pavement slope, pavement roughness, inlet spacing, and inlet
capacity.
The objective of storm water conveyance systems (storm drain piping, ditches and
channels, pumps, etc.) is to provide an efficient mechanism for conveying design
flows from inlet locations to the discharge point without surcharging inlets or
otherwise causing surface flooding. Erosion potential must also be considered in
the design of open channels or ditches used for storm water conveyance.
The design of appropriate discharge facilities for storm water collection and
conveyance systems include consideration of storm water quantity and quality.
Local, State, and/or Federal regulations often control the allowable quantity and
quality of storm water discharges. To meet these regulatory requirements, storm
drainage systems will usually require detention or retention basins, and/or other
best management practices for the control of discharge quantity and quality.
8.1.2. Design Approach
The design of storm drainage systems is a process which evolves as an overall

highway design develops. The primary elements of the process include data
collection, agency coordination, preliminary concept development, concept
refinement and design, and final design documentation. Each of these elements is
briefly described in the following:

Step 1. Data Collection
This step involves assembling and reviewing technical data and background
information as necessary to perform the design.
Step 2. Agency Coordination
This step includes coordination with regulatory and other impacted or interested
agencies or groups.
Step 3. Preliminary Concept Development
This step involves the development of a preliminary sketch plan and layout for the
proposed storm drainage system.
Step 4. Concept Refinement: Hydrologic and Hydraulic Design
This step comprises the primary design phase which generally proceeds in the
following
Sequence:
1. Computation of runoff parameters and quantities based on the preliminary

concept layout
2. Refine inlet location and spacing
3. Refine the storm drain system layout including access holes, connecting mains,
outfall control structures, and any other system components
4. Size pipes, channels, pump stations, discharge control structures, and other
Storm drain system components
5. Compute and review the hydraulic grade line
6. Revise plan and recomputed design parameters as necessary
Through this step the design of the storm drainage system will evolve from the
preliminary concept stage to final design as a continuing process. Several levels of
system refinement are usually required in response to design changes in the overall
transportation process, and input from regulatory and review agencies.

Step 5. Final Design Documentation
This step includes the preparation of final documentation for the design files and
construction plans. Final design documentation requirements are typically
defined by the sponsoring agency, and can vary depending on project scope. A
listing of general documentation to be provided in the final design follows:
1. Hydrology
 Contributing watershed size and identification of source (map name, etc).

 Design frequency and decision for selection.
 Hydrologic discharge and hydrograph estimating method and findings.
 Flood frequency curves to include design, chosen peak discharge,
discharge hydrograph, and any historical floods.
 Expected level of development in upstream watershed over the anticipated
life
 Facility (include sources of, and basis for these development projections).
2. Open Channels
 Stage discharge curves for the design, peak discharge, and any historical
water surface
 Elevations.
 Cross section(s) used in the design water surface determinations and their
Locations.
 Roughness coefficient assignments (ʺnʺ values).
 Methods used to obtain the design water surface elevations.
 Design or analysis of materials proposed for the channel bed and banks.
3. Storm Drains
 Computations for inlets and pipes (including energy grade lines).

 Complete drainage area map.
 Design Frequency.

 Information concerning outfalls, existing storm drains, and other design

considerations.
 A schematic indicating storm drain system layout.
4. Pump Stations
 Inflow design hydrograph from drainage area to pump.

 Maximum allowable headwater elevations and related probable damage.
 Starting sequence and elevations.
 Sump dimensions.
 Available storage amounts.
 Pump sizes and operations.
 Pump calculations and design report.
 Mass curve routing diagram.
8.1.3 Data Requirements
The design of storm drainage systems requires the accumulation of certain basic
data including the following information:
Watershed mapping: Identifying topographic features, watershed boundaries,

existing drainage patterns, and ground cover. Information sources include field
surveys, aerial photography, or mapping available from Ministry of Water
Resource, drainage districts, or other planning agencies.
Land use mapping identifying existing and expected future land uses. This
information is typically available from local zoning or planning agencies.
Soils maps identifying soil types and hydrologic soil groups.
Flood histories and high water mark elevations. Information of this type may be
available from Ministry of Water Resource
Descriptions of existing drainage facilities including size, shape, material, invert

information, age, condition, etc. As‐built information for existing drainage facilities

may be available from the local owner of the facility. If unavailable, field surveys
will need to be performed to obtain this information.
Design and performance data for existing drainage systems. This information may
be available from the local owner of the facility. If the information is not available
for the existing system, it will be necessary for the designer to develop the needed
information to define how the existing system will function under the new loading.
Utility plans and descriptions: Available from utility owner. If unavailable, field
surveys may need to be performed to determine critical design information.
Existing right‐of‐way information:
Federal, state, and local regulatory requirements:
8.1.4 Preliminary Concept Development
Layout and design of a storm drainage system begins with the development of
sketches or schematics identifying the basic components of the intended design.
This section provides an overview of the concepts involved in the development of a
preliminary concept plan.
8.1.4.1 Base Map

The first step in the development of a concept storm drainage plan is preparation of
a project base map. The base map should identify the watershed areas and
subareas, land use and cover types, soil types, existing drainage patterns, and other
topographic features. This base information is then supplemented with
underground utility locations (and elevations if available), a preliminary
roadway plan and profile, and locations of existing and proposed structures.
8.1.4.2 Major vs. Minor Systems
A complete storm drainage system design includes consideration of both major and
minor drainage systems. The minor system, sometimes referred to as the
ʺConvenienceʺ system, consists of the components that have been historically
considered as part of the ʺstorm drainage systemʺ. These components include curbs,
gutters, ditches, inlets, access holes, pipes and other conduits, open channels,
pumps, detention basins, water quality control facilities, etc. The minor system is
normally designed to carry runoff from 10 year frequency storm events.
The major system provides overland relief for stormwater flows exceeding the
capacity of the minor system. This usually occurs during more infrequent storm
events, such as the 25‐, 50‐, and 100‐year storms. The major system is composed of
pathways that are provided – knowingly or unknowingly ‐for the runoff to flow
to natural or manmade receiving channels such as streams, creeks, or rivers.
The designer should determine (at least in a general sense) the flow pathways and
related depths and velocities of the major system under less frequent or check
storm conditions (typically a 100‐year event is used as the check storm).
Historically, storm drainage design efforts have focused on components of the

minor system with little attention being paid to the major system. Although the
more significant design effort is still focused on the minor system, lack of
attention to the supplementary functioning of the major storm drainage system is
no longer acceptable.
8.1.4.3 Concept Plan
With the preliminary base map completed and the difference between the major
and minor system components determined, a conceptual storm drainage plan can
be prepared. The development of this plan includes consideration of both major
and minor drainage systems and should consist of the following preliminary
activities:
1. Locate and space inlets
2. Locate main outfall
3. Locate storm mains and other conveyance elements
4. Define detention strategy and storage locations

5. Define water quality control strategy and facility locations
6. Define elements of major drainage system
With this sketch, or schematic, the designer will be able to proceed with the detailed
process of storm drainage design calculations, adjustments, and refinements as
defined in Step 4 of the design approach.
8.1.4.4 System Components
The components of minor storm drainage systems can be categorized by function as

those which collect stormwater runoff from the roadway surface and right‐of‐ way,
convey it along and through the right‐of‐way, and discharge it to an adequate
receiving body without causing adverse on‐ or off‐site environmental impacts. In
addition, major storm drainage systems provide a flood water relief function.
Stormwater Collection
Storm water collection is a function of the minor storm drainage system which is
accommodated through the use of roadside and median ditches, gutters, and
drainage inlets.
Roadside and Median Ditches are used to intercept runoff and carry it to an
adequate storm drain. These ditches should have adequate capacity for the design
runoff and should be located and shaped in a manner that does not present a traffic
hazard. If necessary, channel linings should be provided to control erosion in
ditches. Where design velocities will permit, vegetative linings should be used.
Gutters are used to intercept pavement runoff and carry it along the roadway
Shoulder to an adequate storm drain inlet. Curbs are typically installed in
combination with gutters where runoff from the pavement surface would erode fill
slopes and/or where right‐of‐way requirements or topographic conditions will not
permit the development of roadside ditches. Pavement sections are typically
curbed in urban settings. Parabolic gutters without curbs are used in some areas.

Drainage Inlets are the receptors for surface water collected in ditches and
gutters, and serve as the mechanism whereby surface water enters storm drains.
When located along the shoulder of the roadway, storm drain inlets are sized and
located to limit the spread of surface water onto travel lanes. The term ʺinlets,ʺ as
used here, refers to all types of inlets such as grate inlets, curb inlets, slotted inlets,
etc.
Drainage inlet locations are often established by the roadway geometries as well as
by the intent to reduce the spread of water onto the roadway surface.
Generally, inlets are placed at low points in the gutter grade, intersections,
crosswalks, cross‐slope reversals, and on side streets to prevent the water from
flowing onto the main road. Additionally, inlets are placed upgrade of bridges to
prevent drainage onto bridge decks and downgrade of bridges to prevent the Flow
of water from the bridge onto the roadway surface.
Stormwater Conveyance
Upon reaching the main storm drainage system, stormwater is conveyed along and
through the right‐of‐way to its discharge point via storm drains connected by access
holes or other access structures. In some situations, stormwater pump stations may
also be required as a part of the conveyance system.
Storm drains are defined as that portion of the storm drainage system that
receives runoff from inlets and conveys the runoff to some point where it is
discharged into a channel, waterbody, or other piped system. Storm drains can be
closed conduit or open channel; they consist of one or more pipes or
conveyance channels connecting two or more inlets.
Access holes, junction boxes, and inlets serve as access structures and alignment
control points in storm drainage systems. Critical design parameters related to
these structures include access structure spacing and storm drain deflection.
Spacing limits are often dictated by maintenance activities. In addition, these
structures should be located at the intersections of two or more storm drains, when

there is a change in the pipe size, and at changes in alignment (horizontal or

vertical).
Stormwater pump stations are required as a part of storm drainage systems in

areas where gravity drainage is impossible or not economically justifiable.
Stormwater pump stations are often required to drain depressed sections of
roadways.
Stormwater Discharge Controls: ‐
Stormwater discharge controls are often required to off‐set potential runoff quantity
and/or quality impacts. Water quantity controls include detention/retention
facilities. Water quality controls include extended detention facilities as well as
other water quality management practices.
Detention/retention facilities are used to control the quantity of runoff

discharged to receiving waters. A reduction in runoff quantity can be achieved by
the storage of runoff in detention/retention basins, storm drainage pipes,
swales and channels, or other storage facilities. Outlet controls on these facilities are
used to reduce the rate of stormwater discharge. This concept should be considered
for use in highway drainage design where existing downstream receiving
channels are inadequate to handle peak flow rates from the highway project, where
highway development would contribute to increased peak flow rates and aggravate
downstream flooding problems, or as a technique to reduce the size and associated
cost of outfalls from highway storm drainage facilities.
Water quality controls are used to control the quality of storm water discharges
from highway storm drainage systems. Water quality controls include extended
detention ponds, wet ponds, infiltration trenches, infiltration basins, porous
pavements, sand filters, water quality inlets, vegetative practices, erosion control
practices, and wetlands. Classes of pollutants typically associated with highway
runoff include suspended solids, heavy metals, nutrients, and organics. Water
quality controls should be considered for use as mitigation measures where

predictions indicate that highway runoff may significantly impact the water
quality of receiving waters.
Flood Water Relief
Flood water relief is a function provided by the major drainage system. This
function is typically provided by streets, surface swales, ditches, streams, and/or
other flow conduits which provide a relief mechanism and flow path for flood
waters.
Special Considerations
As a part of the development of the conceptual storm drainage plan, several

additional Considerations should be made. First, deep cuts and utilities should be
avoided whenever possible. Consideration should also be given to maintenance of
traffic and construction related impacts. In some cases, temporary drainage must be
provided for temporary bypasses and other traffic control related activities.
Construction sequencing must also be considered as it relates to the
constructability of laterals and storm mains. Some instances may dictate a trunk
line on both sides of the roadway with very few laterals, while other instances may
call for a single trunk line.
8.2 System components and layout
This part gives an overview of the elements that make up any urban drainage
system, including building drainage and other main system components.
8.2.1 Building drainage
Even though urban drainage engineers are not normally involved directly in the
Planning, design and construction of building drainage, it is important that they are
at least aware of the main components and layout of systems in and around
buildings. This includes, in particular, an understanding of how building drains
connect with the main sewer system.

Outside building drainage systems have a number of common components,

particularly associated with providing access for testing, inspection and
blockage‐clearance from the surface. A rodding eye permits rodding along the
drain from the surface. It consists of a vertical or inclined riser pipe with a sealed,
removable cover. Access can also be gained using an access chamber over a pipe
fitting with a sealed, removable cover. Inspection chamber are also used and consist
of shallow access points on the drain, and also have a sealed, removable cover.
Building drains are typically designed using procedures similar to small foul sewer.
Gradients tend to be quite steep (> 1:80 for 100dia. Pipes), although field evidences
suggests that very flat drains are no more likely to block that seep ones ( Lillywhite
and Webster, 1979); good quality construction is more influential in reducing
blockage potential. Drains and private sewers are relatively shallow with a
minimum cover of 0.75m under gardens and 1.25m under roads and paths. The
height X, plus the length and gradient of the drain, determines the minimum
feasible depth of the public sewer.
Layout
The main aim of the layout of external building drainage is to minimize the length
of pipork and associated components, whilst ensuring that adequate accessibility is
maintained. Generally, changes of direction should be minimized and appropriate
access points provide where necessary.
Building drains carrying soil and waste should discharge only to a public foul
combined sewer. Many existing installations still feature an interceptor trap with
water seal with the last inspection chamber before the sewer. These were provided
to reduce the risk of odour release into the building drainage and to discourage the
entry of rodents. However, they have tended to fall into disuse and disrepair and
can be a source of blockage and odour problems in their own right. Today, they are
not normally specified.

Chapter-9
9. Hydrology of Drains
9.1. Introduction
The analysis of the peak rate of runoff, volume of runoff, and time distribution of
flow is fundamental to the design of drainage structures. Errors in the estimates
will result in a structure that is either undersized and causes more drainage
problems or oversized and costs more than necessary. On the other hand, it must be
realized that any hydrologic analysis is only an approximation. The relationship
between the amount of precipitation on a drainage basin and the amount of runoff
from the basin is complex, and too little data are available on the factors influencing
the rural and urban rainfall‐runoff relationship to expect exact solutions.
In the hydrologic analysis for a drainage structure, it must be recognized that there
are many variable factors that affect floods. Some of the factors that need to be
recognized and considered on an individual site by site basis are:
 rainfall amount and storm distribution;

 catchment area size, shape and orientation;
 ground cover;
 type of soil;
 slopes of terrain and stream(s);
 antecedent moisture condition;
 storage potential (overbank, ponds, wetlands, reservoirs, channel, etc.); and
 Catchment area development potential.
9.2. Rational Method
The Rational Method is most accurate for estimating the design storm peak
runoff for areas up to 50 hectares (0.5 km2), but is best suited to urban storm drain

systems and rural ditches. . This method, while first introduced in 1889, is still
widely used. Even though it has come under frequent criticism for its
simplistic approach, no other drainage design method has achieved such
widespread use. Rainfall is a necessary input.
Application
Some precautions shall be considered when applying the Rational Method:
The first step in applying the Rational Method is to obtain a good topographic map
and define the boundaries of the catchment area in question. A field inspection of
the area should also be made to determine if the natural drainage divides
have been altered.
In determining the runoff coefficient C value for the catchment area, thought shall
be given to future changes in land use that might occur during the service life of
the proposed facility that could result in an inadequate drainage system. Also,
the effects of upstream detention structures must be taken into account.
Restrictions to the natural flow such as highway crossings and dams that exist in
the catchment area shall be investigated to see how they affect the design flows.
The charts, graphs, and tables included in this section are not intended to replace
reasonable and prudent engineering judgment that should permeate each step in
the design process.
Characteristics
Characteristics of the Rational Method that generally limit its use to 50 hectares
include:
1. The rate of runoff resulting from any rainfall intensity is a maximum when the
rainfall intensity lasts as long or longer than the time of concentration. That is,
the entire catchment area does not contribute to the peak discharge until the
time of concentration has elapsed.

This assumption limits the size of the drainage basin that can be evaluated by the
Rational Method. For large catchment areas, the time of concentration can be so
large that constant rainfall intensities for such long periods do not occur and shorter
more intense rainfalls can produce larger peak flows. Further, in semi‐arid and arid
regions, storm cells are relatively small with extreme intensity variations thus
making the Rational Method inappropriate for catchment areas greater than 50
hectares.
2. The frequency of peak discharges is the same as that of the rainfall

intensity for the given time of concentration.
Frequencies of peak discharges depend on rainfall frequencies, antecedent moisture

conditions in the catchment area, and the response characteristics of the drainage
system. For small and largely impervious areas, rainfall frequency is the dominant
factor. For larger drainage basins, the response characteristics control. For
catchment areas with few impervious surfaces (little urban development),
antecedent moisture conditions usually govern, especially for rainfall events with a
return period of 10 years or less.
3. The fraction of rainfall that becomes runoff (C) is independent of rainfall

intensity or volume.
This assumption is only reasonable for impervious areas, such as streets, rooftops,
and parking lots. For pervious areas, the fraction of runoff does vary with rainfall
intensity and the accumulated volume of rainfall. Thus, the application of the
Rational Method requires the selection of a coefficient that is appropriate for the
storm, soil, and land use conditions. Many guidelines and tables have been
established, but seldom, if ever, have they been supported with empirical evidence.
4. The peak rate of runoff is sufficient information for the design.
The hydraulic sizing of drainage and conveyance structures in urban settings

always requires estimation of peak flow rates. The peak discharge is a primary
design variable for the design of storm water runoff facilities such as pipe systems,

storm inlets and culverts, and small open channels. It is also used for some
hydrologic planning such as small detention facilities in urban areas.
The rational formula estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in a
catchment area as a function of the catchment area, runoff coefficient, and mean
rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration (the time
required for water to flow from the most remote point of the basin to the location
being analyzed). The rational formula is expressed as:
Q = 0.00278 CIA (9.1)
Where:
Q is maximum rate of runoff, m3/s
C is runoff coefficient representing a ratio of runoff to rainfall
(See Tables 9‐1)
I is average rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of

concentration, for a selected return period, mm/hr.
A is catchment area tributary to the design location, ha
Infrequent storm
The coefficients given in Tables 9‐1 through 9‐4 are applicable for storms of 5‐yr to
10‐yr frequencies. Less frequent, higher intensity storms will require
modification of the coefficient because infiltration and other losses have a
proportionally smaller effect on runoff. The adjustment of the Rational Method for
use with major storms can be made by multiplying the right side of the rational
formula by a frequency factor Cf.
The rational formula now becomes: Q = 0.00278 CCf IA
Cf values are listed below. The product of Cf times C shall not exceed 1.0.

Table 9‐1: Recommended Runoff Coefficient C for Pervious Surfaces by Selected

Hydrologic Soil Groupings and Slope Ranges
Soil Type
Terrain Type A B C D
Flat, <2% 0.04‐0.09 0.07‐0.12 0.11‐0.16 0.15‐0.20
Rolling, 2‐6% 0.09‐0.14 0.12‐0.17 0.16‐0.21 0.20‐0.25
Mountain, 6‐15% 0.13‐0.18 0.18‐0.24 0.23‐0.31 0.28‐0.38
Escarpment, >15% 0.18‐0.22 0.24‐0.30 0.30‐0.40 0.38‐0.48
Table 9‐2: Recommended Runoff Coefficient C for Various Selected Land Uses
Description of Area Runoff Coefficients
Business: Downtown areas 0.70‐0.95
Neighborhood areas 0.50‐0.70
Residential: Single‐family areas 0.30‐0.50
Multi units, detached 0.40‐0.60
Multi units, attached 0.60‐0.75
Suburban 0.25‐0.40
Residential (0.5 hectare lots or more) 0.30‐0.45
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50‐0.70
Industrial: Light areas 0.50‐0.80
Heavy areas 0.60‐0.90
Parks, cemeteries 0.10‐0.25
Playgrounds 0.20‐0.40
Railroad yard areas 0.20‐0.40
Unimproved areas 0.10‐0.30
Source: Hydrology, Federal Highway Administration, HEC No. 19, 1984

Table 9‐3: Coefficients for Composite Runoff Analysis
Surface Runoff Coefficients

Street: Asphalt 0.70‐0.95
Concrete 0.80‐0.95
Drives and walks 0.75‐0.85
Roofs 0.75‐0.95
Source: Hydrology, Federal Highway Administration, HEC No. 19, 1984
Table 9‐4: Frequency Factors for Rational Formula
Recurrence Interval (years) Cf

5 1.0
10 1.0
25 1.1
50 1.2
100 1.25

Procedures
The results of using the Rational Formula to estimate peak discharges is very
sensitive to the parameters that are used. The designer must use good engineering
judgment in estimating values that are used in the method.
Time of Concentration
The time of concentration is the time required for water to flow from the
hydraulically most remote point of the catchment area to the point under
investigation. Use of the Rational Method requires the time of concentration (tc) for
each design point within the catchment area. The duration of rainfall is then set
equal to the time of concentration and is used to estimate the design average
rainfall intensity (I). For a specific drainage basin, the time of concentration consists
of an inlet time plus the time of flow in a closed conduit or open channel to the
design point. Inlet time is the time required for runoff to flow over the surface to
the nearest inlet and is primarily a function of the length of overland flow, the slope
of the drainage basin, and surface cover. Pipe or open channel flow time can be
estimated from the hydraulic properties of the conduit or channel. An
alternative way to estimate the overland flow time is to use Figure 9‐1 to estimate
overland flow velocity and divide the velocity into the overland travel distance.
For design conditions that do not involve complex drainage conditions, Figure 9‐2
can be used to estimate inlet time. For each catchment area, the distance is
determined from the inlet to the most remote point in the tributary area. From a
topographic map, the average slope is determined for the same distance. The runoff
coefficient (C) is determined by the procedure described in a subsequent section of
this chapter.
To obtain the total time of concentration, the pipe or open channel flow time must
be calculated and added to the inlet time. After first determining the average
flow velocity in the pipe or channel, the travel time is obtained by dividing

velocity into the pipe or channel length. Manning’s Equation can be used to
determine velocity.
Common Errors
Three common errors should be avoided when calculating tc. First, application of
simplified general equations such as Kirpich for determining tc can result in too
short of a time of concentration particularly when the average basin slope varies
significantly from the mean channel slope as in steep mountainous areas.
Neglecting the overland flow time can also dramatically shorten the time of
concentration thus increasing the design peak runoff. Computing tc for two
reaches of main channel, from the low point to the 0.7 point, then from there to the
end of the channel, has been found to give better results.
Second, in some cases runoff from a portion of the catchment area that is highly
Impervious may result in a greater peak discharge than would occur if the entire
area were considered. In these cases, adjustments can be made to the catchment
area by disregarding those areas where flow time is too slow to add to the peak
discharge.
Sometimes it is necessary to estimate several different times of concentration to

determine the design flow that is critical for a particular application.

Figure 9 1 Velocity for Upland Method of Estimating Time of Concentration

Figure 9‐2 Overland Time of Flow
Third, when designing a drainage system, the overland flow path is not
necessarily perpendicular to the contours shown on available mapping.

Especially in urban areas, the land will be graded and swales will intercept the
natural contour and conduct the water to the streets, which reduces the time of
concentration. Care shall be exercised in selecting overland flow paths in excess of
100 meters in urban areas and 200 meters in rural areas.
Rainfall Intensity
The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in mm/hr for duration equal to
the time of concentration for a selected return period. Once a particular return
period has been selected for design and a time of concentration calculated for the
catchment area, the rainfall intensity can be determined from Intensity‐ Duration-
frequency curves.
Runoff Coefficient
The runoff coefficient (C) is the variable of the Rational Method least susceptible to
precise determination and requires judgment and understanding on the part of the
designer. A typical coefficient represents the integrated effects of many drainage
basin parameters. The following discussion considers the effects of soil groups,
land use, and average land slope.
Three methods for determining the runoff coefficient are presented based on soil
groups and land slope (Table 9‐1), land use (Table 9‐2), and a composite
coefficient for complex catchment areas (Table 9‐3).
Table 9‐1 gives the recommended runoff coefficient (C) for pervious surfaces by
selected hydrologic soil groupings and slope ranges. From this table the C values
for non‐urban areas such as forest land, agricultural land, and open space can be
determined.

Table 9‐5 Typical Hydrologic Soils Groups for Ethiopia

Soil Types Hydrologic Soil Group
Ao Orthic Acrisols B
Bc Chromic Cambisols B
Bd Dystric Cambisols B
Be Eutric Cambisols B
Bh Humic Cambisols C
Bk Calcic Cambisols B
Bv Vertic Cambisols B
Ck Calcic Chernozems B
E Rendzinas D

Hh Haplic Phaeozems
C
Hl Luvic Phaeozems C
I Lithosols D
Jc Calcaric Fluvisols B
Je Eutric Fluvisols B
Lc Chromic Luvisols B
Lo Orthic Luvisols B
Lv Vertic Luvisols C
Nd Dystric Nitosols B
Ne Eutric Nitosols B
Od Dystric Histosols D
Oe Eutric Histosols D
Qc Cambric Arenosols A
Rc Calcaric Regosols A
Re Eutric Regosols A
Th Humic Andosols B
Tm Mollic Andosols B
Tv Vitric Andosols B
Vc Chromic Vertisols D
Vp Pellic Vertisols D
Xh Haplic Xerosols B
Xk Caloic Xerosols B
Xl Luvic Xerosols C
Yy Gypsic Yermosols B
Zg Gleyic Solonchaks D
Zo Orthic Solonchaks Source: Ministry of Agriculture
B
As the slope of the drainage basin increases, the selected runoff coefficient C
should also increase. This is caused by the fact that as the slope of the catchment
area increases, the velocity of overland and channel flow will increase allowing
less opportunity for water to infiltrate the ground surface. Thus, more of the
rainfall will become runoff from the catchment area.
.

Chapter -10
10. Hydraulic Design of Sewers
10.1. Introduction
The design of a sewer system entails preliminary investigations, a detailed survey, the
actual design, preparation of final drawings, and correction of plans to conform to changes
made during construction. Preliminary investigation is required to arrive at an estimate of cost.
The anticipated population, its density, and its waste production must be estimated for the
planning period which is normally 20 years or more. A tentative layout is made by drawing
lines along the streets or utility easements.
10.2. Design Periods For Different Components of A Sewerage

Scheme
The design period should neither be too long nor it should be too short, and moreover, it
shouldn’t exceed the useful life of the component structures. The design period is generally
guided by the following considerations.
i. Useful life of component structures, and the chances of their becoming old and
obsolete.
ii. Ease of expansion
iii. Amount of additional investment likely to be incurred
iv. The rate of interest on borrowings
v. Anticipated rate of growth of population
The following design periods are often used in designing the different components
of a sewerage scheme.

Table 10-1 Design periods for different components of a sewerage scheme

Type of structure Characteristics Design period
Lateral sewers, less than Requirements may change Full development
15cm diameter faster in limited area
Branches, mains, and trunk Difficult and costly to 40‐50
sewers enlarge
Treatment units Growth and interest rates 15‐20
being high to moderate
Pumping plant The additional pumps can 5‐10
be installed in future, very
easily
10.3. Provision of Freeboard In Sewers and Storm Water Drains
The sanitary sewers, as pointed out earlier, are designed large enough to carry the maximum
sewage discharge while flowing half or three‐fourth or two‐third full. Generally, the sewer
pipes of sizes less than 0.4 m diameter are designed as running half full at maximum discharge,
and the sewer pipes greater than 0.4 m in diameter are designed as running 2/3rd or 3/4th full
at maximum discharge. The extra space, thus left, above the designed full supply line, will
leave an ample margin, so as to act as a factor of safety to counter‐act against the factors, such
as:
1. Low estimates of the average and maximum flow, made due to some wrong data obtained
regarding the private water consumption by industries, or public, or about the quantity to
be supplied from the water‐ works at the end of the design period.
2. Large‐scale infiltration of storm water due to wrong or illegal connections, and that of
underground water through cracks or open joints in the sewers.
3. Unforeseen increase in population or water consumption and the consequent increase in
sewage production.
The storm water drains, on the other hand, are generally not provided with so much margins
above their FSLs, because the over‐flowing of sewers, mainly because sewage is highly
polluted as compared to the storm water. The storm water drains are, therefore, provided
with nominal provisions of freeboard above their designed full supply lines, as given in the
table below.
Table 10‐2 Values of Freeboard to be adopted for the design of storm water Drains

Peak discharge in the drain for Freeboard to be left

which designed, in cumecs in meters
Below 0.3 0.3
0.3‐1.0 0.4
1‐5 0.5
5‐10 0.6
10‐30 0.75
30‐150 0.90
More than 150 1.0
10.4. Hydraulic Formulas For Determining Flow Velocities In Sewers And

Drains
The sewers and drains are generally designed as open channels except when it is especially
required to design them as flowing under pressure, as in the case of inverted siphons; and
discharge lines from sewage pumping stations, which always flow under pressure.
Various empirical formulas, which have been suggested for determining the gradients
necessary to obtain design velocities of flow in sewers, are given below:
Chezyʹs Formula: ‐ This formula states that

V =C √ RS
Where V = velocity of flow in the channel in m/sec.
R = hydraulic mean radius of channel,i.e. hydraulic mean depth of channel
A
R=
P For a circular sewer running full ,R is given by R= D/4
S = hydraulic gradient, equal to the ground slope of uniform flows
C = a constant, called Chezyʹs constant.
The Chezyʹs constant c depends upon various factors, such as the size and the shape of the
channel, roughness of the channel surface, the hydraulic characteristics of the channel.
Etc. The value of c can be obtained by using the Kutterʹs formula. According to Kutterʹs
1 0. 00155
23+ +
n S
C=
formula, the value of c to be used is given

1+ 23+(0 . 00155
S ) √nR
Where n = Rugosity coefficient depending upon the type of the channel surface
S= Bed slope of the sewer
R = Hydraulic mean depth of channel
Table 10‐3 Manning or Kutterʹs Rugosity Coefficients (n)

S.No. Pipe Material Values of n at full depth for
Good interior surface Fair interior surface
Condition condition
1. Salt glazed stoneware 0.012 0.014
2. pipes 0.013 0.015
3. Cement concrete pipes 0.012 0.013
4. Cast iron pipes 0.013 0.015
5. Brick, unglazed 0.011 0.012
6. sewers/drains 0.011 0.011
Asbestos cement
Plastic (smooth) pipes
This formula may be simplified by omitting the term 0.00155/(s) from the numerator as
well as the denominator, since this will affect the results much less than an increase of 0.001 in
the value of n.
Manning’s Formula: ‐ This formula was given by Manning, and is the most popular
formula used for designing sewers and drains.
This formula has fully satisfied the experimental results and given as
1 A
V = R 2/3 S1/2 R=
n Where, P hydraulic radius and A is Area of and P is perimeter of the channel
section under consideration, S is the slope of the hydraulic grade line in the open channels and
n is roughness coefficient.
Hazenʹs‐William formula: ‐ This formula is generally used for flows under pressure for
designing water supply pipes, and is seldom used for designing sewers. It states that
V = 0.85*CH* r 0.63 * s 0.54

Table 10.4 values of CH for William Hazen’s formula

S. Type of pipe material Value of CH for
No New pipes Design
1 Concrete and R.C.C pipes 140 purpose
110
2 Cast iron pipes 130 100
3 Galvanized iron pipes 120 100
4 Steel pipes with welded joints 140 100
5 Steel pipes with riveted joints 110 95
6 Steel pipes with welded joints lined with 140 110
cements
7 Asbestos cementenamel
for bituminous pipes 150 120
8 Plastic pipes 150 120
10.5. Effects Of Flow Variation On Velocity In A Sewer

The sewage discharge flowing through a sewer does not remain constant all the time, b u t
v a r i e s considerably f r o m time t o t i m e . Due to t h i s variation i n discharge, the
depth of flow varies, and hence the hydraulic mean depth (H.M.D. i.e. r) Varies. Due to the
change in hydraulic mean depth, the flow velocity [which directly depends on r2/3] gets
affected from time to time.
Since the velocity developed in a sewer of a given section and grade will be less as and
when the flow reduces (and the sewer becomes less than half full), it is necessary to
check the sewer for maintaining a minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/sec at the time of
minimum flow (assumed at about 1/3 rd of average flow).
The designer should also ensure that a velocity of about 0.9 m/sec is developed at least at
the time of the maximum flow and preferably during the average flow periods also.
Moreover, care should be taken to see that at the time of maximum flow, the velocity
generated does not exceed the scouring value. However, in flat countries sewers are
designed to develop self‐cleansing velocities of about 0.9 m/sec at maximum discharge
only, and the condition of developing such a velocity at average flow is waived off.
This permits flatter gradients, avoiding deep excavations.

Table 10‐5 Non‐scouring Limiting Velocities in Sewers and Drains

S.No. Sewer Material Limiting velocity in
m/sec
1. Vitrified tiles and glazed 4.5‐5.5
2. bricks 3.5‐4.5
3. Cast iron sewers 3.0‐4.0
4. Stone ware sewers 2.5‐3.0
5. Cement concrete sewers 1.5‐2.5
6. Ordinary brick‐lined sewers 0.6‐1.2
Earthen channels
On the other hand, if the available ground slopes are neither too steep nor too flat, the
condition of developing velocities of about 0.9 m/sec. At average flow may be practically
possible and economical, and hence may be insisted upon. In hilly areas permitting too high
slopes, the sewers may be designed to develop such velocities of 0.9 m/sec even at minimum
discharge, and they may be checked for limiting non‐scouring velocities at maximum
discharge.
Table 10‐6 Sewer Gradient required for generating Self‐cleansing

Diameter of sewer Gradients 1 in….for developing
mm self‐cleansing velocity of
0.75 m/sec 0.90 m/sec 1.05 m/sec

10 90 75 60
150 150 105 78
225 265 180 135
300 385 270 195
375 520 355 265
450 660 465 340
525 820 570 415
600 970 680 500
675 1,100 790 580
750 1,300 910 670
900 1,700 1,200 850
1,050 2,100 1,450 1,050
1,200 2,500 1,700 1,250
10.6. Hydraulic Characteristics of Circular Sewer Sections

Running Full or Partially Full
The circular section is most widely adopted for sewer pipes. They may, however, sometimes
be of 'egg shape' or 'horse shoe shape' or ‘rectangular shape’. The circular sewers may
sometimes run full or May run partially full. When they run full, their hydraulic properties
will be as given below
Area of cross-section
π 2
A= D Where D is the diameter of the pipe
4
Wetted perimeter
P=πD
Hydraulic mean depth
A
R= P
π
D2
=4
πD

D
=4
When the sewers run partially full, at a depth, say d. As s h o w n in F i g . 10.1, t h e
hydraulic elements can be worked out as given below:
The depth at partial flow
[
D D a
]
D= 2 − 2 cos 2 Where, a is the central angle in degrees as shown above
Proportionate depth
d 1
=
D 2 [
1−cos
a
2 ]
Area of cross-section while running partially full
2
πD a D a D a
= * 360° - 2 cos 2 * 2 sin 2
4
2
πD a sina a a
= ( 360° - 2 π ) where, sin a=2sin 2 *cos 2 )
4
Proportionate area

a a sina
= =( - )
A 360° 2 π
Wetted perimeter, while running partially full
a
=p= π d*
360°
Proportionate perimeter
p a
=
P 360°
Hydraulic mean depth (H.M.D.), while running partially full
a D 360° sina
r= P = 4 (1- 2 πa )
Proportionate H.M.D
r 360° sina
R
= (1- 2 πa
)
Velocity of flow is given by Manning's formula, as ύ= velocity at partial flow
1 2/3
ύ= r √ So
n
Where so is bed slope
V = velocity when running full
1 2/3
ύ=
N
R √ So
Bed slope s= so remaining constant whether pipe run full or partially full
Assuming that roughness coefficient n does not vary with depth, we haven n=N
Proportionate velocity

ύ n r 2 /3
V = N * R 2 /3
360° sina 2/3

= (1- 2 πa
)
Since, discharge is given by a.v, therefore, Discharge when pipe is running partially full
q=a* ύ
Discharge when pipe is running full
Q=AV
Proportionate discharge
a
q a∗ύ ∗ύ
= =A
Q AV
V
a sina 360° sina 2/3

( 360° - 2 π ) = (1- 2 πa )
In all the above derived equations, except everything is constant, and hence by
giving different values to “a “ all the six proportionate elements can be
easily calculated By taking proportionate depth (d/D) as reference, values of other
elements can be found out from the readymade computed values, shown in Table 10.6.
Table 10.6 Proportionate Values of Hydraulic Elements for Circular Sewers when
flowing partially full (without being corrected for variations of roughness with depth)
Proportiona Proportionate
Proportionat Proportionat Proportionat Proportionat
te wetted Dischar
e e e e
perimeter ge q/Q
Depth d/D Area a/A H.M.D r/R Velocity v/V
p/P
1 1 1 1 1 1
0.9 0.949 0.857 1.192 1.124 1.066
0.8 0.858 0.705 1.217 1.14 0.988
0.7 0.748 0.631 1.185 1.12 0.838
0.6 0.626 0.564 1.11 1.072 0.671

0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 0.5
0.4 0.373 0.444 0.857 0.902 0.337
0.3 0.252 0.369 0.684 0.776 0.196
0.2 0.143 0.296 0.482 0.615 0.088
0.1 0.052 0.205 0.254 0.401 0.021
0 0 0 0 0 0
From the data given in Table 10.6, it can be seen that the velocities in partially
filled circular sewer sections, equal or exceed those in full sections, so long as
sewers flow more than half full; and the maximum velocity is obtained not when
the sewer is running full but when the depth of low is 0.81 times the full depth, and
is about 12.5 % greater that when running full.
Similarly, the maximum discharge is obtained not when the sewer is running full, but
when the depth is about 0.95 times the full depth, and is about 7% greater than that when
running full. But, as the depth of flow goes below half the full depth, the' velocities
and discharges, both decline, and become lesser than those at full flow. However,
the decline in proportionate velocities is not so sharp, as is the decline in discharges,
because the area (on which depends discharge) reduces much faster as compared to
the hydraulic mean depth (on which depends velocity).
The statements given above are precisely correct only, so long as the roughness (n) is
supposed to be independent of depth. However, Sundin has demonstrated theoretically as
well as experimentally that the value of rugosity coefficient (n) is not constant, but varies
as much as 20% or more with depth, as shown in col. (2) of Table 10.7.
Table 10.7 Hydraulic Particulars of Circular Sewers, accounting Variations of n with depth

Proportiona Proportionate Proportiona Proportionate

te depth roughness te velocity discharge (q/Q)
(d/D) (n/N) ( v/V)
1 1 1 1
0.9 1.07 1.056 1.02
0.8 1.14 1.003 0.89
0.7 1.18 0.952 0.712
0.6 1.21 0.89 0.557
0.5 1.24 0.81 0.405
0.4 1.27 0.713 0.266
0.3 1.28 0.605 0.153
0.2 1.27 0.486 0.07
0.1 1.22 0.329 0.017
The effect of the variation of n is to reduce the proportionate velocities and discharges at lower
depths of flow, because roughness (n) increases with lower depths. If these variations of n are
also considered, more precise values of proportionate velocities and discharges can be computed
out, as shown in Col. (3) and (4) of table 10.7.
Example 10.1 A 300 mm dia sewer is to flow at 0.3 depths on a grade ensuring a degree of self-
cleansing equivalent to that obtained at full depth at a velocity of 0.90 m/sec. Find the
required grade and associated velocity and rate of discharge at this depth. Assume
Manning's Rugosity coefficient n as 0.013. The variations of n with depth may be neglected.
Example 10.2 A 225 mm dia sewer is to discharge 0.005 cumecs at a velocity as self-
cleansing as a sewer flowing full at O. 80 m/sec. Find he depth, velocity generated, and the
required gradient. Use! Janning’s Rugosity coefficient as 0.013 Also assume that the Rugosity
coefficient varies with depth
10.7. Use of Tables and Monograms for Hydraulic
Computations for the Design of Sewers
This mathematical work becomes enormous while designing a fully- fledged sewerage scheme,
where such calculations a r e required to be made for thousands of sewers. To reduce the
calculation w o r k , readymade charts and tables, based upon their original formulas, are

generally prepared, kept in the design office, and used.

Fig. 10.2 shows a Nomogram based on Manning's formula, for sewers running full, using
a value of N as 0.013. This nomogram can be easily used by placing a straight edge across
any two known variables (such as velocity and discharge), as to read out the remaining two
variables (such as dia and gradient). If the value of N, to be used, is different from 0.013
(say for example it is 0.017); then the velocity or discharge
0.018 0.018
obtained from this chart for a value of (i.e. ) to
0.017 N
obtain
The real velocity o r discharge produced at N = 0.017. Similarly, i f the discharge or velocity
is given, the required parameters can be found by first correcting the given discharge o r
0.017 0.017
velocity by multiplying them by of (i.e. ) and then placing t h e straight
0.018 N
edge across the two known values
Santo Crimps tables are the ready-made tables based upon the Crimp and Burge's
formula and are quite often used in India. A sample page of such tables is shown in table
10.8
Table 10.8 Sample Page of Santo-Crimps Tables (for Sewers Running Full)
Sewer Grade = 1 in 225 Grade 1 in 100

diameter Discharge in
Velocity in Discharge in Velocity in
in mm liters/sec.
m/sec. liters/sec. m/sec.
100 0.479 3.76 0.56 4.4
150 0.628 11.12 0.942 16.67
200 0.76 23.9 1.14 35.83
250 0.833 43.34 1.324 65.01
300 0.996 70.52 1.494 105.8

375 1.156 127.7 1.735 191.7

450 1.306 208 1.96 312.3
525 1.447 313.3 2.17 470.1
600 1.582 448.1 . 2.373 672
675 1.711 611.2 2.566 918.5
750 1.837 812.5 2.754 1219
900 2.073 1320 3.2 2038
Fig 10.2 Nomogram based on manning’s formula for N= 0.013 for sewers running full
Example 10.3 Determine the size of a circular sewer for a discharge of 600 l/s running half-full.
Assume i = 0.0001 and n = 0.015. (A.M. I.E. 1976)

Example 10.4 Design a sewer running 0.7 times full at maximum discharge for a town provided
with the separate system, serving a population of 80,000 persons. The water supplied from the
waterworks to the town is at a rate of 190 liters / person / day. Made up of brick work plastered
smooth with cement mortar (n = 0.013) and the permissible slope is 1 in 600. The variations of n
with depth may be neglected. Assume any other data not given and needed.
Example 10:5. Calculate the diameter and discharge of a circular sewer laid at a slope of 1 in
400 when it is running half full, and with a velocity of 1.9 m / sec. (n in Manning's
formula = 0.012).
Example 10.6. Design a sewer to serve a population of 36,000; the daily per capita water supply
allowance being 135litres, of which 80% cent finds its way into the sewer. The slope available
for the sewer to be laid is 1 in 625 and the sewer should be designed to carry four times
the dry weather flow when running full. What would be the velocity, off low in the sewer when
running full? Assume n = 0.012 in Manning's formula.

Chapter-11
11. Water Supply and Sanitary Installation of
Buildings
11.1. Domestic water supply system of buildings
The purpose of this system is to provide potable water supply to each fixture from
water sources. The design process considers the determination of source, storage
and distribution of water to each fixture units.
It covers the system of pipes, fittings and connected appliances (fixtures) installed to
supply buildings
Materials
All materials shall be free from defects that affect their usefulness for their intended
purposes.
Materials that have been used for a purpose other than the distribution of potable
water shall not be subsequently used in a potable water system.
Every length of pipe and every fitting shall have cast, stamped or indelibly marked
on it the maker's name or mark and the weight or class or quality of the product, or
it shall be marked in accordance with the relevant standard; and such markings
shall be visible after installation.
The following factors shall be taken into account in selecting materials used in a
water service:
 Cost,
 Effect on water quality,
 Internal and external corrosion,
 Compatibility of different materials,
 Ageing, fatigue and temperature effects,

 Mechanical properties,
 Durability.
Every part of a water installation shall be cable of operating effectively under the
conditions which it will experience in service. Accordingly:
 Every pipe, pipe joint and connected fitting shall be capable of withstanding,
without damage or deterioration, sustained temperature of up to 40°C for cold
water installations and up to 70°C, with occasional short-term excursions up to
100°C to allow for malfunctions, for heated water installations.
 Every draw-off tap shall be capable of operating effectively at any water
temperature and internal water pressure to which it is to be subject.
 Discharge pipes connected to temperature or expansion relief valves shall be
capable of withstanding any continuous hot water or steam discharge at
temperatures up to 125°C.
If pipes, pipe joints or connected fittings are of dissimilar metals, necessary

measures shall be taken to prevent corrosion. Dissimilar metals should be avoided
in below-ground installations wherever practicable
11.1.1 Cold water supply

Any cold tap which is likely to be used for drinking water and all such taps not
connected directly to the suppliers mains shall be supplied from a storage cistern
No drinking water point shall be installed at the end of a long pipe where only
small volumes of water are drawn-off.
To reduce the risk of stagnation, the layout of the pipework should be arranged,
where possible, so that fittings down-stream of a drinking water point have a high
demand.
Types of Systems
According to the usage of pumps for distribution of water, it is divided in to two
categories.
i. Gravity distribution system

ii. Pumped (boosted )system

The cold water supply for both systems is either from bore holes or direct
connection from main (street pressure systems).
i. Gravity distribution system

Water distributed through the system is due to conventional gravity pull (static
head). In this system water from the source supplied to the elevated water tank
driven by source pressure if there is sufficient head. Otherwise, pump should be
provided for boosting. After, the water reached the elevated water tank it will be
distributed down the system.
ii. Pumped (or boosted) system

Here, water from the source delivered directly to the “Ground“reservoir. And, the
pump distributed the water through the system .The pumping device could be of
constant pressure booster pump or hydro- pneumatic system.
Storage Cistern
Storage Cistern is any cistern or water tank other than a flushing cistern in which
water is stored at atmospheric pressure.
In a building, provisions shall be made for storage of water:
o to provide against interruptions of the supply caused by repairs to mains, etc;

o to reduce the maximum rate of demand on the mains;
o to tide over periods of intermittent supply; and
o to maintain a storage for the fire fighting requirement of the building
Every storage tank shall be easily accessible and placed in such a position as to
enable thorough inspection and cleaning to be carried out. In large storage tanks,
the outlet shall be at the end opposite the inlet to avoid stagnation of the water.
Storage cisterns and their lids for domestic water supply purposes should not
impart taste, color, odor or toxicity to the water, nor promote microbial growth.
The water may be stored either in overhead tanks (OHT) and/or underground tanks
(UGT) and storage cisterns above 5000 liter capacity shall be divided into two or
more compartments or tanks to avoid interruption of the water supply when

carrying out cleaning, inspection or maintenance of the cistern without interfering

with the water supply system.
Any cistern from which water for domestic purposes may be drawn shall be:
 a watertight vessel having a tight fitting;

 where necessary, lined or coated with a material suitable for use in contact
with potable water and must not deform unduly in use;
 where necessary, insulated against heat;
 with access for inspection and maintenance;
 Supported on a firm level base capable of withstanding the weight of the
cistern when filled with water to the rim
 Provided with inlet, outlet, overflow and drain pipes.
 Underground Cisterns
No cistern shall be buried or sunk in the ground unless special measures are taken
to avoid leakage and protect the cistern from ingress of contaminants.
Unless used only for non-potable water, every underground cistern shall be
protected from ingress of surface water or ground water and such cisterns shall be
well ventilated and protected from ingress of animals and insects and accessible for
maintenance.
The underground tanks should not be located in low lying areas or near any public
or private sewer, septic tank, leaching pool or soakage pit to prevent any
contamination. For tanks with at least one side exposed to a basement, it is safer to
discharge the overflow into the basement level provided that the basement has
proper drainage system.
The tank structure shall also be designed to carry the load due to fire tender
movement.
There shall be no common wall between the tanks storing safe water and tanks
storing water from unsafe sources.
 Elevated and Ground Cisterns

Cisterns mounted within the premises of a building shall be well ventilated and
protected from ingress of birds, animals and insects and provided with access to the
interior of the cistern for maintenance.
Ventilation openings shall be screened by corrosion-resistant mesh.
There should be no common wall between the tanks storing safe water and tanks
storing water from unsafe sources.
In tall buildings, the top of the tank shall be provided with the safe ladder or
staircase. The top slab shall be provided with railing or a parapet wall.
Water Meters
Water meters shall be located as follows:
 Within the property; in an accessible position

 Proximity to isolating valve; positioned immediately downstream of the
meter isolating valve.
 Proximity to street-alignment; as near as practicable to the street alignment.
 In other locations; as required by the relevant regulatory authority.
Water meters shall be installed:
 so as to be accessible for reading, maintenance or removal; and

 In horizontal position unless designed to operate otherwise.
 Water meters which installed below ground level shall be located in a
chamber that has a removable cover by one person and provided with a base
that enables drainage. Where liable to vehicular damage, water meters shall
be protected.
11.1.2 Hot water supply
The hot water services shall be designed to provide, so far as is practicable, hot
water at the locations, in the quantities and at the temperatures required by the user
at the least overall cost, taking account of installation, maintenance and energy
costs.
Types of System
 Instantaneous system
In the instantaneous system, the water is heated as used, there is no storage, and the
capacity of the heater should be equal to the peak demand.

Gas fired instantaneous water heaters installed in bathrooms shall be of the room-
sealed type.
 Storage system
In the storage system, hot water is heated continuously or intermittently as desired.
The choice between the vented and the non-vented type of installation of the storage
system shall be in accordance with the factors described below:
 Vented hot-water storage systems are fed with cold water from a storage
cistern which is situated above the highest outlet to provide the necessary
pressure in the system and which accommodates expansion of the water
when it is heated. An open vent pipe shall be installed from the top of the hot
water storage vessel to a point above the cold water' storage cistern, into
which it is arranged to discharge. The main characteristics of vented systems
are:
 Explosion protection is provided by the open vent pipe and the cistern,
involving no mechanical. Device;
 The storage provides a constant low pressure and a reserve of water in case of
supply failure, but needs to be protected against the' ingress of contaminants.
 Non-vented systems can be fed from a storage cistern, either directly or
through a booster pump, but usually are fed from the supply pipe, either
directly or via a pressure reducing Valve. The main characteristics of non-
vented systems are as follows:
 Explosion protection is provided by safety devices that need periodic
inspection and maintenance.
 Mains-fed systems have no reserve of water, but higher pressures are
available if required.
 They allow quicker installation than vented system but involve more costly
components.
Water Storage Temperature
 In normal circumstances, the temperature of the stored water should never

exceed 65°C.
 A stored water temperature of 60°C is considered sufficient to meet all normal
requirements and will minimize deposition of scale in hard-water areas.

11.1.3 Design of domestic water supply

The design aspects of domestic water supply system are briefly described as follow.
A. Selection of system
Selection of the most efficient system is governed by many criteria. Some of them
are stated below.
 Demand( pressure and flow)

 Type of building occupancy
 Aesthetics
 Economy
 Use
 Maintainability
 Flexibility to failure
B. Determination of storage
Using the per capita demand, the amount of storage required can be determined. In
this phase, we need to consider the interruption period of supply.
C. Pumping capacity
The determination of pump capacity depends on the purpose of the pump to meet
or the type of water distribution system. In a gravity distribution system the pump
should meet an acceptable refill period while in a boosted (pumped) system, it has
to meet the demand of each fixture.
D. Internal distribution
This includes the design of any water supply pipe installation inside the building.
Layout: This is schematic presentation of piping with in the building. A Good

layout constructed from simple straight and short lines.
E. Material selection: The selection of material depends on different factor such as

 Fit for purpose
 Ease of maintenance
 Efficiency and longevity
 Cost

11.1.4 Pipe sizing

The sizes of the pipes and fittings used in a water service shall be such as will
provide an adequate rate of delivery of water without recourse to wasteful
oversizing.
1 Determination of flow rate: To determine flow rate it is recommended to use

fixture loading units for Continuous flow condition.
Loading units- A loading unit is a factor or number given to an appliance which

relates the flow rate at its terminal fitting to the length of time in use and the
frequency of use for a particular type and use of building (probable usage).
2 Determination of head loses: The total head loss in a piping system is the head
loss through pipes and fittings.
L V2 V2
H l =f +K
D 2g 2g
The head loss through fittings is also determined from equivalent length of straight
pipe with the same diameter as the fitting.
3 Determine required head

This is the total head required in a building which is determined by summing
up the head losses (at the critical fixture) and the residual pressure.
HT = hfric + hfitting + hout < helv
Where:
HT = Total head
hfric= Total friction loss in the critical route
hfitting=Total fitting loss (Assume 30% of hfric)
hout = Outlet pressure at critical fixture
h elev= Elevation difference between water tank level and critical fixture
outlet point.
4 check pipe diameter
Check whether the system acquired sufficient head and velocity at critical pipe
sections.
11.2 Waste water drainage of Buildings
11.2.1 Sanitary fixtures

Sanitary fixtures shall have smooth impervious surfaces, be free from defects and
concealed fouling surfaces and shall be of approved standards in quality and design
In the building, various types of sanitary fittings are required to collect the waste
water; these fittings can be broadly classified as:
1 Waste fixtures
 wash basin
 sinks
 bath tabs
 flushing cistern
 drinking fountains
2 Soil fixtures
 water closets
 urinals
 slope sinks
All types of sanitary fixtures should be fixed against an external walls or load
bearing structures, so that the apartment in which they are placed can be provided
with natural light and air, and also their wastes can be easily collected in drain .the
floors of the room in which sanitary fixtures are fixed should be of a non-absorbent
material with curved angles at the junction with walls from sanitary point of view.
Fixtures should be selected and installed to allow all connections to be correctly

made initially and so as to be easily disconnected for subsequent maintenance or
replacement.
Where fixtures will be subjected to heavy use, as in public conveniences, schools,

hospitals, factories, etc, they should be robust in construction and designed to
withstand misuse.
11.2.2 Trap
A trap is a fitting or device that, when properly vented, provides a water seal to
prevent the discharge of sewer gases without affecting the flow of sanitary drainage
through it.
Water seal is water retained on a trap for exclusion foul air from building.
11.2.2.1 Types of traps

There are many types of traps in use. From these the most common traps are:-
 WC-trap
 P-trap (hand wash basin)
 Drum trap (bathtubs)
 Bottle trap
The following are requirements of a good trap:
 It should be made of non- absorbent material

 It should provide sufficient depth of water seal all times
(about 50mm)
 It should be self-cleansing and should not obstruct the
flow of sewage.
 It should be provided with access for cleaning.
11.2.2.2 Trap failure
Trap failure is the escape of sewer gas from waste drainage system due to loss of
trap seal. The main cause of trap failure is the existence of pressure differentials .The
pressure differential in the drainage system can be both negative and positive
pressures. The greatest concern is for negative pressure condition (siphonic action).
One of the most commonly discussed causes of siphonic action is the venture effect.
Venturi effect is when flow in drainage stacks completely closes off a smaller
horizontal branch connection; however, venture is overstated and rarely occurs.
Furthermore, the velocity in the stack is often inadequate to draw a vacuum on the
horizontal branch.
The greatest cause of siphonic action, or negative pressure, is from the boundary
effect of movement in a fluid .when water runs down the drain, air close to the
moving water drawn in the direction of the moving water. The closer the air is to
the moving water, more likely the air is moving at the same velocity as the water.
Further away the air is from the water, the movement of air. Thus, as waste and
water moves down the drain it pulls the air with it. The movement of air creates a
draw, or negative pressure and that air must come from somewhere.
Positive pressure is a greater concern where the waste reaches its terminal velocity.
At this stage the pressure transitis into positive. At some point in the transition, the
water may close off the core of air .when it occurs, the quick moving air comes to

stop, creating a hydraulic shock similar to water hammer. At high flow rates, this
hydraulic shock can create a positive pressure.
Types of failures
i. Direct siphonage or self-siphonage occurs in unvented traps that serve oval-

bottom fixtures such as lavatories. Such fixtures discharge their contents
rapidly and do not have the final small trickle of water needed to reseal the
trap. When the plug is withdrawn, the water flows out fast and completely
fills the waste pipe. The water displaces the air that normally fills the waste
pipe, lowering the atmospheric pressure on the discharge side of the trap.
Atmospheric pressure on the fixture side forces the water through the trap,
and the seal is lost
ii. Indirect siphonage is caused by a large discharge of water from a fixture
installed one or more floors above the affected fixture. This large discharge
tends to form a slug in the stack. As this slug passes the takeoff of the fixture
below it, air is pulled out of the waste line on the lower fixture. This reduces
the pressure on the discharge side of the trap. There is no reseal until there is a
discharge from the lower fixture
iii. Back pressure within a sanitary drainage system is caused by simultaneous
fixture use that overtaxes the plumbing system, causing a positive pressure
that affects a trap's water seal. A large flow may completely fill the pipe,
causing the compressed atmospheric gases to offer resistance because they
cannot slip past the water flow and exhaust at a roof terminal. As the water
falls, the pressure increases and compresses the air, and the trap seal blows
out of the fixture.
iv. Evaporation Loss of trap seal from evaporation only occurs when a fixture is
not used for a long time. The rate of evaporation in a trap depends on the
atmosphere's humidity and temperature. A trap in a warm, dry place will lose
water seal by evaporation more rapidly than one in a cool, damp place.
Ventilation does not solve the problem. The use of a deep-seal trap is the best
solution. One disadvantage is that solid wastes collect in the bottom of the
trap and clog the pipe.
11.2.3 Stacks and Branches
Stacks are the vertical main pipes in a plumbing system. They carry wastes to the
house drain. Branches are the pipes that carry the discharge from the fixtures to the

stacks. A soil branch carries soil fixture waste; a waste branch carries wastes from
waste fixtures. Most buildings do not have separate soil and waste stacks, so a
single stack, known as the soil-and-waste stack or simply the soil stack (or stack),
carries both soil and waste
11.2.4 Venting and Vents

The original and sole purpose of venting is to protect the trap seal. If a trap did not
exist in a drainage system a vent would not be required.
Types of vents
A. Single fixture vent
The individual vent (also referred to as a back vent or continuous vent) is the most
common. It is a provision of vent for every trap. This vent can be adapted to all
fixtures. It prevents both direct and indirect siphonage.
B. Common vent
A common vent is merely an individual vent that serves two fixtures. The vent is
installed similar to an individual vent with regard to distance from trap to vent.
C. Circuit vent
Circuit vent extends from the main vent to connections on the horizontal soil or
waste branch pipe between the fixture connections. This vent is used in buildings
having a battery of two or more fixtures, such as lavatories. A maximum of eight
fixtures are permitted on any one circuit vent. The circuit vent is usually installed
between the next to the last and the last fixture on the line. Since some fixtures
discharge their waste through a part of the pipe that acts as a vent for other fixtures,
the vent may become clogged. Reduce clogging by connecting the vent into the top
of the branch rather than its side. Water and waste from the last fixture scours the
vents of the other fixtures.
D. Wet vent
Wet vent is part of a vent line through which liquid wastes flow from another
fixture that has an individual vent. It is used most commonly on a small group of

bathroom fixtures. A disadvantage is that the vent tends to become fouled with
waste material, which reduces its diameter or causes a stoppage.
Choice of venting system is affected be different factors but the most influential
factors are cost of venting and ease for fitting.
11.2.5 Design guideline

11.2.5.1 Layout
Layout of waste water piping is also a schematic presentation of the pipe laying
process. Since flow in a sanitary pipe is gravitational flow, the layout should be
done to assist such flow.
When making a layout one has to consider
Short and straight path of flow

Smooth flow condition (at bends)
protection against blockage (avoid u-turn)
connections between different piping
location of stack (vent or waste)
type of building occupancy
type of fixture
venting
11.2.5.2 Material selection
Fit for purpose
Ease of maintenance
Efficiency and longevity
Cost
11.2.5.3 Pipe sizing

Pipe sizing of sanitary pipes is according to Fixture discharge unit. The pipe size
along the flow path should be increased. The minimum pipe size connected to a
fixture shall not be less than the trap size.
11.2.6 External drainage system

This includes collection, partial treatment and disposal of waste water from house
hold. Every waste piping that comes out of a building connected to a manhole and
lead to onsite waste treatment unit(septic tank and percolation (absorption) field
or soak away pits) .
The layout of the drainage system should be as simple as possible. Changes of

direction and gradient should be minimized and as easy as practicable. Access
points should be provided only if blockages could not be cleared without them.
Connections of drains to other drains or to sewers should be made obliquely, and in
the direction of flow.
Pipes should be laid to even gradients and any change of gradient should be
combined with an access point
Any bends should be limited to positions in or close to inspection chambers or

manholes .Bends should have as large a radius as practicable.
A drainage system should be designed, installed and maintained so as to convey

and discharge its contents without causing a nuisance or danger to health arising
from leakage, blockage or surcharge
Every building in which plumbing fixture are installed and premises having
thereon, shall have a connection to a public sewer. Where no public sewer line
exists, the drains shall be connected to a sewage disposal system approved by the
Building Official.
Access should be provided at all bends junctions. Access, in this context, is meant to
be an inspection chamber or manhole. Inspection chambers and manholes should be
sited so as to avoid the need for acute changes in direction of flow from branch
drains.
For drains laid outside buildings, the following shall be satisfied.
o Part of pipework laid under buildings should be limited to short branches and
should be made to enter manholes (or inspection chamber) at no more than
2.0m from the building line whenever possible.
o The drain trench should not impair the stability of a building. When drains are
laid parallel to the foundation, care should be taken not to undermine the
foundations.

For drains laid under buildings the following shall be met:
o The effects of possible differential settlement between the building and the
drains shall be limited to acceptable standards
o Differential settlement in drains shall be accommodated by means of flexible
joints or other considerations by a qualified engineer.
11.2.6.1 Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems

Proper treatment of wastewater is necessary for the health and wellbeing of
Individuals, the environment and the communities in which we live. Utilizing soils
and the complex biological community living within the soils is a proven method of
onsite wastewater treatment.
Typically, household wastewaters, whether flushed down a toilet along with human
waste, showers/ baths, orkitchen, leave the residence through gravitational forces
and enter into a septic tank. Typical septic tanks are two compartment tanks with a
2/3 (for solid retention), 1/3 (liquid) split, where solids settle out from the mix and
the fluids, or effluent, continue to the drainfield.
The drainfield is often commonly referred to as the leachfield or disposal field and
that is where the real treatment of effluent occurs. Soil is classified based on its
Sand-Silt-Clay content. Coarse grained soils tend to percolate water at a faster rate
than soil rich in clay. However, if a soil is too sandy, it may percolate too fast and
thereby not provide adequate treatment of effluent before it enters into the local
water systems. Soils very rich in clay may not percolate at all and thereby provide
no treatment. Continuing to add effluent to a leachfield that does not percolate
could result in raw sewage surfacing to ground level, a considerable health hazard.
The sizing of an onsite wastewater treatment system is determined by the design

flow for a household, office, school or other facility, the rate at which a soil can
absorb effluent and the surface area of soil available to absorb effluent.
Design and function of septic tank

Septic tanks are watertight chambers sited below ground level which receive excreta
and flush water from flush toilets and other domestic waste (collectively known as
wastewater).the solids settle out and break down in the tank. The liquid remains in

the tank for a short time before overflowing into a sealed soakaway pit or drainfield
where it infiltrates into the ground.
Septic tanks must be emptied periodically (for instance, every one year) the septic
tank should be downhill and the minimum safe distance from any drinking water
source. This is site specific and should be established for each water source on the
basis of local hydrological and hydro geological conditions.
Septic tanks are suitable for conditions where the wastewater can drain away and
be absorbed into the soil without contaminating ground water where it is extracted.
A septic tank takes raw sewage in, allows the solids to settle (sludge) and allows the
remaining liquid to flow into the surrounding soil by means of a soakaway pit or
drainfield. Scum on the surface is also prevented from leaving the tank.
Microorganisms in the anaerobic environment in the tank digest the sludge and
scum. The system consists of several stages, supply to the tank, the tank itself and
the soak field.
Septic tanks take sewage (grey water - washing and household waste and black
water - sewage from latrines,) but not rainwater. Sludge volume is reduced by
microbial action but still needs periodic emptying. Septic tanks provide partial
treatment of wastewater. The drain field provides secondary treatment in the form
of subsoil infiltration.

Fig 5.6 Typical septic tank
According to EBCS-9(Ethiopian building code standard), the following are the point which
must be considered during septic tank design
1. A septic tank installation shall be provided for both settlement of solids and
partial biological treatment of sewage.
2. The design criteria shall assume that surface water and subsoil water be
excluded from entering septic tanks.
3. Septic tanks should be watertight so that they permit neither ingress of
groundwater nor egress of sewage to the ground.
4. Septic tanks could be constructed from bricks, stone masonry, in-situ concrete
and large precast concrete pipes.
5. Septic tanks could also be prefabricated from steel and plastic materials.
6. Calculation of the total capacity of septic tanks shall be made on the basis of the
number of persons to be served, water consumption and sludge production per
capita and the hydraulic detention time.
7. The design of septic tanks shall be such that the discharge of solids in the tank
effluent is kept to a minimum.
8. The following formula is recommended for general use where disludging is
carried out at a reasonable number of times per year, two years, etc.

V= Rsed .p.q/l03 +v1.Rac .p/l03
Where V is effective volume of tank, in m3

Rsed is hydraulic detention time, in day(s) (minimum, 1.0 day).
p is user population q is water consumption per capita per day, in liters.
v1 is sludge production per capita per day, in liters (0. 15L/day).
Rac is number of days between de-sludgings (minimum, 365.0 days).
9. For rectangular tanks, at least two or three should be used in series either by
constructing two or three separate tanks or by dividing a single tank into two or
three by partitions
The first compartment should have a capacity of not less than two-third of the total
tank capacity with a length of not less than twice its width and the subsequent
compartments should have combined capacity of not less than one-third of the total
capacity.
10. In order o facilitate desludging operations, the floor of the first compartment
should have a fall of1:4 towards the inlet end.
11. Duplicate tanks, preferably with half calculated capacities could be provided in
parallel.
12. The design of septic tank inlets and outlets shall be such that they facilitate
introduction of erode sewage and removed of the clarified liquid with the least
possible disturbance of the settled sludge or the surface scum.
Design and function of drainfield
A drain field is a vital part of any septic system. An improperly designed drain field
will do nothing but cause huge problems with the entire system. When you design
your drain field, there are a few things to keep in mind.
The size necessary for your drain field will depend on a few factors. The soil should
be tested for a percolation rate first. You can run the percolation test on your own,
or hire someone to do this. To do this on your own you will need to bore several
holes in the field. You will need to bore holes at least 3 inches in diameter and 3 feet
deep. This needs to be done in random areas across the proposed area for the drain

field. Once you have soil, mark the general area on a map of the field, and have the
soil inspected for percolation rates.
The size of the field will be based on the size of the home and the rate of percolation.
A proper drain field needs to have perforated pipes buried in gravel trenches
throughout the field. The trenches should have a slight slope, usually less than 1/8th
inch per foot. The pipes will need to be placed in gravel and covered with more
gravel. When you map out the piping, be sure to create a sketch that reflects the
depth of the field accurately. This will allow you to plan for the amount of soil
under the gravel, the amount of gravel, the space needed for the pipe, and the
amount of gravel needed for the cover. A drain field trench will usually need to be
about 30 inches deep.
A conventional septic tank performs roughly 45% of the sewage treatment or less at
a private home served by a septic system. The rest of the wastewater treatment and
ultimately the liquid disposal occur in the drainfield.
The maximum length of a trench is typically about 150 feet. Some writers opine that
the maximum septic trench line is 100 feet. A realistic answer is, it depends on site
and soil conditions.
The length of the trench can be calculated using the formula below. Note the base
area of the trench rapidly becomes blocked so cannot be included. If the septic tank
is not working well the infiltration rate will be lower because the trench will get
clogged with solids.
L= (N x Q) / 2 x D x I
L = Length in meters.
N = Number of users.
Q = Wastewater flow in liters per person per day.
D = Effective depth in meters.
I = Infiltration rate in liters per m2 per day.

Fig 5.7 typical section of septic tank and drainfield
11.2.6.2 Disposal of Groundwater Discharge
A groundwater drainage system shall discharge through sand trap or directly into a
ditch or a watercourse.
In suitable ground conditions, groundwater drainage system shall discharge to a

soakaway pit, preferably, through a sand trap. a groundwater drainage system may
discharge into a surface water through a sand trap.
Under special circumstances, a groundwater drainage system may discharge into a

foul drain (after treatment) through an intercepting trap.
The flow rate of ground water shall be estimated from an in-depth assessment of the
quantity of run-off likely to affect the area concerned, natural slope of the terrain
around the area, terrain soil permeability and maximum water table.

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Design of Urban Water System 2016

Ethiopian Civil Service University Page 1

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Figure1.1. Water supply coverage in the world (Source:WHO/UNICEF/WSSCC, 2000)

1.2 Water supply schemes

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. Figure 1.2 Typical Water Supply scheme

1.2.2 Preliminary Investigation

1. Source of water supply.

8. Trend of development of the town

1.2.3 Essential Drawings

a. To workout the estimated cost of the project,

1.2.4 Feasibility Report

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1. Land acquisition for the scheme,

1.2.5 Advantages of Water Supply Schemes

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Usually a compromise is sought between the two.

We need demand data for two basic reasons:

2.2 Types of Demands

a) Total annual volume (V)

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1. Domestic Water Demand

1. Domestic Water Demand

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1. Loosen joints: due to bad plumbing. Usually joints are leaky.

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2.3 Timely Variation in Demand

Qday- max = 1.5 Q day- avg

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Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-1: Hourly

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Figure 2.2 layouts of water supply schemes.

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Note: IR is Impounding Reservoir, SR is Service Reservoir, TP is Treatment Plant, LLP is

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i.e. per capital Demand = Q / P*365

2.4 Factors Affecting Per Capita Demand

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2.5 Design Period and Population Forecasting

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YEAR POPULATION INCREASE IN

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The population at the end of various decades shall be as follows:

YEAR EXPECTED POPULATION

Year Population Increase Incrementa

The population at the end of the various decades shall be as follows:

YEAR EXPECTED POPULATION

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IV) Curvilinear Method: This technique involves the graphical projection of

Year: 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

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Figure 3.1 Hydrology Cycle

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The source of water commonly determines the nature of collection, purification,

3.2 Surface sources

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3.3 Subsurface Sources

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Fig 3.2 Shallow Well

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