CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1. Canal

The technical aspects of canal construction. However, attention

should also be paid to social aspects of canal construction, as it is
important to involve farmers in the project from the very beginning of the
designing of an irrigation scheme. Designers and authorities responsible
should be in close contact with the farmers in order to identify their needs
and to form consensus for the proposed project design.
Only when farmer participation is well developed should
construction of the system be carried out, and that construction must be
done in close Cooperation with them. At the same time, farmers should
be brought to realize that the system needs to be maintained, and that they
are responsible for this. Again, this can only be possible when farmers are
participating in every stage of the project from the first beginnings right
through to the first water delivery.

Canals and navigations are human-made channels for water

conveyance (supply), or to service water transport vehicles. In the
vernacular, both are referred to as 'canals', and in most cases, the
engineered works will have a series of dams and locks that create areas of
low speed current flow. These areas are referred to as 'slack water
levels', often just called 'levels'.

The main difference between them is that navigation parallels a

river and shares part of its waters, its drainage basin and leverages its
resources by building dams and locks to increase and lengthen its long
stretches of deep enough slack water levels while staying in its valley. In
contrast, a canal cuts across a drainage divide atop a ridge (however

1
humble), generally requiring an external water source above the
highest elevation. Many canals have been built at elevations towering
over valleys and others water ways crossing far below. Cities need a lot
of fresh water and many canals with sources of water at a higher level can
deliver water to a destination where there is a lack of water. The Roman
GGEmpire's Aqueducts were such water supply canals.

In the present scenario similar to power grid water entering the

national waterways can be tapped at any point of requirement like tapping
power at any point. After completion of the project, there will be no depth
for water in most part of the country either for irrigation or drinking.

1.2. Types of canal

1.2.1. Main Canal

Main Canal takes off directly from the upstream side of weir head
works or dam. Usually no direct cultivation is proposed. Most of the main
canals are aligned as contour canals to derive benefit.

FIGURE 1-MAIN CANAL

2
1.2.2. Branch Canal

All off takes from main canal with head discharge of 14-15 cumecs
and above are termed as branch canals.

FIGURE 2-BRANCH CANAL

1.2.3. Major Distributary

All off takes from main canal or branch canal with head discharge
from 0.028 to 15 cumecs are termed as major distributaries.

1.2.4. Minor Distributary

All off takes taking off from a major distributary serving more than
40.47 hectares are termed as minor distributaries. They are named after a
prominent place near about their tail ends.

3
1.2.5. Field Channel

All pipe off takes serving less than 40.47 hectares of ayacut are
called field channels and are denoted by numbering as left or right side
pipes

1.2.6. Navigational canal

Canal is used for carrying ships and boats shipping goods

conveying people.

Longitudinal profile of a Navigation canal

FIGURE 3-Cross-sections of a navigation canal relevant for

calculation of ship resistance

4
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Prabhata K.Swamee’ The minimum area or the maximum velocity

cross section, Is generally adopted for lined irrigation canals. Such a
section is economically most efficient because it involves the least
amount of earthwork and the least lining surface. In the present
investigation, explicit equations for the design variables of various
irrigation canal sections have been obtained. It is hoped that these
equations will be useful to the engineer engaged in the design of lined
canals.

Mahendra Narayan Umare, S.B Thank are journal of River

engineering (volume: 2, Issue: 4) an approximate estimation of seepage
under the un –lined canal is 7 cumec per million square meter &that of
lined canal is 2.5 cumec per million square meter. To address the
problem, Prof.P.K.Swamee presented simplified algebraic equations for
computation of seepage loss for various sectioned canals, which
accurately replace the cumbersome evaluation of complex integrals.

Dr.Arjumend Massod, Associate Professor, civil Engineering

Department ,NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi
Pakistan. This research presents the investigation of Lacey’s Regime
concepts for unlined canals in alluvial soil. For this purpose Jamrao canal
in Sindh, Pakistan which has been operating for more than hundred years
was selected. These data was compared to investigate Lacey’s concept of
Final regime .The observation raise some doubts on the applicability of
Lacey’s Regime concept.

5
 Canals including further offerings by P A L Vine on southern
waterways - The Wey & Arun Junction Canal (1999), The Arun
Navigation (2000) and London’s Lost Route to Portsmouth - and by
David Viner’s The Thames & Severn Canal, History & Guide (2002),
Mike Taylor’s The Calder & Hebble Navigation (2002) 15 and two on the
Kennet & Avon Canal. In 2002 the international context for Britain’s
pioneer canal lifts was further established by Mike Clarke’s translation
and editing of H-J Ullemann’s Canal Lifts & inclines of the World re-
affirming their international significance.

FernandesM. Journal of conservative Dentistry JCD (01 July

2014)The aim is to review and discuss the ethology, incidence, anatomic
features, classification, diagnosis and management of the C-shaped canal
configuration. C-shaped canal configuration is a variation that has a racial
predilection and is commonly seen in mandibular second molars. The
intricacies present in this variation of canal morphology can pose a
challenge to the clinician during negotiation, debridement and
obscuration. Manual and electronic searches of literature were performed
from 1979 to 2012, in Pub Med by crossing the keywords: C-shaped
canals, mandibular second molar, mandibular first premolar, root canal
morphology. Knowledge of the C-shaped canal configuration is essential
to achieve success in endodontic therapy. Effective management of this
anomalous canal configuration can be achieved with rotary and hand
instrumentation assisted with sonics and ultrasonics. Modifications in the
obscuration techniques will ensure a 3-dimensional fill of the canal
system and chamber retained restorations like amalgam or composites,
serve as satisfactory post endodontic restorations.

6
 Louisiana : From October through December of 2003, Coastal
Environments, Inc. (CEI), conducted a cultural resources literature search
and records review as part of a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE)
New Orleans District re-evaluation study to determine if improvements to
navigation along the Houma Navigation Canal, in Terrebonne Parish,
Louisiana, are justified. These investigations are part of the planning to
evaluate several alternatives to deepening the HNC from the authorized
15-foot depth to an 18- or 20-foot depth while maintaining the existing
canal width. Both channel depths are being considered with a lock and
without a lock in place. If the canal itself is assumed to be approximately
1000 ft (305m) wide, the HNC encompassed roughly 4969.69ac
(2012.05ha), including 2909.09ac (1177.78ha) of canal and 2060.60ac
(834.26ha) of navigation channel. Three previously recorded
archaeological sites and 13 sunk or salvaged vessels exist within the
project's Area of Potential Effects (APE). In addition, seven unrecorded
sites and 23 potential site loci were noted on the HNC during the project
area site inspection conducted during this study. Those portions of the
project area with a high probability for containing cultural resources have
been defined on project plans and encompass 691.48ac. A research design
to guide future cultural resources fieldwork in the project area is
presented.

Dr Dayananad Chole1 , Dr Pratik Ashok Burad2 , Dr Shashank

Kundoor3 , Dr Srinivas Bakle4 , Dr Amarnath Devagirkar5 , Dr Rucha
Deshpande6 1Professor and Head; Department Of Conservative Dentistry
and Endodontics P.D.U Dental College; Solapur 2Post Graduate Student;
Department Of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics PDU Dental
College Solapur 3,4Reader; Department Of Conservative Dentistry and

7
Endodontics PDU Dental College Solapur 5,6 Senior Lecturer;
Department Of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics PDU Dental
College Solapur Abstract: The basics of root canal preparation are to
enlarge the root canal for proper disinfection and to prevent reinfection
with the use of irrigation agents. It also facilitates the placement of root
canal filling material with proper fluid tight seal. As most root canals are
curved, a high prevalence of procedural errors has been reported. Canal
transportation is one of the main procedural errors. The position of
physiologic terminus of the canal to a new iatrogenic location on the
external root surface is transportation of the foramen. Several studies
have shown that Ni-Ti instruments demonstrated less canal transportation
than stainless steel files. Considerable research has been undertaken to
understand the several factors related to canal transportation. In this
article, we have discussed the influence of various parameters such as
alloys used in the manufacture of instruments, instrument cross-section,
tip, taper, and explained about clinical consequences of canal
transportation. Keywords: Root Canal Transportation, root canal
treatment, NiTi, stainless steel hand instruments, cross section,

Summary:

I would like to conclude that the project, we are going to do this based
on stability, durability, economic and safety.

Navigation system can be made possible with the help of the project

Water will not be evaporated and water will be made to retain for 10m
height.

8
 CHAPTER-3

METHODOLOGY

1. Data collection

2. Quantity of water flow calculation

3. Design of canals

4. Design of lining

5. Design of berms

6. Design of canal regulator

9
3.1. Data collection

In this project data’s are collected the from National waterways

development technology (NAWAD TECH) and journals.

3.2. Quantity of water flow calculation

In the design of canals sections, the various formulae generally used

are as follows:

1) Chazey’s formula : V=C

2) Manning’s formula : V=

3) Lacey’s Regime formula : V = 10.76

Many of the authors are using Manning’s formula for quantity
calculation, so author decided to use Manning’s formula.

3.3. Design of canals

The canals can also be classified as

1. Irrigation canal

2. Navigational canal

3. Power canal

4. Feeder canal

In this project used for the Navigational canal

10
3.4. Design of Lining

The lined canals are not designed marking use of Lacey or

Kennedy theory because the section rigid. Generally, the manning’s
equation used in design. To carry a certain discharge number of channel
sections may be designed with different bed widths and slope.

Types of lining

(1) Lined or non-erodible;

(2) unlined, earthen, or erodible.

In this project used for the concrete lining

FIGURE-4 CONCRETE LINING

11
 FIGURE-5 LINED CANAL

FIGURE-6 CEMENT CONCRETE LINING

12
 FIGURE-7 GEOPOLYMER CANAL LINING

3.5. Design of Berms

Berm is the horizontal distance left at the ground level between the
toe of the bank and the top edge of cutting and toe of banks. When water
flow in the canal at FSL (full supply level), silt particles are deposited on
theberms and make the final side slope to1.5.1

FIGURE-8 DESIGN OF BERMS

13
3.6. Design of canal Regulator

Regulators across canals are necessary to maintain water levels in

the canal along a particular reach. Generally they are constructed below a
major off-take, or at a place where the canal hydraulic particulars change.
In order to regulate the flow from one reach to another, the regulators
with shuttering arrangements to control the flow, play most important
part.

14
 CHAPTER-4

DEIGN OF CANALS

4.1. Design of Canals

Many procedures have been developed over the years for the
hydraulic design of open channel sections. The complexity of these
procedures vary according to flow conditions as well as the level of
assumption implied while developing the given equation. The Chezy
equation is one of the procedures that was developed by a French
engineer in 1768. The development of this equation was based on the
dimensional analysis of the friction equation under the assumption that
the condition of flow is uniform. A more practical procedure was
presented in 1889 by the Irish engineer Robert Manning. The Manning
equation has proved to be very reliable in practice.

The Manning equation invokes the determination of flow velocity

based on the slope of channel bed, surface roughness of the channel,
cross-sectional area of flow, and wetted perimeter of flow. Using this
equation, the solution procedures are direct for determination of flow
velocity, slope of channel bed, and surface roughness. However, the
solution for any unknown related to the cross-sectional area of flow and
wetted perimeter involves the implementation of an implicit recursive
solution procedure which cannot be achieved analytically. Many implicit
solution procedures such as the Newton- Raphson, Regula-Falsi, secant,
and the Van Wijngaarden-Dekker-Brent Methods

One of the important topics in the area of free surface flows is the
design of channels capable of transporting water between two locations in
a safe, cost - effective manner. Even though economics, safety, and

15
aesthetics must always be considered, in this unit thrust is given only to
the hydraulic aspects of channel design. For that discussion is confined to
the design of channels for uniform flow. The two types of channels
considered are

(1) Lined or no erodible;

(2) Unlined, earthen, or erodible.

There are some basic issues common to both the types and are presented
in the following paragraphs.

1. Shape of the cross section of the canal.

2. Side slope of the canal.

3. Longitudinal bed slope.

4. Permissible velocities - Maximum and Minimum.

5. Roughness coefficient.

6. Free board.

4.1.1. Shape of cross section

From the Manning and Chezy equation, it is obvious that the

conveyance of a channel increases as the hydraulic radius increases or as
the wetted perimeter decreases. Thus, there is among all channel cross
sections of a specified geometric shape and ares an optimum set of
dimensions for that shape from the viewpoint of hydraulics. Among all
possible channel cross sections, the hydraulically efficient section is a
semicircle since, for a given area, it has the minimum wetted perimeter.
The proportions of the hydraulically efficient section of a specified
geometric shape can be easily derived. The geometric elements of these

16
sections are summarized in Table. It should be noted that, the
hydraulically efficient section is not necessarily the most economic
section.

In practice the following factors are to be kept in mind:

a. The hydraulically efficient section minimizes the area required to

convey a specified discharge. However, the area which required to be
excavated to achieve the flow area required by the hydraulically efficient
section may be much larger if one considers the removal of the over
burden.

b. It may not be possible to construct a hydraulically efficient stable

section in the available natural condition. If the channel is to be lined, the
cost of the lining may be comparable with the cost of excavation.

c. The cost of excavation depends on the amount of material that is to

removed, in addition to. Further Topography of the land access to the site
also influence the cost of disposal of the material removed.

d. The slope of the channel bed must be considered also as a variable

since it is not necessarily completely defined by topographic
consideration. For example, a reduced channel slope may require a larger
flow area to convey the flow; on the other hand the cost of excavation of
the overburden may be reduced.

4.1.2. Side slopes

The side slopes of a channel depend primarily on the engineering

properties of the material through which the channel is excavated. From a
practical viewpoint, the side slopes should be suitable for preliminary
purposes. However, in deep cuts, side slopes are often steeper above the
water surface than they would be in an irrigation canal excavated in the

17
same material. In many cases, side slopes are determined by the
economics of construction. In this regard following observations are
made: a. In many unlined earthen canals, side slopes are usually 1.5: 1;
However, side slopes as steep as 1:1 have been used when the channel
runs through cohesive materials. b. In lined canals, the side slopes are
generally steeper than in an unlined canal. If concrete is the lining
material, side slopes greater than 1: 1 usually require the use of forms,
and with side slopes greater than 0 .75 : 1 the linings must be designed to
withstand earth pressures. Some types of lining require side slopes as flat
as those used for unlined channels.

c. Side slopes through cuts in rock can be vertical if this is desirable.

TABLE -1: Suitable side slopes for channels built in various types of
materials

Material Side slope

Rock Nearly vertical

Muck and peat soils 1/4:1

Stiff clay or earth with

1 / 2 : 1 to 1 : 1
concrete lining

Earth with stone lining or each

1:1
for large channels

Firm clay or earth for small

1 1/2 : 1
ditches

Loose, sandy earth 2:1

Sandy loam or porous clay 3:1

18
TABLE-2: Indian standards for canal in cutting and embankment
Side slop (Horizontal to Vertical m: 1)

Material (soil) Cutting Embankment

Hard clay or gravel 0.75 : 1 1.5 to 1.0
Soft Clay and alluvial 1.0 to 1.0 2.0 to 1.0
soils
Sandy loam 1.5 to 1.0 2.0 to 1.0
Light sand 2.0 to 1.0 2.0 to 1.0 to 3.0 to 1.0
Soft rock 0.25 to 1.0 to 0.5 to 1.0 -
Hard rock 0.125 to 1 to 0.25 to 1.0 -
4.1.3. Longitudinal slope

The longitudinal slope of the channel is influenced by topography,

the head required to carry the design flow, and the purpose of the
channel. For example, in a hydroelectric power canal, a high head at the
point of delivery is desirable, and a minimum longitudinal channel slope
should be used. The slopes adopted in the irrigation channel should be as
minimum as possible in order to achieve the highest command.

Generally, the slopes vary from 1: 4000 to 1: 20000 in canal.

However, the longitudinal slopes in the natural river may be very steep
(1/10).

TABLE-3: Longitudinal slope

Slope of the channels in 10 m / km S0 = 0.01

Western Ghats Gentle slope

Moderate slope 10 to 20 m / S0 = 0.01 to

km 0.02

Steep slope ≥20 m / km S0 0.02 ≥

19
 FIGURE-9: Graph Drawn Bank full discharge VS Channel Slope

4.1.4. Permissible Velocities: Minimum and Maximum

It may be noted that canals carrying water with higher velocities

may scour the bed and the sides of the channel leading to the collapse of
the canal. On the other hand the weeds and plants grow in the channel
when the nutrients are available in the water. Therefore, the minimum
permissible velocity should not allow the growth of vegetation such as
weed, hyacinth as well you should not be permitting the settlement of
suspended material (non silting velocity).

The designer should look into these aspects before finalizing the
minimum permissible velocity. "Minimum permissible velocity" refers to
the smallest velocity which will prevent both sedimentation and
vegetative growth in general. An average velocity of (0.60 to 0.90 m/s)

20
will prevent sedimentation when the silt load of the flow is low. A
velocity of 0.75 m /s is usually sufficient to prevent the growth of
vegetation which significantly affects the conveyance of the channel. It
should be noted that these values are only general guidelines. Maximum
permissible velocities entirely depend on the material that is used and the
bed slope of the channel. For example: in case of chutes, spillways the
velocity may reach as high as 25 m/s. As the dam heights are increasing
the expected velocities of the flows are also increasing and it can reach as
high as 70 m/s in exceptional cases.

Thus, when one refers to maximum permissible velocity, it is for

the normal canals built for irrigation purposes and Power canals in which
the energy loss must be minimised.

Hence, following table gives the maximum permissible velocity for some
selected materials

21
 TABLE-4 : Maximum permissible velocities and n values for
different materials

Material V (m / s) n

Fine sand 0.5 0.020

vertical Sandy loam 0.58 0.020

Silt loam 0.67 0.020

Firm loam 0.83 0.020

Stiff clay 1.25 0.025

Fine gravel 0.83 0.020

Coarse gravel 1.33 0.025

Gravel 1.2

Disintegrated Rock 1.5

Hard Rock 4.0

Brick masonry with cement

2.5
pointing

Brick masonry with cement

4.0
plaster

Concrete 6.0

Steel lining 10.0

22
4.1.5. Resistance to the flow

In a given channel the rate of flow is inversely proportional to the

surface roughness. The recommended values for a different types of
lining are given below:

TABLE-5: Resistance to the flow

Manning roughness for the Value of n

design of several types of linings
is as follows Surface
Characteristics
Concrete with surface as indicated below
(a) Trowel finish 0.012 - 0.014
(b) Flat finish 0.013 - 0.015
(c) Float finish some gravel on 0.015 - 0.017
bottom
(d) Gunite, good section 0.016 - 0.017
(a) Smooth 0.013
(b) Rough 0.016

Concrete bottom float finished sides as indicated below

(a) Dressed stone in mortar 0.015 - 0.017

(b) Random stone in mortar 0.017 - 0.020
(c) Cement rubble masonry 0.016 - 0.020
plastered
(d) Brick lining 0.014 - 0.017
Concrete lined excavated rock with
(a) Good section 0.017 - 0.020
(b) Irregular section 0.022 - 0.027
Te

23
 These values should, however, be adopted only where the channel
has flushing velocity. In case the channel has non-flushing velocity the
value of n may increase due to deposition of silt in coarse of time and
should in such cases be taken as that for earthen channel.

The actual value of n in Manning formula evaluated on the basis

of observations taken on Yamuna Power Channel in November 1971
ranged between 0.0175 and 0.0229 at km 0.60 and between 0.0164 and
0.0175 at km 2.05. The higher value of n evaluated at km 0.60 could be
attributed to the deposition of silt in head reaches of the channel

TABLE-6: Manning Roughness Coefficients

Lining Lining Type n-value different depth ranges

Catego Depth range
ry 0 – 15 cm 15 – 60 cm > 60 cm
Concrete 0.015 0.013 0.013
Grouted Riprap 0.040 0.030 0.028
Stone Masonry 0.042 0.032 0.030
Rigid Soil Cement 0.025 0.022 0.020
Asphalt 0.018 0.016 0.016
Unlined Bare Soil 0.023 0.020 0.020
Rock Cut 0.045 0.035 0.025
Tempor
ary Woven Paper Net 0.016 0.015 0.015
Jute Net 0.028 0.022 0.019
Fiberglass
0.028 0.021 0.019
Roving
Straw with Net 0.065 0.033 0.025
Cured Wood Mat 0.066 0.035 0.028
Synthetic Mat 0.036 0.025 0.021
Gravel 2.5-cm (d50) 0.044 0.033 0.030
Riprap 5 -cm (d ) 50 0.066 0.041 0.034
Rock 15-cm (d50) 0.104 0.069 0.035
Riprap 30-cm (d50) - 0.078 0.040

24
4.1.6. Freeboard

The term freeboard refers to the vertical distance between either

the top of the channel or the top of the channel is carrying the design flow
at normal depth. The purpose of freeboard is to prevent the overtopping
of either the lining or the top of the channel fluctuations in the water
surface caused by

(1) Wind - driven waves,

(2) Tidal action,

(3) Hydraulic jumps,

(4) Super elevation of the water surface as the flow goes round curves at
high velocities,

(5) The interception of storm runoff by the channel,

(6) The occurrence of greater than design depths of flow caused by canal
sedimentation or an increased coefficient of friction, or

(7) Temporary mis-operation of the canal system.

There is no universally accepted role for the determination of free

board since, waves, unsteady flow condition, curves etc., and influence
the free board. Free boards varying from less than 5% to 30% of the
depth are commonly used in design. In semi-circular channels, when the
velocities are less than 0.8 times the critical velocity then 6% of the
diameter as free board have been proved to be adequate.

The freeboard associated with channel linings and the absolute top
of the canal above the water surface can be estimated from the empirical
curves. In general, those curves apply to a channel lined with either a
hard surface, a membrane, or compacted earth with a low coefficient of
25
permeability. For unlined channels, freeboard generally ranges from 0.3m
for small laterals with shallow depths of flow to 1.2m for channels
3
carrying 85 m /s at relatively large depths of flow. A preliminary
estimate of freeboard for an unlined channel can be obtained from USBR
formula.

FB=

in which FB is the freeboard in feet, y is the design depth of flow in feet,

C is a coefficient. However, it may be noted that C has dimensions of L1/2

C varies from 1.5 at Q 0.57 m3/s to 2.5 for canal

Capacity equal to and more than 85m3/s

TABLE-7: Freeboard ratio

The free board recommended by Free board FB in

USBR for channels are given below m
3
Q m /s
< 0.75 0.45
0.75 - 1.5 0.60
5 - 85.0 0.75
> 85 0.90

The free board (measured from full supply level to the top of
lining) depends upon the size of canal, velocity of water, curvature of
alignment, wind and wave action and method of operation. The normal
free board is 15 cm for small canals and may range up to 1.0 m for large
canals. The U.S.B.R. practice for the minimum permissible free board for
various sizes of canal is given in Figure. Indian Standard IS : 4745
recommends a free board of 0.75 m for canal carrying a discharge of
3
more than 10 m /sec.

26
TABLE- 8: Free board as per Indian Standards (IS 4745 - 1968)

(IS 7112 - 1973)

3
Discharge Q (m /s) Free board (m)

Unlined Lined

< 10.0 0.50 0.60

> 10.0 0.75 0.75

FIGURE-10: Graph Drawn Discharge Capacity in (m3/s) Vs Height (m)

27
 TABLE-9: Actually adopted free board for different ranges of
discharge in India are below

3
Q (m /s) < 0.15 0.15 - 0.75 0.75 - 1.50 1.50 - 9.00 > 9.00

Free board 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.75 0.90

(m)

4.1.7. References

1. IS: 4745 - 1968, Code of practice for Design of Cross Section for
Lined Canals, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi, 1968.

2. IS: 7112 - 1973, Criteria for Design of Cross Section for Unlined
Canals in Alluvial Soil, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi, 1974.

When flow moves around a curve, a rise in the water surface occurs at the
outer bank with a corresponding lowering of the water surface at the inner
bank. In the design of a channel, it is important that this difference in
water levels be estimated. If all the flow is assumed to move around the
curve at the subcritical average velocity, then super elevation is given by

Ymax=

In India, the minimum radii of curvature are often longer than

those used in the United States. For example, Some Indian engineers
recommend a minimum radius of 91m for canals carrying more than 85
3
m /s (Houk, 1956 ). Suggested radii for different discharges are given in
table below.

28
4.2. Radius of curves for lined canals

TABLE-10: Radius of curves for lined canals

3
Discharge (m /s) Radius (minimum) in m

280 and above 900

Less than 280 to 200 760

Less than 200 to 140 600

Less than 140 to 70 450

Less than 70 to 40 300

Note: Where the above radii cannot be provided, proper super elevation
in bed shall be provided.

The width of the banks along a canal are usually governed by a

number of considerations which include the size of the need for
maintenance roads. Where roads are needed, the top widths for both lined
and unlined canals are designed so that precipitation will not fall in to the
canal water and, to keep percolating water below the ground level beyond
the banks.

4.3. Hydraulically Efficient Channel

It is well known that the conveyance of a channel section increases

with increases in the hydraulic radius or with decrease in the wetted
perimeter. Therefore, from the point of hydraulic aspects, the channel
section having the least wetted perimeter for a given area has the
maximum conveyance; such a section is known as the hydraulically

29
efficient channel. But this is popularly referred as Best Hydraulic section.
The semi circle has the least perimeter among all sections with the same
area; hence it is the most hydraulically efficient of all sections. The
geometric elements of six best hydraulic sections are given in Table. It
may be noted that it may not be possible to implement in the field due to
difficulties in construction and use of different materials. In general, a
channel section should be designed for the best hydraulic efficiency but
should be modified for practicability. From a practical point of view, it
should be noted that a best hydraulic section is the section that gives the
minimum area of flow for a given discharge but it need not be the
minimum excavation.

The section of minimum excavation is possible only if the water

surface is at the level of the top of the bank. When the water surface is
below the bank top of the bank (which is common in practice), channels
smaller than those of the best hydraulic section will give minimum
excavation. If the water surface overtops the banks and these are even
with the ground level, wider channels will provide minimum excavation.
Generally, hydraulically efficient channel is adopted for lined canals. It
may also be noted that hydraulically efficient channel need not be
economical channel (least cost).

30
 TABLE-11: Geometric elements of best hydraulically efficient
section.
Cross A P R T D Z=AD
Section
2 2.5
Rectangula 2y 4y 0.5 y 2y y 2y
r
Trapezoida 2 3y 2 3y 0.5 y 433y 34 y 2532.y
l () 2 1732.y (0.75y) () 25 15..y
(3.464y) (2.3094y)
Triangular 2y 2 2y 24y 2y 2y 2522.y
2.828y 0.3535y 0.5y 25 0707..y

Semi 22yπ yπ 05.y 2y 4yπ 254.yπ

Circular 25 025..yπ

Parabola 2 2 4 2 y3 823y y/2 0.5y 2 2y 2y3 2.5 8 3y9

4 2 y3 2 189.y 3.77y 2.83y 0.667y 25 15396..y

2 2.5
Hydrostatic 1.40 y 2.98 y 0.468 y 1.917 y 0.728y 1.91 y
Caternary

Hydrostatic Caternary (Linteria)

Flexible sheet: Filled with water up to rim, and held firmly at the top ends
without any effect of fixation on shape. Shape assumed under self height
of water is called Hydrostatic Catenary.

31
4.4. Selection of Lining

4.4.1. Introduction

The need for lining channels in alluvium has long been identified
to conserve every bit of water for more and more utilisation. Lining of an
irrigation channel is restored to achieve all or some of the following
objectives keeping in view the overall economy of the project. The major
advantages of rigid impermeable linings are as follows of Technology
Madras (a) Reduction of seepage losses resulting in a saving of water
which can be utilised for additional irrigation.

(b) Prevention of water logging by reducing seepage to water-table.

(c) Reduction in area of cross-section (and thereby saving in land) due to

increase in permissible velocity by reduction in the value of rugosity and
availing of steeper slope, where available. Minimize excavation costs

(d) Improvement of discharging capacity of existing channels.

(e) Improvement of operational efficiency.

(f) Prevention of weed growth.

(g) Reduction of maintenance cost.

(h) Long economic life

(i) Insure Cross section stability from scour, low flow conditions etc.

32
4.5. Canal Lining

The lining commonly adopted for irrigation channels can be

classified into three groups

1. Rigid-impermeable Lining,

2. Flexible and Permeable Permanent Linings and

3. Flexible Temporary Linings.

FIGURE-11: Example for the same are indicated in the box

There are different types of lining like Cement Concrete, Shotcrete,

Soil cement, Asphaltic Concrete, etc.

Advantages of Flexible and Permeable Linings: Lining easily fits

to cross section shape. Allows infiltration into channel bed, hence loss of
water. Partial failure can occur and still can resist erosion.

33
 FIGURE-12: LINED CANAL

FIGURE-13: CANAL PIERCING

34
 FIGURE-14: INTAKE CANAL

FIGURE-15: INTAKE CANAL – VIEW

35
4.5.1. Design of Lined Channels

Lined channels are built for five primary reasons:

1. To permit the transmission of water at high velocities through areas of

deep or difficult excavation in a cost - effective fashion.

2. To permit the transmission of water at high velocity at a reduced

construction cost.

3. To decrease canal seepage, thus conserving water and reducing the

water logging of lands adjacent to the canal.

4. To reduce the annual cost of operation and maintenance.

5. To ensure the stability of the channel section Technology Madras

The design of lined channels from the view point of hydraulic

engineering is a rather elementary process which generally consists of
proportioning an assumed channel cross section. Details of some typical
cross section of lined channels used on irrigation projects in the India are
given elsewhere. A recommended procedure for proportioning a lined
section is summarized in table given below.

In this table, it is assumed that the design flow Q D, the

longitudinal slope of the channel S0, the type of channel cross section
e.g., trapezoidal, and the lining material have all been selected prior to
the initiation of the channel design process.

36
 TABLE-12 Design flow

Step Process
1 Estimate n or C for specified lining material and S
0
2 Compute the value of section factor ( ) 2/3 1/2 o o AR nQ/ Sor AR Q/ C S=
3 Solve section factor equation for yn given appropriate expressions for A and R ( Table )
Note: This step may be required with assumptions regarding side slopes, bottom widths,
etc. (As a thumb rule for quick computation y can be taken as 0.5 A
and for trapezoidal section it can be shown as b 4 m y = −
. In India, y for the trapezoidal channel can be taken as 0.577 A
which corresponds to b 3 m y = −
for earth canals).
4 If hydraulically efficient section is required, then the standard geometric characteristics
(click) are used and yn is to be computed.
5 Check for
1. Minimum permissible velocity if water carries silt and for vegetation
(Check whether the velocity is adequate to prevent sedimentation (V= 0.6 to 0.9 m / s).
Check whether velocity is adequate to prevent vegetation growth (V = 0.75 m/s)).
2. Froude number
(Check Froude number and other velocity constraints such as ( for non-reinforced
concrete linings V 2.1 m/s ≤
and Froude number . For reinforced linings )). 0.8 ≤
V 5.5 m/s ≤
Generally, Froude number should be as small as possible for Irrigation canals and should
be less than 0.35. Higher Froude numbers is permitted as in the case of super critical
flows such as in chutes, flumes. Decide the dimensions based on practicability.
6 Estimate
1. Required height of lining above water surface,
2. Required freeboard, Figure.
Balance excavations costs, costs of channel lining and assess the needs to modify
"Hydraulically efficient section".
7 Summarize the results with dimensioned sketch.

4.5.2. Deign of Rigid Canal:

3
Design a concrete lined channel (rough finish n = 0.015) to carry 20 m /s
on a slope of 0.0015. Consider the hydraulically efficient trapezoidal
shape

Solution

For hydraulically efficient trapezoidal channel

37
A=1.73y2,P=3.46y,R=y/2

n=0.015

Q=1/n AR2/3 S01/2

20=

Y8/3=7.107

Y=2.086m

For Trapezoidal channel width is given by

b= y,

b =1.15y = 2.409 m

m = 0.5773 i.e., =600

Velocity= = =2.656m/s

Hydraulic mean depth D=A/T=1.563m

Froude number = =0.678

Freeboard for discharge Q = 20m /s is 0.75 m to nearest convenient

elevation.

Freeboard may be modified to 0.764 m.

Hence, the total depth of the channel 2.086 + 0.764 = 2.850 m

38
 FIGURE-16 LINED CANAL DESIGN

4.5.3. Design a trapezoidal

Design a trapezoidal channel to carry Q = 20.25 m3/s, V = 1.5

m3/s, n = 0.025, S0 =0.0016, side slope m = 2. Assume a bed width
of 6 m.
Solution
Step 1: Q, n, S0 and m have been given
A= (b+my)
P= b+2y

R=

A = =0.025* =12.656

Area=Discharge/Velocity=20.25/1.5=1.5m2
Solving for y, we get y=1.5m, b/y= 4 ,
Add a free board of 0.75 m

39
 FIGURE-17 DESIGNED CANAL

FIGURE-18 CROSS SECTION OF CANAL

4.6. DESING OF CANALS

FORMULAE

In the design of channel sections, the various formulae generally used are
as follows:

1) Chazey’s formula: V=C

2) Manning’s formula: V=

(This corresponds to the formula, V= in F.P.S system.)

3) Lacey’s Regime formula: V = 10.76

40
 (This corresponds to the formula, V = 16 in F.P.S system.)

Where,

V = Velocity of flow through the section

R = Hydraulic mean depth

S = Bed slope of the channel (strictly speaking it should be

Surface slope of water)

n = Coefficient of Rugosity

C = Coefficient in Chazey’s formula depending upon the nature of the

channel.

The value of C in the formula is adopted as given by Kutter and

Gangulett.

Value of C in metric system is

Value of C in F.P.S system is

The difficulty in this formula is the determination of the value of C

each time as it changes with the values of bed slope, hydraulic mean
depth and coefficient of Rugosity.

41
 Thus the use of this formula is a bit cumbersome. However, the
form of this equation has been simplified as shown below and the use of
this formula has been further simplified with the result of values.

Chazey’s equation runs as V = C , where C is the Kutter’s coefficient.

The same equation is put as

V=

The same equation is put down as V=

N= + (23+

D = (23+

These values on N and D are dependent on the values of the

coefficient of Rugosity and bed slope. Thus, Chazey’s equation can be
represented in the modified form as V=

This is also known as kutter’s formula. Values of N and D have

been calculated for various values of N and S, and are given. With the aid
of this table, it is easy to calculate the velocities.

42
4.6.1. Discharge flowing

Calculate the discharge flowing through a channel of trapezoidal

section of bed width 15meters and 3meters depth with to 1 side
slopes. The channel has a bed slope of 20cms. For every kilometer and
the coefficient of rugosity is 0.025.

Area of section of channel = (15+ ×3square meters

= 16.5×3 =49.5 square meters.

Wetted perimeter = 15+2×3×1.118 = 15+6.71 =21.71meters

Hydraulic mean depth = = 2.280meters.

= 1.510

The bed slope is 20cms per kilometre =

Coefficient of rugosity = 0.025

Values of N and D are read from the above values N and S

N = 0.993 and D = 0.7700

V= = = 0.9983meters per second

Discharge, Q = A×V=49.5×0.9983=49.41 cubic meters per second

The use of Manning’s formula is simpler and is becoming popular.

Just like kutter’s formula, this is also derived from Chazey’s fundamental
equation.

Manning’s formula is V = C Where C

43
4.6.2. Values of C for Manning’s Formula

This simplified becomes V=

The values of coefficients of rugosity recommended for use in the

above formula are:

0.013 Ashlar and well laid brick work

0.015 Rough brick work, good stone work in fair order

0.017 The same as above I inferior condition

0.020 Rubble masonry, coarse brick work and masonry

0.0225Canals in earth above the average in order and regime

0.025 Canals and rivers in earth in tolerably good order and regime

0.0275Canals and rivers in earth below the average in order and regime

0.030 Canals and rivers in bad order and regime

0.035 Canals and rivers obstructed by detritus and in bad order and
regime

0.050 Torrents encumbered with detritus

4.6.3. C.W.P.C. Recommendations

The C.W.P.C recommends the use of the following rugosity

coefficients in earthen channels, based on their capacities:

44
 TABLE-13 (a) In soils other than rock
Capacity Value of N
(cubic meters/sec.)
0.15 0.030
0.15 to 1.40 0.025
1.40 to 14.10 0.0225
Above 14.10 0.020

(b)Rock cuts

Value of N equal to 0.035 to 0.050 is assumed when rock portion at

least 15cms above the excavated bed level is left out in working out
cross-sectional area.

4.6.4. LACEY’S REGIMR FORMULAE

The use of Lacey’s formulae would be applicable only to ideal

cases where the channel is in perfect regime.

Thus the use of this formula is restricted. Channels are broadly

classified into two categories:

(a) Deltaic channels (carrying silt)

(b) Non – Deltaic channels (non-silt carrying)
Deltaic channels are those taking off from a diversion work which
merely divert the river flow directly into the channel without any
detention, as the storage generally available at a diversion work is
practically negligible.
Except in times of low flows in the river, the river flow during crop
period is likely to be charged with silt (Both rolled and suspended silt).
As there is no detention, there is no time for the silt to settle down with
the result the flow through the channel is charged with silt. Unless the
channels are designed for velocities at which the flow neither deposits silt

45
nor erodes, picking up fresh silt from the channel surface, widening it
further, there is likely to be recurring expenditure in silt clearance or
restoring them to normal sections if eroded. So, it is very important to
design earthen channels with such shapes (cross-sections) and
longitudinal slopes such that the water way is neither obstructed by the
deposition of fresh silt nor injured by further erosion on bed sides.
In case of non-deltaic channels, taking off from big reservoirs, the
river flows are detained for some time in the water spread. This gives
time for the rolled and suspended silt to settle down in the reservoir bed.
So, practically clear water with very little silt suspended is drawn through
the channel. In all such cases the maximum velocity for which the
channel has to be designed, depends upon the velocity of flow that can be
withstood by the soil through which the channel runs without erosion.

4.7. MAXIMUM SAFE VELOCITIES

TABLE-14 Maximum safe velocities for different soils are:

Ordinary earth 0.5 to 1.0 meter per second

Final gravel or clay 1.0 and 1.5 meters per second

Broken stone and light 1.0 meter per second

pitching

Firm conglomerate 1.75 to 2.25 meters per second

3.5 meters per seconds

Sound rock

46
 Till the year 1895, all Channels were designed by the aid of
Chazey’s equation V=C and it was a common thing to expect heavy
silt deposits that had to be cleared at enormous costs. This state of affairs
changed when B.G.Kennedy found from his extensive experimental
studies on a number of Regime channels in Punjab (Bari Doap system)
that there was a critical velocity at which the canal neither silted nor
scoured. He stated that within reasonable limits of deviation, there existed
a constant relation between the depth of flow and the velocity expressed
by the equation

(Corresponds to in F.P.S system)

Where,

= Critical velocity (non – silting and non – scouring)

d= depth of flow.

Kennedy thus defined “critical velocity” in a channel as the mean

velocity which will just keep the channel free from silting and scouring.

This is denoted by the letter

4.8. KENNEDY’S THEORY OF SILT TRANSPORTATION

(i) Sediment in a flowing canal is kept in suspension solely by the vertical

components of the constant eddies, which can always be observed over
the full width of any stream boiling up gently to the surface.

(ii)The quantity of silt transported (or supported) will be in proportion to

the bed width, all other conditions remaining same.

(iii) It also varies with the velocity of the stream, the variation is as

47
(iv) All silt in suspension and a certain amount of bed rolled silt is carried
by the stream.

Suppose the quantity of water carried is Q per meter width of

channel at a velocity of V meters/second, and with a depth of flow of d
meters, then

Q = Vd.

If P represents the ratio, then P = , where q is the

quantity of silt in water.

Therefore, q = PQ = P×V×D.

But the quantity of silt transported per meter width of the channel is
also equal to A where, A is the area per meter width of the channel.

Therefore, PVD =A

V = (P/A) 1/n-1 ×

The same equation can be also written as =m .

TABLE-15 The values obtained by Kennedy for various River

systems in India are:

Silt M n

Punjab Sandy silt 0.55 0.64

Sind Silt Loam 0.41 0.64
Godavari fine silt 0.39 0.55
Krishna fine silt 0.53 0.52

48
 Kennedy later recognized that the grade of silt played a
prominent part in this relationship and introduced another factor into his
equation called by him as “Critical Velocity Ratio” (C.V.R).

C.V.R. = , where V is the mean velocity and the

critical velocity.

The values of C.V.R for sands coarser than standard are assigned
from finer from 0.9 to 0.8.

4.9. Scour Depth

In Lacey’s formula,

Or

And = 0.6377

R = 2.46 )

Where, is the critical velocity

R = Hydraulic mean depth (scour depth below maximum water

level)

Q = Maximum flood discharge

F = Silt factor.

Combining these two equations, we have

R=

49
 =

If the discharge of the river per meter width is given by q (maximum

flood discharge), then P Where Q = Maximum flood discharge
and P = Stable width.

For rivers with great widths, perimeter is always equal to bed-width

q=

R=

This gives a relation, R = 1.374×

This scour depth will be reckoned below the maximum flood level.

While designing the level of foundations of weir or bridge, depth

of piles, thickness of aprons, etc. Lacey suggests the use of a value of R
greater than that obtained by the above relation.

TABLE-16 Lacey R value

Straight reach 1.25R

Moderate bend 1.50R
Severe bend 1.75R
Right angles bend 2.00R
However, in anicuts and barrages, the practice being followed is to
have the upstream cut-off to a depth 1.25R below the maximum water
level.

50
4.10. SELECTION OF SUITABLE BED SLOPE

If Lacey’s equations only are to be followed, there is no option.

But to adopt whatever slope is obtained by computation depending upon
the discharge it has to carry. Apart from this, channels taking off from
reservoirs carrying large discharge have to be designed on a more rational
way consistent with safety and economy.

In general, the channels are divided into two main groups’ namely
contour canals and ridge canals. While aligning contour canals, care has
to be taken to obtain maximum commend, and cross minor valleys with
masonry structures. It is these aspects along with certain obligatory
conditions like negotiating an existing reservoir by a level crossing etc.
that fix the general slope to be adopted.

Thus, this is an aspect which has to be settled first with respect to

the feasibility of alignment of a canal. In case of ridge canals, care has to
be taken to select the most suitable slope consistent with the general slope
of the ridge and the safety of the canal necessitating the construction of
minimum number of drops.

Generally in case of big contour canals, the slopes will be as flat as

1/10000 or even 1/15000. However, in case of ridge canals, the general
ground slope governs the issue. Any slope steeper than the natural slope
of the ground results in canal then the natural slope of the ground, a series
of drops will have to be introduced wherever the canal level leaves the
ground level. If the slope of the country is flatter than the lowest
allowable slope, the designer does not usually have any other choice but
to accept the country slope available because adoption of a slope steeper
than country slope will cause complete loss of command in a very short

51
distance. Similarly, if the country is very steep, a flatter slope has to be
adopted, keeping the cost of masonry-drops to the minimum.

4.10.1. PROPORTION OF BED WIDTH TO DEPTH

After arriving at a possible bed slope for the channel, the next step
is to decide the bed width to depth ratio.

The best discharging channel is one which for the same cross-
sectional area, and slope passes water with the greatest velocity, or which
has the greatest hydraulic mean depth.

From theoretical considerations. The bed width must be twice the

depth for a rectangular section and for a trapezoidal section. The bed
width to depth ratio is given by

Where the slope of sides is

For a channel with side slopes of ½ to 1, the B/D ratio will 1 ¼

Apart from discharge considerations, the section adopted must also

entail least absorption will be losses. Col. Ellis worked out that the losses
due to absorption will be least when B/D ratio is about 4. He
recommended the adoption of B/D ratio between 1 ¼ and 5 for the design
of small channels.

52
 TABLE-17 Discharge VS B/D ratio

Discharge in cubic meters per second B/D ratio

0.30 2.9

0.75 3.4

1.50 3.7

3.00 4.2

7.50 4.8

15.00 5.7

30.00 7.6

60.00 11.3

150.00 22.5

300.00 41.0

In some states a few empirical rules also are followed. Based on

the sections adopted in various projects in India, the C.W.P.C. has given a
curves showing relationship between discharge and bed width to depth
ratio. This is a fair compromise among the various practices in India.

53
 TABLE-18 DISCHARGE VS B/D ratio

Discharge in cubic meters per second B/D ratio

0.30 2.9

0.75 3.3

1.50 3.7

3.00 4.2

7.50 4.5

15.00 6.00

30.00 7.4

60.00 9.6

150.00 13.5

300.00 18.0

As seen by both the recommendations, the ratios for discharges up

to 15.00 cubic meters/second are almost the same. For higher discharges,
the Punjab practice gives a higher B/D ratio, wider and shallower
sections, which may prove costly.

However, there is a limitation to this when the canal runs in Harden

strata where the overburden soil cover is less and adoption of deeper
channel section may mean excavation in Harden soil like hard
disintegrated rock, fissured rock and rock. In such cases, the B/D ratio is
more influenced by the cost of excavation than by following certain
theoretical procedures alone. In cases where the depth of the soil cover is

54
relatively smaller than the canal bed levels are attained with minimum
cutting in Harden soils.

Kennedy’s depth formula gives the maximum depth that can be

allowed in an earthen channel, e.g. a channel situated in soils which can
withstand mean scouring velocities of about 1 to 1.25meters/second,
cannot have a full supply depth of more selecting dimensions of width
and depth, the ratios obtained from the table can be freely used.

4.11. SIDE SLOPES OF CANAL SECTIONS

This is a controversial subject. Generally, it is thought that the bed

of the channel assumes an even level called the bed-width. Kennedy’s
theory is based on this. Lacey thought that the channel will take an
elliptical section. However, the channels are designed for a horizontal
bed-width with side slopes. Canal ae generally excavated to 1:1 side
slopes in soft soils, though they are designed to 1/2:1 side slopes. In case
of silt carrying canals, this allows for the silt on the side slopes.

TABLE-19 C.W.P.C. Standard for canal in cutting and embankment

S. Side slope
NO Nature of soil (Horizontal to vertical)
Cutting Embankment
1 Hard clay or gravel 0.75 to 1 1.5 to 1.0
2 Soft clay and alluvial 1.0 to 1.0 2.0 to 1.0
Soils
3 Sandy loam 1.5 to 1.0 2.0 to 1.0
4 Light sand 2.0 to 1.0 2.0 to 1.0
5 Soft rock 0.25 to 1.0 -
6 Hard rock 0.125 to 1.0 -

55
4.12. LINING

In all the formulae used for calculating the velocity of flow through
an unlined channel, we take the value of coefficient of rugosity between
0.02 to 0.03. The value of 0.02 is taken for channels, which are in very
good order.

If the canal section is lined in the bed and sides, the lining
presenting a hard and smooth surface for the flow, a coefficient of
rugosity as low as 0.014 can be used. Thus, for a given channel section
and slope remaining same, we can discharge a larger quantity through a
lined canal than through an unlined canal. Thus an existing canal can be
made to discharge more by lining it. If this alone is not sufficient to meet
the requirement as previously suggested, the section can be widened,
depth increased and ultimately lined.

4.12.1. Lined canal

A Lined canal carrying 220 cubic meters/second has to be flumed

through a ridge 1600 meters long, where rock has been met with. The
canal in the normal reach has the following hydraulic particulars:

Discharge 220 cubic meters/second

Bed width 25 meters

Depth 5 meters

Velocity of flow 1.35 meters/second

Side slopes 1 ½: 1 and coefficient of rugosity 0.018 (lined canal)

Longitudinal bed slope: 1/10000

56
 The flume portion is assumed to be in hard rock where a side slope
of ¼ to 1 is permissible. The maximum velocity assumed in the flume
may be taken as 2.5meters per second. Assume the whole flume also be
lined (n=0.018)

Area of section in the normal reach

=(25+

Wetted perimeter, p = (25+2×5×1.118)= 36.2 meters.

4.13. FORMATION OF CANAL

Designers and authorities responsible should be in close contact
with the farmers in order to identify their needs and to form consensus for
the proposed project design. Only when farmer participation is well
developed should construction of the system be carried out, and that
construction must be done in close cooperation with them.
At the same time, farmers should be brought to realize that the
system needs to be maintained, and that they are responsible for this.
Again, this can only be possible when farmers are participating in every
stage of the project from the first beginnings right through to the first
water delivery.
4.14. CANAL ALIGNMENT
4.14.1. Layout
With regard to the layout of a canal system, reference can be made
manual. One additional general remark can be made here. That is that the
main canal of a system will be laid along the high edge of the irrigable
area in order for the largest possible area to be commended for irrigation.
In most cases, the canal will closely follow the land contours, losing only
enough elevation to maintain the slope needed for suitable flow velocity.

57
The land commanded by the main canal will be subdivided into irrigation
units of about 10 ha each.
From the main canal, secondary canals will be laid out to each
irrigation unit, following the line of highest elevation in each unit so as to
maximize the area served by each secondary canal. Tertiary canals, or
field channels, will then be laid out from the secondary to deliver water
throughout the unit
4.14.2. Bed slope
On flat sloping, non-undulating lands, canals will generally have
the same slope as the terrain. In steeply sloping lands, canals will be
given a slope which is less than the terrain to avoid high flow velocities.
In such cases, drop structures will have to be installed to connect the
canal sections. See also Section 5.6.2 of this manual. When a canal
crosses a depression or a gully, it cannot follow the terrain and should be
constructed in fill, and if a ridge in the terrain has to be crossed the canal
will have to be constructed in cut.
Whatever the slope of the canal, abrupt changes in the slope
should be avoided. If the bed slope changes suddenly the flow velocity in
the canal will also change, and such a change in flow velocity can cause
erosion or may lead to siltation in the canal bed.
4.14.3. Bed elevation
Depending on local circumstances, canals can be built in fill or in
cut. A typical cross-section of a canal in fill. There are three factors that
play a role in deciding the level of the canal bed. The first factor is that
the slope of a canal should be as constant as possible. Abrupt changes in
slope should be avoided. This may result in canal sections having to be
constructed in cut or in fill, depending on topography.
Another factor is that the volume of cut should preferably equal the
volume of fill when constructing the canal Cross-section of a canal with

58
balance between cut and fill when the elevation of a canal bed is so high
that the volume of fill is larger than the volume of cut, soil has to be
brought from elsewhere. This may result in high construction cost. Also,
if a canal is to be constructed in cut, the excavated soil is to be spread out
over the fields or it should be used elsewhere, which also increases the
cost of canal construction.
Construction costs are usually at a minimum when there is a
balance between the volumes of cut and fill. The third factor to take into
account when determining the bed level of a canal is the Water level in
the canal. The water level in field channels should be about 0.10 m higher
than the level of the fields to be irrigated from those canals, and the water
level in a secondary canal which supplies a field channel should be about
0.05 m higher than the design level in the field channel.
This is because of the loss in water level at the canal off take. The
bed elevation and water level at the downstream end of a tertiary canal is
determined as the first step, assuring at least 0.10 m difference between
the water level in the canal and the field level. Going upstream, it should
be checked that the water level in the field channel all along the channel
is at least 0.10 m higher than the fields. Further upstream, the water level
in the secondary canal can also be determined, taking into account the
0.05 m loss at the canal off takes

4.15. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A CANAL

EMBANKMENT
Canals may be constructed in cut or in fill depending on local
circumstances. Canals in fill are constructed above ground level by
building embankments with soil brought from other locations or scraped
from the adjacent field. For Small canals, sometimes only one large

59
embankment is constructed, and then the Canal cross-section is excavated
in the middle.

FIGURE-19 Construction of an embankment

4.15.1. Construction of an embankment
The following steps can be used as guidance for the construction of
an embankment.
Step 1: Based on the canal layout, locate the alignment of the canal
and plough a strip in the terrain where the embankment is planned
A strip in the field is ploughed to clear all vegetation and roots.
The material removed can be used to dress the sides and top of the
completed embankment before planting grass. The width of the strip
should be larger than the total width of the future canal embankment.

FIGURE20 Determination of elevation and width of an embankment

60
Step 2: Hammer pegs in the soil every 50 m in a line to mark the
centre line of the Embankment and its final level.
The top of each peg should indicate the top level of the
embankment at that point. Mark the centre line of the embankment in
between these points with boning rods every 10 m.
Step 3: Every 10 m, mark the outer line of the body of the
embankment to be constructed
The top level of the embankment has been marked in Step 2. The
outside slope of the embankment must be stable and depends on the
material which is used. As a rule of thumb, a slope of 1:2 [1 vertical to 2
horizontal] may be taken. Marking for the outside line of the embankment
can be done by using a template, which can be made from sticks, bamboo
or other material.
Step 4: Construct the embankment
The embankment is constructed by adding soil in 5 cm thick layers,
with each layer compacted moist.
4.16. CONSTRUCTION OF A CANAL - AN EXAMPLE
Small irrigation canals are either dug in the original soil or they are
excavated in an embankment, constructed as described in the previous
section. In the former case the soil is generally well compacted and
stable, while in the latter case the embankment may not be very stable
even after elaborate compaction during construction. Therefore it is good
practice to wait at least one rainy season before excavation of a canal in
an embankment can start, having thus allowed the soil in the embankment
to fully settle down.
In this section the procedure for canal construction is presented. As
an example the section of the embankment which was determined in
Section will be used. The embankment has been constructed and has been

61
allowed to settle. The elevation and size of the embankments has been
checked, and is according to the specification.
NOTE 1
Larger canals in fill or partly in fill are usually constructed by
bringing up soil from two sides. The two canal banks are then re-shaped
to conform to the designed cross section of the canal.
NOTE 2
The construction of small canals in cut is identical to the
construction of small canals in fill, assuming that the latter is excavated in
an embankment.
NOTE 3
Canals should be built continuously from one end, not as scattered
small sections.
This results in uniform construction, and makes supervision easier.
Before the canal is constructed, all plant growth, rubbish, stones and other
debris should be removed from the site. The procedure for constructing a
canal is given in steps. The dimensions of the canal are as follows
Height of the cross-section: h = 0.70 m
Bed width: b = 0.30 m
Side slop: s = 1/1.5 or 1:1.5
Top width of canal banks: top = 0.40 m
Step 1 Mark the cross-section with pegs

Hammer a peg in the centre line of the canal, which is usually done
during the embankment construction period. This is Peg 1. Measure the
bed width: 0.15 m to each side of Peg 1. Place Pegs 2 and 3 perpendicular
to the centre line of the canal. Calculate the width of the inner side of the
canal bank by dividing the height of the cross section by the side slope.

62
 In this case, w = h / ss = 0.7 / (1/1.5) = 1.05 m. Measure 1.05 m
from Peg 2 and from Peg 3, and drive Pegs 4 and 5 firmly into the soil,
because later they will serve as reference pegs. Fix the level of these pegs
in relation to the top of the embankment, by, for instance, putting a mark
at 0.10 m above the design top of the embankment. The difference in
level between the marks at Pegs 4 and 5 and the canal bed is then 0.80 m
(height of the cross-section + 0.10 m). For a canal in cut, measure a path
of 0.50 m next to Pegs 4 and 5, marking the points with Pegs 6 and 7. As
earth is excavated it should be placed outside of these pegs so that the
earth will not fall back into the excavated canal section.
Step 2 Excavate a trench

Remove Peg 1. Excavate the soil between Pegs 2 and 3 until

approximately 0.1 - 0.15 m above the final bed level. Deposit the
excavated earth at the foot of the embankment, or outside of Pegs 6 and 7
in the case of a canal in cut. The deposited soil may be spread out over
the adjacent fields later.
Step 3 Excavate the cross-section

Remove Pegs 2 and 3, and excavate a rough canal cross-section

approximately 0.1 - 0.15 m above the final section. Final trimming and
finishing should be done by checking the final canal section carefully

Step 4 Check the cross-section of the canal

Hold a solid frame (template) against Pegs 4 and 5, and check the
bed and the side slopes at the same time, remembering that the marks on
Pegs 4 and 5 are 0.10 m higher than the design top of the canal banks.
Any over-excavation or slide in side slope should be carefully filled and
compacted, as for the embankment. The canal should be checked at
intervals of 10 meters

63
 FIGURE 21 Canal construction

4.17. Slope of a canal alignment

The slope of the terrain where canal b is planned will be
determined here as an example. The procedure is given in the following
steps.
Step 1
Mark in the field the centre line of the proposed canal, marking at
regular intervals of say 50 or 100 m

FIGURE 22 Slope of canal alignment

64
Step 2
Measure the elevations of the marked points and calculate the
differences
Calculation of the difference in elevation between distant points is
described in Training Manual 2: Elements of Topographic Surveying.
The following data have been obtained by the field survey for canal
alignment b:
Difference in elevation between point 1 and point 2: 0.16 m
Difference in elevation between point 2 and point 3: 0.12 m
Difference in elevation between point 3 and point 4: 0.13 m

Step 3
Determine the average slope between the marks For determination
of the average slope, the differences in elevation are divided by the
distance between the two marks concerned. As a formula: s1 = difference
in elevation1 / distance1 where: s1 is the average slope of the terrain
between points 1 and 2; difference in elevation1
is difference in elevation between points 1 and 2, in meters; distance1 is
the distance between points 1 and 2, in meters.
The following average slopes have been calculated for canal alignment b:
Average slope between points 1 and 2: s1 = 0.16 / 100 = 0.0016
Average slope between points 2 and 3: s2 = 0.12 / 100 = 0.0012
Average slope between points 3 and 4: s3 = 0.13 / 100 = 0.0013
Step 4
Determine the average slope of the field where canal alignment b is
projected
The average slope of (future) canal b is determined by adding up the
different average slopes of the sections and by dividing this sum by the
number of measurements. In this example, three Measurements were

65
made, thus Average slope of canal alignment b: Sb = (s1 + s2 + s3) / 3 Sb
= (0.0016 + 0.0012 + 0.0013) / 3 = 0.0014
Step 5
Check whether the average slope of the canal alignment is within
the range
0.0005 (0.05%) and 0.0015 (0.15%) The slope of the alignment
calculated (0.14 %) is within the range of 0.05 to 0.15%, and so in this
case the canal can be given the same slope as the terrain. If the calculated
slope falls outside of this range, an irrigation engineer should be
contacted for advice.

66
 CHAPTER-5

CANAL REGULATOR

5.1CANAL REGULATOR

Regulators across canals are necessary to maintain water levels in

the canal along a particular reach. Generally they are constructed below a
major off-take, or at a place where the canal hydraulic particulars change.
Below a major take-off, the discharge in the canal gets reduced and so the
canal section is reduces by either reducing the depth of flow or by
reducing the bed width or both. This change-over is negotiated through a
regulator. These are also constructed at places in a canal while
negotiating drops. In order to regulate the flow from one reach to another,
the regulators with shuttering arrangements to control the flow, play most
important part.

Generally, they are also coupled with road crossings. In this

example, the design of a bridge-cum-regulator is given.

A bridge-cum-regulator is essentially a road bridge on piers and

abutments with enough clear vent way to pass the necessary discharge
into the canal from its upstream side to the downstream side.

Design a regulator-cum-road bridge with the following data:

Hydraulic particulars of canal upstream:

Full supply discharge: 20 cubic meters/second

Bed width: 15 meters; Bed level: +22.00

F.S.depth: 2.00 meters: F.S.L: +22.00

Top level of tank: 23.00

67
 The right bank is 5 meters wide and left bank is 2 meters wide.

Hydraulic particulars of canal downstream:

Full supply discharge: 16 cubic meters/second

Bed width: 15 meters; Bed level: +20.00

F.S. depth: 1.75 meters; F.S.L: +21.75

Top level of bank: +22.75

Top widths of banks are the same as those on the upstream side.
The regulators carries a road way single lane designed for I.R.C loading
class ‘A’. Provide clear freeboard of one meter above F.S.L. for the road
bridge.

Good foundation soil is available at +19.00

Assume the ground level site as +22.00

5.2. DESIGN

In this case, the bed level of the canal both upstream and
downstream is the same. The depth of flow upstream is 2 meters while on
the downstream it is 1.75 meters. Thus, there is a drop of 0.25 meters in
the F.S.L. at the site of structure. This difference in levels at the structure
can conveniently be made use of the regulator will be a rectangular
opening with its still at the canal bed level. If A be the area of the opening
and h is the difference in water elevations on both sides, then the
discharge through the opening (submerged orifice) is given by the
equation:

Q= where

Q is the discharge in cubic, meters/second

68
 = coefficient of discharge

A = Area of vent in square meters, and

h = difference in water elevations in meters,

A value of 0.75 is usually taken for

5.3. VENTWAY OF THE REGULATOR

Quantity of water to be passed through the regulator into the downstream

of canal is 16 cubic meters/second.

Depth of water in the canal below is 1.75 meters

Depth of vent way is therefore 1.75 meters. Applying the above

formula, we have

Q = 16 cubic meters/second

h = 0.25 meters

16 = 0.75A

A= = 9.64 sq. meters

Height of vent =1.75 m.

Length of vent = = 5.50 meters

Instead of having one span of 5.50 meters. It is better to adopt smaller

spans both for economy of the top roadway and also for the convenience
with which for the smaller shutters can easily be operated. So adopt two
spans of 2.75 meters each.

69
 From the above, it can be seen that the canal water way has been

considerably constricted. The ratio of construction is nearly

37percent.

Any construction of less than 60 to 50 percent is considered too

serve and not desirable as eddies are formed both upstream and
downstream during flow and may cause considerable dynamic scours in
rear.

To avoid this trouble, the still of regulator is raised and length of

vent correspondingly increased to restrict the percentage of construction
to not less than 50 percent.

Therefore, assuming a linear waterway of 50 percent 7.50m. the

height of vent way required would be above bed
level the still of regulator has to be fixed at +20.45. This will give 3 vents
of 2.50 meters long each. The height of vent being 1.30. The rise in still is
to be limited to 0.4 of the upstream full supply depth.

Vent way arrived at by using the sluice discharge formula above, is

found to give excessive waterway. Based on model studies, the central
water and power commission recommends the use of the following
relationships,

70
Where, C is a coefficient depending upon the drowning ratio(upstream
and downstream of regulator)

= clear throat width between abutments

D = Depth of crest below upstream total energy line.

TABLE-20 Vent way by the drowning ratio

Drowning ratio Value of C in formula Q =

In F.P.S System In metric system

100 Percent 1.90 1.050

95 percent 2.46 1.358

90 percent 2.70 1.490

85 percent 2.86 1.580

80 percent 2.98 1.645

55percent 3.12 1.723

25 percent 3.14 1.733

5.3.1. FIXING THE VENT WAY BY THE DROWNING RATIO

METHOD

Upstream of regulator

Discharge: 20 cubic meters/second

Bed width: 15 meters

F.S. depth: 2 meters

71
 Area of waterway (15+1) × 2 = 32 sq. meters.

Velocity developing in the canal = m/sec

Bed level: +20.00

F.S depth: 2.00

Elevation of total energy line:

=20.00+2.00+ =+22.02

Depth of submergence over still= 22.02-20.45=1.57meters.

5.3.2. DOWNSTREAM OF REGULATOR

Discharge: 16 cubic meter/second

F.S. depth: 1.75meters

Area of waterway = 1.75 = 27.79 sq. meters

Velocity developing = /second

Elevation of the submergence above still=21.77-20.45=1.32

Drowning ratio =

Value of C is equal to 1.58

If is clear width of vent way, the discharge is given by

Where Q = 16 cubic meters/second; D = 1.57 meters.

72
Including end contractions, assume the lineal waterway as 6.00 meters.

Therefore, vent way arrived at by this method is by far less than

that obtained by the sluice discharge formula. In case of big regulators,
economy can be obtained by using this method. In all such cases, model
studies are suggested before actual construction.

However, in this case, adopt a lineal water way of 6.00 meters

making it as 3 vents of 2.00 meters each with the sill of regulator kept at
canal bed level only.

5.4. ROADWAY

The road way consists of a clear width of 3.65 meters (12 feet clear)
between kerbs, each of which will be 23 cms (9inches) wide. It will be a
through R.C. Slab directly resting over the piers and abutments. The slab
will be continuous over piers and adopting I.R.C. ‘A’ class loading,
single lane of traffic, a slab thickness of 20 cms will be more than
enough. Detailed design of road slabs is not attempted here.

The bottom of the road slab is kept one meter above the upstream
side F.S.L., at level +23.00.

Top level of the road slab with a 7.5 cms, thick wearing coat will be
+23.275 or 23.28

5.5. PIER

The pier has to be checked for stability. The forces acting on the pier are
as follows:

(a) Weight of pier itself

73
 (b) Weight of roadway with the live load

(c) Horizontal thrust transmitted by the shutters on either side of

the pier.

Under these, the pier must be stable. Generally, the weight of pier
and roadway give the stability to the pier in overcoming the horizontal
thrust. So, the worst case is to check the stability of the pier when there is
no love load on the road with the regulator shutters completely closed,
water on the upstream side at F.S.L. and no water downstream. The live
load on the roadway will increase the stability of the pier.

5.5.1. LENGTH OF PIER

Maximum length of pier will be to cover the roadway with its

kerbs, with additional length for the shutter operating platform. Assuming
1.50 meters as the width required for the shutter operating platform, the
length of pier required (omitting the cut waters) is 3.65+2×0.23+1.50 =
5.61 meters.

The top of pier under the road slab is at a level of +23.00

The top of pier under the shutter operating platform will be higher
and this depends upon the height of shutter to be used.

5.6. SHUTTERS

The dimensions of the vent way are 2.00 and 1.75 meters.
Downstream F.S. depth is 1.75 meters whereas the upstream F.S. depth is
2.00 meters. The shutter top is to be at least 30 cms above the upstream
F.S.L. Assuming that the shutter rests in a 7.5 cms deep groove in the
still, the total height of shutter is to be 2.00+0.30+0.08 2.38 meters.

74
 If a single shutter is provides, when a vent way is to be clearly
opened, the bottom of shutter will have to be lifted clear over the
upstream F.S.L. Assuming that the bottom of shutter is lifted say 25 cms,
above the upstream F.S.L. the top of shutter will be at a level of
22.00+2.38+0.25

Assuming a clearance of 30cms above the shutter to be bottom of

the hoisting platform, the pier has to be raised to be level of
24.63+0.30=+24.93 this portion of the pier will be 1.65 meters above
road level. This will look awkward. This difficulty can be obviated to
some extent by adopting a two tier shutter, bottom shutter being 1.38
meters high and the top shutter being 1.25 meters with 25 cms as he
overlap between the shutters. They will be arranged in two grooves
operating side by side.

FIGURE 23 SHUTTER

In that contingency, the bottom tier requires more clearance than

the top shutter and bottom of the operating platform will have to be at
+22.00+0.25+1.38=23.63. This is very reasonable and can be adopted.
The stability of pier is now checked for these levels

75
 FIGURE-23 SHUTTERS

Hard ground is available at +19.00

Assuming a thickness of 60 cms for the apron, the top of

foundations for piers and abutments can be fixed at 19.40.

The bottom of foundations will be at 18.80.

Thickness of pier is 1.00 meter.

The load taken by the pier will be for a length 2.00+1.00=3meters

of lineal roadway.

5.7. LOADS

(1) Weight of road slab:

=3.00×4.11

Kerbs: 2

Total = 8555 Kg

76
(2) Weight of pier under the road portion

=4.11

(3) Weight of pier under the operating platform

=1.50

(4) Water thrust on the pier (horizontal thrust)

1000

TABLE-21 Taking moments of all forces about toe

Description Force in Kg. Lever arm Moment in

vertical Horizontal (meters) kg.(meters)
1.weight of 8.555 - 2.05 17,538
road slab
2.weight of pier 31,702 - 2.05 63,698
under road
3.weight of pier 14,490 - 4.86 70421
under operating
platform
4.Horizontal
thrust
6,000 0.67 (-)4,020

Total vertical force 54,117 Net moment 147637

Arm of resultant =

77
Eccentricity =

Allowable eccentricity =

Hence the resultant falls within middle third and no tension

develops in masonry of pier and length of pier is quite enough

Maximum compressive stress at the toe

=9.64×1.075=10.36 tonnes/sq. meter

This is within safe limits of masonry. Hence the design is safe and the
length of pier as proposed can be adopted.

5.8. ABUTMENTS

The top level of abutment is +23.00 the bottom level of R.C slab of the
road way. The bottom of foundation concrete is +18.80. Adopting 60 cms
thick foundation concrete the top of foundation concrete is +19.40

The height of abutment is thus +23.00-19.40=3.60meters

The abutment will have its front face vertical to facilitate the
working of the regulator shutters in the vertical grooves, inserted in the
front face of the abutment. The abutment carries (in addition to the
sideward thrust due to earth and also surcharge due to live load) a vertical
load, being that due to dead and live loads transmitted by the road slab.

Keep the top width of abutment as 1.00 meter out of which 50cms will be
bearing for the R.C. Slab. The bottom width of abutment may be kept at
2.00 meters. I accurate design, the section will have to be checked for
stability and the most economical section adopted vide.

78
 FIGURE-24 ABUTMENTS

5.9. WINGWALLS

The wing walls both on the upstream and downstream side of the
regulator will be of the sloping type, sloping from +23.28, junction with
abutment to +23.00 top of the bank level on the upstream side and 22.75
on the downstream side.

Top of the wall: +23.28

Top width: 50cms

Top of foundation concrete: +19.40

Height of wall: 3.88 meters

79
 FIGURE-25 WINGWALLS

5.9.1. SECTION OF LEVEL WING AND RETURN

The top of level wings and returns on both sides will be at the respective
T.B.Ls on either side. Since the difference in levels of T.B.Ls on either
side is only 25cms, the same section will be adopted on either side except
that the top level of level wing and return on the downstream side will be
kept at 22.75,and top level 23.00, top width 50cms, top of foundation
concrete +19.40 for the upstream side.

Height of wall = 3.60meters

80
 FIGURE-26 SECTION OF LEVEL WING AND RETURN

5.9.2. SPLAY OF WINGS ON BOTH SIDES

This depends on the length of solid aprons provided on both sides of the
regulator.

The canal bed width is 15 meters. At the end of solid aprons, the distance
between masonry returns will be kept at 15 meters

5.9.3. SOLID APRONS FOR THE REGULATOR

Solid aprons are required to prevent seepage when the regulator is

closed with canal at F.S.L. on the upstream side and no water on the
downstream. This solid apron will be laid with its top level at the canal
bed level.

Assuming the bed material of the canals as sandy and also the
hydraulic gradient in the soil as 1/10, we require 10×2= 20meters length
of apron, as the head of flow is 2meters.

81
 This 20 meters of floor is provided as 6.00meters on the upstream
side, 5.6 meters under the regulator and the balance downstream. The
maximum uplift is experienced just downstream of shutter.

Assuming that the shutters are located in the center of the operating
platform, the head lost in creep by the time the seepage reaches the
shutter

=6

Head lost in creep =

Residual uplift = 2-0.675 meters = 1.325 meters

Assuming that the tail water is at the downstream bed level, the
thickness of apron required

This can be gradually reduced to 60cms thick at the end of the apron

The upstream apron never experiences any uplift

So, the thickness of apron can be nominal and can be limited to 30cms

5.10. REVETMENTS

Both upstream and downstream provide in continuation of solid

apron some 5 meters in length of rough stone bed pitching 45 cms

Provide for the same length of rough stone revetments on the canal
slopes to a thickness pf 45 cms.

In case of canal regulators, there is no necessity of checking the

stability of pier for cross thrust. When one vent is flowing and the other

82
vent is closed, the rear water backs up, and the water level will practically
be same on both sides of the pier. Hence, there is no cross thrust.

In case of river and spillway regulators when all vents are closed
and one vent open, there will be water standing against the pier on one
side only. It is then necessary to check the pier for stability against cross
thrust, and to provide enough thickness of pier to see that no tension is
developed across the thickness of pier.

5.11. ARRANGEMENTS OF ENERGY DISSIPATION

In the initial stages of opening of the regulator shutters, when there

is no water in rear, the water will shoot out downstream till the tail water
builds up. So it is possible in the initial stages for the bed to get scoured
out. In order to dissipate this excess velocity, two or three rows of friction
blocks may be provided on the solid apron. These will arrest the excess
velocity and make the flow streamlined beyond the apron. This will
eventually reduce scours downstream of the solid apron.

The actual position and type of friction blocks can best be decided
by hydraulic model experiments only.

5.12. GENERAL

In case of river regulators where the head is high, it is necessary to

guard the structure against piping action of the flow beneath the aprons.
So, the exit gradients at the end of the D/S apron will have to be kept as
low as possible. To achieve this we may have to provide a D/S cut-off
either by sheet piles or by mass concrete. To reduce uplift on the floor, an
upstream cut-off also may be required. In all such cases, the pressure

83
developing under the floor may be calculated by Khosla’s method and
thickness computed.

5.12.1. SPECIFICATIONS

1. Foundations: as the stresses on foundation concrete are generally

higher compared to other structures like drops etc. Especially under the
abutments and piers due to the road slab over them, the concrete has to be
richer in proportion. Generally, C.C.1:3:6 will do.

For regulators of smaller height and those that do not carry road
slabs, a leaner proportion of concrete, say 1:4:8 will surface.

2. Upstream and downstream aprons: Depending upon the bearing

capacity of the soil, sometimes the foundations of abutments, wings and
returns and piers may be below the canal bed level and may not form a
monolith with apron concrete. Imperviousness and weight are the prime
considerations in solid aprons. These can be in the proportion of mud mat
1:4:8 use of fly-ash will effect economy in the apron concrete.

3. Abutments, piers, wings and returns: Piers could be in course stone

masonry in cement mortar 1:4 and joints pointed with cement mortar 1:3.
Alternatively, they could also be in mass concrete poured into form-work
with cement concrete 1:4:8

Abutments, wings and returns can be in coursed rubble masonry

and joints pointed with cement mortar 1:3

For piers and abutments, the top 30 cms height is made up with
1:2:4 cement concrete with the top surface rendered smooth, for thee slab
to rest uniformly. Before laying the road slab the top surface of the piers
and abutments is painted with one or two coats of hot bitumen. Instead of
this craft paper may be laid just before laying the road slab concrete. This

84
arrangement will facilitate free movement of the slab over the supports
while expanding or contracting during variation of temperature. This will
prevent developments of unsightly cracks in masonry just below the road
slab, due to pulling effect of the road slab.

4. Road slab: In the preset case, there is a continuous road slab over all
the three spans. With the calculated reinforcement, the road slab and
kerbs are laid in cement concrete 1:2:4

The wearing coat is laid as a separate entity a long time after the
road slab is laid. The wearing coat is laid in cement concrete 1:1½ :3 with
a maximum thickness of 7.5 cms at center of road slab, sloping down to a
thickness of 5 cms towards the kerbs. This is to facilitate easy draining of
rainwater towards the kerbs where drainage sprouts are inserted.

Before laying this wearing coat, tell-tale steel sheet strips or 5mm
tell-tale roads are spread at intervals over the road slab. Sometimes hot
bitumen is also applied on strips. The idea behind this arrangement is that
due to vehicular traffic, the wearing coat will slowly wear down resulting
in reduction of thickness. Sometimes, the wear may be so much that the
tell-tale strips or rods may get exposed. This is an indication that the
wearing coat is almost gone and has to be relaid. If this is not done,
damage will encroach into the main road slab and this is not desirable.

5. Weep holes: these are left in the wing walls and abutments above canal
F.S.L. with inverted filters, so as to drain off any saturation from the
earthen embankment under the road.

85
 CHAPTER-6

CONCLUSION

6.1. Conclusion

This project work mainly focused on Analysis and Design of

canal Systems. The fundamental principles of analysis and design of
canal was applied during project work. Because of the symmetry of the
canal design, it was quite easy during the analysis and design of water
structures.

During this design process, we have to learn various design

methodology and basic concept of the project. This concept will help as
to develop our knowledge in the process of analysis and design of water
structures.

Finally, it is concluded that this project work helped the authors

to become more familiar with current practice analysis and design of
water structures which will be more useful in future carrier.

86
 CHAPTER-7

REFERENCE

7.1. References

7.1.1. Reference from book

1. Irrigation engineering and1 Hydraulic structures – Santhosh

kumar Garg.

2. Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic structures-

S.R.Sahasrabudhe

3. MssC NOWN, J.S,”Sinkage and resistance for ships in

channals” Jounal of the waterways & harbours Division.ASCE, vol.2
ww3, Aug 1975.

7.1.2. Reference from journal

[1] Basin, A.M., Velednicki, I.O, Lahovicki, A.G., Gidrodinamika

Sudov, Sudostroenie, 1976.

[2] Bhowmik, G.N., Xia, R., Mazumder, S.,B., Soong T., W.,
"Return Flow in Rivers due to Navigation Traffic", J. of Hydraulic Eng.,
ASCE, Vol. 121, No. 12, Dec. 1995.

[3] Colic, V., Experimental investigation of resistance for ships

on the Danubean navigation network in Serbia, and determination of the
best calculation methods based on experimental results (in Serbian),
Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of Belgrade,
1993.

87
 [4] Hofman, M., Radojcic, D., Ship resistance in shallow water (in
Serbian), Faculty of Me- chemical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
1997.

[5] Latorre, R., "Shallow River Pushboat Preliminary Design",

Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, ASCE, Vol.
111, No. 4, July, 1985.

[6] Lewis, E.V. ed., Principles of Naval Architecture, Vol. II:

Resistance, Propulsion and Vibration, SNAME, 1988.

[7] McNown, J.S., "Sink age and Resistance for Ships in

Channels", Journal of the Waterways and Harbours Division, ASCE, Vol.
102, No. WW3, Aug. 1975.

[8] Schofield, B., "Speed of Ships in Restricted Navigation

Channels", Journal of the Waterways, Harbours, and Coastal Eng.
Division, ASCE, Vol. 100, No. WW2, May 1974.

[9] Sorensen, R.M., "Investigation of Ship-Generated Waves",

Journal of the Waterways and Harbours Division, ASCE, Vol. 93, No.
WW1, Feb. 1967.

[10] Sorensen, R.M., "Waves Generated by Model Ship Hull",

Journal of the Waterways and Harbours Davison, ASCE, Vol. 95, No.
WW4, Nov. 1969.

[11] Van de Kaa, E.J., "Power and Speed of Push-tows in Canals",

Symposium on Aspects of Navigability of Constraint Waterways,
Including Harbour Entrances, Delft, 1978.

88
7.1.3. Reference from website

1. www. National waterways.com

2. http://canalrivertrust.org.uk

3. www.oxfordreference.com

7.1. 4. Reference from code book

1. IS 4745-1968, Code of practice for Design of cross section for Lined

canals .Indian standards New Delhi.

2. IS 10430-1982, the bureau of Indian standards code for criteria for

design of lined canals and Irrigation.

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7.2. Discussion with Nawad Tech

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