SESSION 2023-24 VII SEMESTER

KOE-078
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
ENGINEERING

UNIT -4

SANJANA SINGH
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 Content
Water losses: Infiltration

Seepage and evaporation losses

 Pollution/ contamination of water quality due to agricultural practices

Fertilizers and pesticides

 self purification of surface water

 sources of agricultural water pollution

pollutant dispersion in ground water.

 Hydrological cycle
 Movement of water on , above and below the surface of earth is known as hydrological cycle.
Hydrological cycle……..

Component of hydrological cycle

 Evaporation

 Precipitation

 Interception

 Infiltration

 Transpiration

 Runoff
 Hydrological cycle……..

Evaporation
 When water comes in contact with heat it turns into vapour this is called evaporation.
 Water moves from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere via evaporation. (Liquid Gas)
 Most of the moisture in the atmosphere came from water evaporating from oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers.
 Heat from sun is responsible for this process.

Precipitation
 Precipitation is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the Earth.
 As evaporation continues the amount of vapour in atmosphere goes on increasing after reaching to certain
amount the vapour condense and come to earth’s surface in solid or liquid form, this is called precipitation.
 As air temperature decreases, its moisture holding capacity increases.
 Hydrological cycle……..

Interception
 When precipitated water do not reach the ground directly and
intercepted by mostly vegetation or sometimes any structure and from
there it evaporated back this process is called interception.
 Amount of rainfall on roof building is intercepted rainfall or simply
interception.

Infiltration
 Amount of rainfall that penetrates the ground and increase the moisture capacity of soil beneath the surface this
water is called infiltrated water or simply infiltration.
 It is important for underground water movement and increase in its volume.
Transpiration
 Transpiration is a process that involves loss of water vapour
through the stomata of plants.

 It is evaporation through vegetation or plants.

Runoff
 Portion of precipitation that come on the earth surface and reach the stream channel by above and below the
surface of earth is called runoff.
 Water budget equation
The quantity of water going through various individual paths of hydrological cycle in a given system can be
described by the continuity principal is known as Watch Budget Equation or Hydrologic Equations.
 For a given catchment area in an interval of time ∆t , the continuity equation for water is
Mass of water inflow- Mass of water out flow = Change in mass of water storage
If a density of water in inflow outflow and storage is same then
Volume of inflow water – Volume of outflow water = Change in storage volume of water
Vi-Vo = ∆S
Water budget equation for catchment
P-R - G -E-T =∆S
World water balance
 Abstraction from precipitation
In engineering hydrology, runoff is the prime subject of study and evaporation and transpiration phases
are treated as "losses“. Before the rainfall reaches the outlet of a basin as runoff certain demands of the
catchment such as interception, depression storage and infiltration have to be met. If the precipitation is
not available for surface runoff is defined as losses.

Abstraction from precipitation are

 Evaporation

 Interception

 Infiltration

 Evapotranspiration

 Depression storage
 Evaporation
Evaporation is the process that changes liquid water to gaseous water (water vapor). Water moves from the
Earth’s surface to the atmosphere via evaporation.

Evaporation occurs when energy (heat) forces the bonds that hold water molecules together to break. This
heat breaks the bonds, causing the water to shift from its liquid state to water vapor.

Evaporation- Influencing Factors

 Air and water temperature: the rate of evaporation increases with an increase in the water temperature.
 Wind: the rate of evaporation increases with the wind speed up to critical speed beyond which any
further increase in the wind speed has no influence on the evaporation rate
 Atmosphere pressure: A decrease in the barometric pressure ( as in high altitudes), increases
evaporation.
 Quality of water: Under identical condition evaporation from seawater is about 2-3% less that from
fresh water.
 Size of water body:
 Measurement of Evaporation
Pan Evaporation/ Evaporimeter
1. Class A Evaporation pan
The universal pan is the United States Weather Bureau (USWB). Evaporation pan
must be made to the standard specifications of an internal diameter of 1210 mm and
height of 255 mm. The standard material is galvanized iron. With evaporation the
water level in the pan will fall. To measure the amount of evaporation, water is added
to the pan with the measuring jug filled to the top mark. Water is added until the
pointer just breaks the surface of the water. The PVC pipe supporting the pointer will
help by reducing wave motion. It is important to keep track of the number of jugs
used to refill the pan and the reading on the last jug when the pan water level is just
broken by the pointer. The total amount of water added equals the amount of
evaporation.
2. ISI Standard Pan
Specified by IS:5973 and known as the modified Class A Pan

 A pan of diameter 1220 mm and depth 255mm

 The pan is made of copper sheet 0.9mm thick, tinned inside and painted white outside
 The pan is placed on a square wooden platform of width 1225mm and height 100mm above
ground level to allow free air circulation below the pan. A fixed point gauge indicates the
level of water
 Water is added to or removed from the pan to maintain the water level at a fixed mark using a
calibrated cylindrical measure.
 The top of the pan is covered with a hexagonal wire net of GI to protect water in the pan
from birds
 Presence of the wire mesh makes the temperature of water more uniform during the day and
night
3. Colorado Sunken Pan

Square pan made of unpainted GI sheet, 460mm deep, and buried into the
ground.
• Main advantage of this pan – its aerodynamic and radiation characteristics are similar to that
of a lake
• Disadvantages – difficult to detect leaks, expensive to install, extra care is needed to keep the
surrounding area free from tall grass, dust etc.
4. USGS Floating Pan
This pan is Supported by drum floats in the middle of a raft, with a view to simulate the
characteristics of a large body of water.
Water level in the pan is maintained at the same level as that in the lake.
Disadvantages – High cost of installation and maintenance, difficulty in making measurements.

Pan coefficient
Since the evaporimeter are not exact models of large reservoir evaporation measured from a
pan has to be corrected to get evaportion from a lake under similar condition
Lake evaporation = cp x Pan evaporation

S.no Type of pan Avg value Range

1 Class A Pan 0.70 0.60-0.80
2 ISI pan 0.80 0.65-1.10
3 Colorado Sunken Pan 0.78 0.75-0.86
4 USGS floating Pan 0.80 0.70-0.82
Analytical Methods
1. Water budget Method
We find evaporation using hydrology continuity equation
P+ Vis+ Vig = Vos + Vog +E +△S+ T
Where,E =Evaporation, Vis = Surface Inflow, Vig = Ground Water inflow , P = Precipitation, Vos = Surface Outflow, Vog = Seepage outflow
and, ΔS = Change in storage, T= Transpration
2. Mass Transfer Method
This method is based on theories of turbulent mass transfer in boundary layer to calculate the mass of water vapour transfer from the surface
to surrounding atmosphere.
The volume of water lost due to evaporation from water body is calculated as
VE = A Epm Cp
VE = Volume of water lost in evaporation., A = Average reservoir surface area , E pm = Pan Evaporation , Cp = Relevant Pan coefficient

3. Energy budget Method

It is an application of law of
conservation of energy. Energy
available for evaporation is
determined by considering the
incoming energy, outgoing energy,
and the energy stored in the water
body over a known time interval
 Evapotranspiration
Transpiration
The plant roots extract water from the soil to live and grow. The main part of
this water does not remain in the plant, but escapes to the atmosphere as
vapour through the plant's leaves and stems. This process is called
transpiration of the plant.
Transpiration happens mainly during the day time.The amount of water used
by the plants for transpiration can, like evaporation, be expressed in
millimetres of water per day (mm/day).

Evapotranspiration
The evapotranspiration of a crop is the total amount of soil water used for
transpiration by the plants and evaporation from the surrounding soil surface.

In other words, the crop evapotranspiration represents the amount of water

utilized by the crop and its environment.
The evapotranspiration is commonly expressed in of water used per day
(mm/day) or per week (mm/week).
Sometimes it is also termed as consumptive use
• When sufficient moisture is freely available to completely meet the needs of vegetation
fully covering the area resulting evapotranspiration is called potential evapotranspiration
(PET). It depends on climatologically factor
Field capacity
Maximum quantity of water that soil can retain against the force of gravity.
Permanent wilting point
It is that moisture content of soil at which moisture is no longer available to sustain the plant.
The moisture is tightly bonded with soil grain such that the plant can not extract water from it.
Available moisture
The difference between moisture content of field capacity and permanent wilting point is
called as available moisture .
Consumptive use
Consumptive use may be define as the amount of water used in evapotranspiration from an
area under vegetation , plus the water used by the plants in the metabolic process for
building plant tissues.
 Interception
When rain falls firstly it is intercepted by trees plants and buildings . The initial intercepted water first wet a
surface
then it evaporate back. his complete amount of water is called intercepted loss.
X= a+bt
x= total interception (cm)
a= water required for wetting or interception storage capacity (cm)
b= evaporation rate from intercepting surface in cm/hr
t= duration of showers in (hr)

Depression Storage
When the precipitation reaches to the ground firstly it must fill the depression before it can flow over the surface .
This water do not contribute to runoff .

Percolation
Downward flow of water through the zone of aeration to water table
  The process of entering rain water in to soil strata of earth is called
INFILTRATION.

 The infiltrated water first meets the soil moisture deficiency if any & excess
water moves vertically downwards to reach the vertical groundwater table this
is called percolation
  The infiltration capacity of soil is defined as the maximum rate at which it is
capable of absorbing water and is denoted by f.

 If i >= f then fa = f (depend upon soil capacity )

 If i < f then fa = i (depend upon rainfall intensity)
 where fa = actual infiltration capacity i = rate of rainfall
f = infiltration capacity
 The rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation .

 It is measured in (mm/hr) or (inches/hr )

 Infiltrometer is used for measurement of infiltration.

 If (i > f ) runoff occurs.

 Infiltration rate is connected to hydraulic conductivity.

 Hydraulic conductivity is ability of a fluid to flow through a porous
medium.

It is determined by the size and shape of the pore spaces in the medium &
viscosity of fluid.
OR
It is expressed as the volume of fluid that will move in unit time under a unit
hydraulic gradient through a unit area measured perpendicular to the
direction of flow.
 SLOPE OF THE LAND:- The steeper the slope (gradient), the less the
infiltration or seepage.
 DEGREE OF SATURATION:- The more saturated the loose Earth
materials are, the less the infiltration.
  POROSITY:- Porosity is the percentage of open space
(pores and cracks) in a earth surface.
 The greater the porosity, the greater the amount of infiltration.

SPONGE CLAY BRICK

 COMPACTION:- The clay surfaced soils are compacted even by the
impact of rain drops which reduce infiltration. This effect is negligible in
sandy soils
 SURFACE COVER CONDITION:-
Vegetation:- Grasses, trees and other plant types capture falling precipitation on
leaves and branches, keeping that water from being absorbed into the Earth &
take more time to reach in to the ground. MORE the vegetation
Slower the

Infiltration.



 Land Use:- Roads, parking lots, and buildings create surfaces that
are not longer permeable. Thus infiltration is less.
  TEMPERATURE – At high temperature viscosity decreases
and infiltration increases

 Summer – Infiltration increases

 Winter – Infiltration decreases

FURROW IRRIGATION
 OTHER FACTORS –

a) Entrapped air in pores- Entrapped air can greatly affect the

hydraulic conductivity at or near saturation
b) Quality of water-Turbidity by colloidal water

c) Freezing- Freezing in winter may lock pores.

d) Annual & seasonal changes –According to change in land use

pattern. Except for Massive deforestation & agriculture.
 Infiltrometer is a device used to measure the rate of water infiltration
into soil.
 This consist of metal cylinder of diameter 25 cm to 30
cm and
length of 50 cm to 60 cm, with both ends open. length of cylinder= (
2 x diameter )

 It is driven into a level ground such that about 10 cm of cylinder is above

the ground.

 Water is poured into the top part to a depth of 5 cm & pointer is set
inside the ring to indicate the water level to be maintained.
 The single ring involves driving a ring into the soil and supplying
water in the ring either at constant head or falling head condition.

Constant head refers to condition where the amount of water in the

ring is always held constant means the rate of water supplied
corresponds to the infiltration capacity.

Falling head refers to condition where water is supplied in the ring,

and the water is allowed to drop with time. The operator records
how much water goes into the soil for a given time period.
 The major drawback of the single ring infiltrometer or tube infiltrometer is
that the infiltrated water percolates laterally at the bottom of the ring.
 Thus the tube is not truly representing the area through which
infiltration is taking place.
 This is most commonly used flooding type infiltrometer.

 it consists of two concentric rings driven into soil uniformly without

disturbing the soil to the least to a depth of 15 cm. The diameter of rings may
vary between 25 cm to 60 cm.

 An inner ring is driven into the ground, and a second bigger ring around
that to help control the flow of water through the first ring. Water is supplied
either with a constant or falling head condition, and the operator records how
much water infiltrates from the inner ring into the soil over a given time
period.
 plot of land (2m X 4m)
 The specially designed nozzles produce raindrops falling from height of
2m
 under controlled conditions with various combinations of
intensities & durations and the
 surface runoff rates and volumes are measured in each case.

P – R – G – E - T = ∆S
 Horton’s equation :

ft= Infiltration capacity(inches/hour) f0= Initial

infiltration capacity.
fc= Minimum infiltration capacity.
t = Time since the start of rainfall.
k = Constant depending upon soil type & vegetable cover.

Note : fc is directdependent upon hydraulic

conductivity.
  This is defined as the rate of infiltration above which

rainfall volume = runoff volume(saturation).

 SEEPAGE
SEEPAGE MEANING, CAUSES & CONTROL
• Water seepage generally means flow of water from one place to another
via small holes or porous material.
• It is usually occurs after heavy rainfall, which we can see easily then.
The most obvious sign of water seepage is a pool of water on the floor.
• In agriculture, seepage is major source of loss of irrigation water after
evaporation from reservoir or irrigation canal.

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SEEPAGE

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 SEEPAGE LOSS FROM CANAL
• In agriculture, seepage is major source of loss of irrigation water from reservoir or irrigation canal. Various

factors affect the seepage loss from the canal are as below:

• Characteristics of soil, such as, texture, porosity, permeability, bulk density etc.

• Hydraulic characteristics of the canal (wetted perimeter, flow velocity, roughness, longitudinal slope of the

canal, etc.)

• Life of the canal and physical characteristics, such as cracks in the lining, damage, vegetation.

• Amount of sediment in the water and sediment deposition in the canal.

• Lining material, etc.

• There are two methods of estimating seepage loss from the canal, i.e. ponding method and inflow–outflow

method.
 SEEPAGE CONTROL

• Seepage is primarily controlled by lining main and distribution

channels with impervious material, mainly concrete.

• Besides, asphalt and plastic film are also used to control

seepage.

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 Modern design practice
• Modern design practice incorporates this control into the embankment through the use of cutoffs, internal filters, and

adequate drainage provisions.

• Control at points of seepage exit can be accomplished after construction by installation of toe drains, relief wells, or

inverted filters.

• Weep holes and relief drains can be installed to relieve water pressure or drain seepage from behind or beneath concrete

structures.

• These systems must be designed to prevent migration of soil particles but still allow the seepage to drain freely.

• The owner must retain a professional engineer to design toe drains, relief wells, inverted filters, weep holes, or relief

holes.
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CANAL LINING

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 Pollution/ contamination of water quality due to
agricultural practices
 Agricultural nonpoint source (NPS) pollution is the leading source of water quality impacts on surveyed

rivers and lakes, the second largest source of impairments to wetlands, and a major contributor to

contamination of surveyed estuaries and ground water.

 Agricultural activities that cause NPS pollution include poorly located or managed animal feeding

operations; overgrazing;

 Ploughing too often or at the wrong time.

 Improper, excessive, or poorly timed application of pesticides, irrigation water, and fertilizer.

 Pollutants that result from farming and ranching include sediment, nutrients, pathogens, pesticides, metals,

and salts.
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Impacts from agricultural activities on surface water and ground water can be minimized by using

management practices that are adapted to local conditions

 Many practices designed to reduce pollution also increase productivity and save farmers and ranchers

money in the long run.

 There are many government programs available to help farmers and ranchers design and pay for

management approaches to prevent and control NPS pollution.

 For example, over 40 percent of section 319 Clean Water Act grants have been used to control NPS

pollution from working farms and ranches.

 Also, many programs funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and by states provide cost-share,

technical assistance, and economic incentives to implement NPS pollution management practices.

 Many local organizations and individuals have come together to help create regional support networks to
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adopt technologies and practices to eliminate or reduce water quality impacts caused by agricultural
 Sedimentation
 Sedimentation The most prevalent source of agricultural water pollution is soil that is

washed off fields.

 Rain water carries soil particles (sediment) and dumps them into nearby lakes or streams.

 Too much sediment can cloud the water, reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches(cattle

raising) aquatic plants.

 Farmers and ranchers can reduce erosion and sedimentation by 20 to 90 percent by

applying management practices that control the volume and flow rate of runoff water, keep

the soil in place, and reduce soil transport.

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 Animal Feeding
 Operations By confining animals in small areas or lots, farmers and ranchers can efficiently

feed and maintain livestock. But these confined areas become major sources of animal waste.

 Runoff from poorly managed facilities can carry pathogens such as bacteria and viruses,

nutrients, and oxygen-demanding organics and solids that contaminate areas and cause other

water quality problems.

 Ground water can also be contaminated by waste seepage.

 Farmers and ranchers can limit discharges by storing and managing facility wastewater and
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runoff with appropriate waste management systems.
 Nutrients
 Nutrients Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of
chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge.
 They may also grow legumes and leave crop residues to enhance production.

 When these sources exceed plant needs, or are applied just before it rains, nutrients can wash into
aquatic ecosystems.
 There they can cause algae blooms, which can ruin swimming and boating opportunities, create
foul taste and odor in drinking water, and kill fish by removing oxygen from the water.
 High concentrations of nitrate in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia, a potentially fatal
disease in infants, also known as blue baby syndrome.
 To combat nutrient losses, farmers can implement nutrient management plans that help maintain
high yields and save money on fertilizers. 60
 Irrigation
 Inefficient irrigation can cause water quality problems.
 In arid areas, for example, where rainwater does not carry minerals deep into the soil,
evaporation of irrigation water can concentrate salts.
 Excessive irrigation can affect water quality by causing erosion, transporting nutrients,
pesticides, and heavy metals, or decreasing the amount of water that flows naturally in
streams and rivers.
 It can also cause a build up of selenium, a toxic metal that can harm water fowl
reproduction.
 Farmers can reduce NPS pollution from irrigation by improving water use efficiency.
They can measure actual crop needs and apply only the amount of water required.
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 Farmers may also choose to convert irrigation systems to higher efficiency equipment.
 Pesticides
• Pesticides Insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides are used to kill agricultural pests. These
chemicals can enter and contaminate water through direct application, runoff, and
atmospheric deposition.
• They can poison fish and wildlife, contaminate food sources, and destroy the habitat that
animals use for protective cover.
• To reduce contamination from pesticides, farmers should use Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) techniques based on the specific soils, climate, pest history, and crop conditions for a
particular field.
• IPM encourages natural barriers and limits pesticide use and manages necessary
applications to minimize pesticide movement from the field. 62
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 Nitrogen-Based Fertilizers
• Nitrogen is a primary building block for plants, and healthy soil uses nitrogen efficiently. But under mono-
cropping, the soil becomes depleted of nutrients, requiring farmers to try to regenerate the soil through
practices like planting cover crops, crop rotation.
• The invention of synthetic nitrogen in the 20th century removed this limiting factor and allowed for a boom in
chemical-intensive, industrial farming practices.
• Naturally occurring nitrogen, known as N2, is more difficult for plants to use, requiring specific bacteria to
help make it bio available.
• But synthetic fertilizer is made up of a nitrogen-and-hydrogen-based ammonia (NH3) that can be used by
plants directly. Transforming N2 into NH3 through chemical processes is resource-intensive, and this form of
nitrogen is also more prone to reacting with other things in the environment, not just plants.
• In addition, when excess nitrogen makes its way into the atmosphere (as it often does when fertilizer is
applied at high volumes), it can become nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas, or nitrogen oxide, which
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contributes to ground-level smog.
 Caloric Inefficiency
• The caloric inefficiency of beef drives its high carbon price tag. It takes much more food,
water, and land to produce beef than it does to produce fruits and vegetables.

• And livestock feed is typically grown using pesticides as well as fertilizers, both of which are
made with fossil fuels.

• All of these factors add up to mean that meat diets produce 59 percent more greenhouse gases
than vegetarian ones, according to the National Institutes of Health, with beef being 34 times
more damaging to our climate than legumes like beans and lentils, by weight.

• Additionally, planting crops like legumes helps sequester more nitrogen in the soil,
whereas composting cow manure releases more methane and nitrous oxide into the air.
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 Land Use Changes
• Shifting land use to raise more livestock delivers a one-two punch to the
environment.
• Not only is animal agriculture resource-intensive and polluting, but clearing
land that previously held forest and other vegetation means releasing stored
carbon into the environment and destroying diverse ecosystems.
• Cattle ranching, for example, is devastating the Amazon rainforest,
accounting for nearly 80 percent of the deforestation in every Amazon
country.
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 Reducing Industrial Agriculture Pollution
• Eat more plant-based foods.

• Minimize consumption of red meat, our most carbon-intensive food.

• When possible, opt for organic, especially with the fruits and vegetables known to carry

the highest amounts of pesticides like strawberries, spinach, and apples.

• Plan meals in advance and serve small portions to prevent food waste, a significant

contributor of greenhouse gases. Nearly 40 percent of food in America goes uneaten, a

remarkable waste of resources.

• Don’t trash food scraps. Bring leftovers home from restaurants, and freeze what you won’t

eat right away. Any vegetable odds and ends can go into a home or community compost. 67
• Support local farmers practicing more sustainable growing methods by buying
from a neighborhood market.

• Buy in bulk to limit your packaging consumption but be aware of food waste
and only buy what you can finish.

• Start a “plant forward” initiative in your community and build meals around
your favorite vegetables instead of meats.

• Grow your own food, without chemicals. You’ll have a better understanding
of regenerative farming and will be able to reward yourself with organic, in-
season produce.
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Agricultural activity Impact

Surface Water Ground water

Tillage/ploughing Sediment/turbidity: sediments carry
phosphorus and pesticides adsorbable to sediment particles;
siltation of stream beds, loss of home ground.

Fertilizing Runoff of nutrients, particularly phosphorus, resulting in Leaching of nitrate to

eutrophication, groundwater;
inflicting style and odour within the public water excessive levels of nitrate is
system, excess algae growth resulting in de-oxygenation of water, and a threat to public health.
fish kills.

Manure spreading They are dispensed as a fertiliser activity; cause contamination of

(natural fertilizer) spreading on frozen ground leads to high contamination of receiving groundwater, by nitrogen.
waters by pathogens, metals, phosphorus, and gas resulting in
eutrophication and potentialcontamination.

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Agricultural Impact
activity
Surface Water Ground water

Pesticides Runoff of pesticides ends up in contamination of surface water and biota;

disfunction of the ecological system in surface waters by losing prime
predators because of growth inhibition and fruitful failure;
Public health impacts from ingestion contaminated fish. Pesticides ar
carried as dirt by wind over terribly long distances and contaminate aquatic
systems 1000s of miles away (e.g., tropical/subtropical pesticides found in
Arctic mammals).
Feedlots/animal Contamination of surface water with several pathogens (bacteria, viruses, Chance of leaching of
corrals etc.) resulting in chronic public health issues. nitrogen metals etc.
Also, contamination by metals contained in excretory product and body
waste.

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Agricultural Impact
activity
Surface Water Ground water
Irrigation Runoff of salts resulting in salinization of surface ground water contamination by
waters; runoff of fertilizers and pesticides to surface salts particularly nitrate.
waters with ecological harm, bioaccumulation in edible
fish species, etc. High levels of trace components like
chemical element will occur with severe ecological
harm and potential human health impacts.

Clear cutting Erosion of land, resulting in high levels of muddiness in Disruption of the hydrologic
rivers, siltation of bottom environment, etc. Disruption regime, usually with hyperbolic
and alter of hydrologic regime, usually with perennial surface runoff and minimized
streams, causes public health issues because of loss of groundwater recharge, affects
potable water. surface water by decreasing dry
periods' flow and concentrating
nutrients and contaminants in
surface water.

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Agricultural activity Impact
Surface Water Ground water
Silviculture The broad vary of effects: chemical
runoff and contamination of surface
water and fish; erosion and deposit
issues.
Aquaculture Release of pesticides (e.g., Tributyltin)
and high levels of nutrients to surface
water and groundwater through feed and
feces, resulting in severe eutrophication.

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 Self Purification of Stream

 When sewage is discharged into the river , the receiving water gets polluted due to waste
products present in sewage effluent.
 But the conditions do not remain same forever, because thenatural forces of purification go
on acting up on the pollution elements and bring back the water into its original condition.
 This automatic purification in due course of time is called the ‘Self Purification’
phenomena.
ACTIONS INVOLVED IN SELF PURIFICATION
OF STREAM
1. DILUTION
2. DISPERSION
3. SEDIMENTATION
4. OXIDATION
5. REDUCTION
6. TEMPERATURE
7. SUNLIGHT
 Dilution and Dispersion :

 When the perishable organic matter is discharged into river-

stream, it gets rapidly dispersed and diluted.
 This results in lowering of waste concentration and thus reduces
the potential nuisance of sewage.
Sedimentation :
 The settleable solids present in effluents will settle down into the river
bed, thus helping in the self purification process.
Oxidation :
 The oxidation of the organic matter present in the sewage effluent, will start as soon as
the sewage outfalls into the river water containing dissolved oxygen.
 The deficiency of oxygen so created , will be filled up by the
atmospheric oxygen.
 This is the most important action responsible for affecting self purification of rivers.

Oxidation Pond
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 Reduction :
 Reduction occurs due to hydrolysis of organic matter settled at the bottom
either chemically or biologically.

 Anaerobic bacteria will help in splitting the complex organic constituents of sewage in
liquids and gases, thus paving the for their ultimate stabilization by oxidation.
 Sunlight :
 The sun light has a bleaching and stabilizing effect of bacteria.
 Algae produces oxygen in the presence of sunlight due to photosynthesis.
 Therefore sunlight helps in purification of stream by
adding oxygen through photosynthesis.
 Factors Effecting Natural Forces :

 TEMPERATURE
 TURBULENCE
 HYDROGRAPHY
 DISSOLVED OXYGEN
 RATE OF REAERATION
TEMPERATURE :
o At higher temperature concentration of dissolved oxygen is low while the rate of
biological and chemical activities are high.
o This is likely to lead to anaerobic condition, the pollution is heavy.

TURBULENCE :
oThe turbulence in the body of water helps in breaking the surface of the stream or lake
and helps in rapid re-aeration from the atmosphere.

oToo much of turbulence scours the bottom sediment and stops algae growth.
HYDROGRAPHY :
o Hydrography affects the velocity and surface expanse of the river-stream.
o High velocity cause turbulence and rapid aeration , while surface expanse will also have
the same effect.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN :
o The larger the amount of dissolved oxygen present in water the better and earlier is the
self purification process.
RATE OF REAERATION :

o The rate at which dissolved oxygen is restored willconsiderably

govern the self purification process.
o The greater is this rate, the quicker will self-
purification.
Types of Water Pollution

Different types of water pollution can be listed as below.

 Surface water pollution

 Groundwater pollution

 Microbial pollution

 Oxygen depletion pollution

 Nutrient pollution

 Suspended matter pollution

 Chemical pollution
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1) Surface Water Pollution: Surface water pollution is the most visible form of pollution and can be
seen floating on the water surface in lakes, streams, and oceans. Trash from human consumption, such
as water bottles, plastics and other waste products, is most often evident on water surfaces. It also
originates from oil spills and gasoline waste, which floats on the surface and affects the water and its
inhabitants.
2) Groundwater Pollution: Groundwater pollution is usually caused by highly toxic chemicals and
pesticides that leak through the ground to contaminate the wells and aquifers below the surface.
3) Microbial Pollution: Microbiological pollution is the natural form of water pollution that is
caused by microorganisms in uncured water. Most of these organisms are harmless but some bacteria,
viruses, and protozoa can cause serious diseases such as cholera, typhoid, etc. This is a significant
problem in third world or developing countries where many people have no clean drinking water
and/or facilities to purify the water.
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4) Oxygen Depletion Pollution: Microorganisms that thrive in water feed on biodegradable substances.
When there is an influx of biodegradable material from sources such as waste or erosion from farming,
the numbers of these microorganisms increase and utilize the usable oxygen. When the oxygen level is
depleted, beneficial aerobic microorganisms die and anaerobic microorganisms thrive. Some of these
organisms produce damaging toxins like sulfide and ammonia.
5) Nutrient Pollution: Nutrients are usually found in wastewater and fertilizers. Excess concentration of
nutrients in water bodies can cause increased vegetation in the water bodies such as algae and weeds,
using up the oxygen in the water and affecting the surrounding marine life and other organisms in the
water.
6) Suspended Matter Pollution: It occurs when pollutants enter the water and do not mix with the water
molecules. These suspended particles form fine silt on the waterbed, harming the marine life by taking
away the nutrients, restricting oxygen diffusion into the water body and disturbing their habitat.
7) Chemical Pollution: From industrial plants and farms, chemical runoff flows into the nearby rivers
and water sources. Metals and solvents flow out of factories into the water, polluting the water and
affecting wildlife. Pesticides from farms also endanger the aquatic life. These dangerous pesticides and
toxins can get transferred through infected fish and affects human health. Petroleum is also a type of
chemical pollutant that dramatically affects the aquatic life.
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Sources of Water Pollution
Based on the sources, water pollution is broadly divided into two groups
• Point Sources Pollution
• Non-Point Sources Pollution

1) Point Sources Pollution: Contamination that enters a waterway from a single, identifiable source,
traced to a specific source is considered as point source pollution of water.
Point source pollution comes directly from a known source like an industrial or sewage outfall pipe.
Point sources are typically associated with manufacturing processes. Point source contamination
includes leaking chemical tanks, effluents coming from a waste treatment of industrial plant,
discharge from a sewage treatment plant, factory, city storm drain, industrial storm water,
discharge from construction sites, leakage of oil tankers in the sea, septic tank systems, storage
lagoons for polluted waste, municipal landfills, underground storage tanks containing pollutants
such as gasoline, public and industrial wastewater treatment plants etc.
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2) Non-point Sources Pollution: Contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source is called non-
point source pollution. It is the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from wide spread area.
They come from many miscellaneous or diffuse sources rather than from an identifiable, specific point. It includes
soil erosion, chemical runoff, animal waste pollution, leaching out of fertilizers from agricultural lands and nutrient
runoff in storm water from agricultural field and forest.
It also includes contaminated storm water washed off from parking lots, roads and highways, also called urban
runoff.

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Effects of Water Pollution

Physio-Chemical Effects: A large number of pollutants can impart colour, tastes and odors to the receiving waters
thus, making them unaesthetic and even unfit for domestic consumption.
The changes in oxygen, temperature and pH affect the chemistry of waters resulting in the formation of unwanted
products.
The addition of organic matter results in depletion of oxygen.
The direct addition of nutrients through various sources enhances the algal and other biological growths which
when die and decompose, further deplete the oxygen.
Biological Effects: The addition of pollutants leads to the shift in flora and fauna due to homoeostatic (self-
regulating) factors operating in the aquatic systems.
Most freshwater algae are highly sensitive to pollutants and their elimination modifies the prey-predatory
relationships by breaking down the food chains.
This results in change of the whole plant and animal communities. The diversity of organisms increases due to
encouragement of the growth of only a few tolerant forms in the polluted conditions. 92
Pathogenic Effects: In addition to the chemical substances, polluted water has several pathogenic,
nonpathogenic microorganisms and viruses. The clostridium, perfingersans, staftoculus, ficaliris cause
various types of food poisoning.Apart from this, many waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid,
paratyphoid, colitis and infective hepatitis (jaundice) are spread by consumption of sewage contaminated
waters.
Toxic Effects: These are caused by pollutants such as heavy metals, biocides, cyanide and other organic
and inorganic compounds having detrimental effects on organisms. These substances have usually very
low permissible limits in waters and their presence beyond these limits can render the water unfit for
aquatic biota and even for human use.The pollutants usually move within aquifers depending on
biological, physical, and chemical properties, while diffusion, dispersion, adsorption, and water flow
velocity facilitate their movement.But generally, contaminants progress sluggishly within aquifers,
leading to concentrated levels and forming a distinct plume pattern. As the plume spreads, it might
connect with springs and ground wells, making the water unsafe for human consumption. 93
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 Causes of Groundwater Pollution
Natural Sources
Naturally occurring substances found in the soil and rocks can be dissolved in water, causing contamination. Such
substances include sulfates, iron, radionuclides, fluorides, manganese, chlorides, and arsenic.Others, such as
the decaying materials in the soil, may seep into underground water and move with it as particles. Reports by
WHO indicate that the most common pollutants are fluoride and arsenic.
Septic Systems
Across the world, septic systems are the main cause of underground water pollution. 25% of households in the
USA depend on septic systems to dispose of their wastewater. This is a huge number of people relying on
septic systems, and that makes it one of the main pollutants.
The high number of septic systems means that cases of leaking are too high, releasing contaminants such as
nitrates, oils, bacteria, chemicals, detergents, and viruses into underground water.
Commercial septic tanks pose an even bigger threat because they release organic chemicals such as trichloroethane.
Laws in most countries require the septic tank to be constructed far from the water sources to prevent
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Hazardous Waste Disposal

Hazardous wastes such as photographic chemicals, motor oil, cooking oil, paint thinners, medicines, swimming

pool chemicals, paints, and garden chemicals should not be disposed of in septic tanks or the environment as

they cause serious contamination.

Instead, these chemicals should be disposed of with the help of a licensed hazardous waste handler.

Petroleum Products

Petroleum storage tanks are either located underground or above ground. Also, the transportation of petroleum

products is mainly done underground using pipelines. Leakages from these substances can lead to contamination

of water. In the USA, it is estimated that 16,000 chemical spills each year are from trucks, storage containers,

and train spillages, especially when transferring oil. The chemicals spilt become diluted with water and seep into
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the ground, where they may cause groundwater contamination.
Solid Waste
Approximately 0.3 to 0.6 kg/person/day of waste is released into the ground.On the other hand, in developed
countries, 0.7 to 1.8 kg/person/day is released.
The chemicals from these substances are leached into the groundwater through precipitation and surface runoff.
Sometimes underground contamination happens when the waste is collected and taken to landfills.
As long as the landfills lack a clay liner and leachate, the chances of chemicals from the wastes leaching and
posing a threat to the groundwater are very high.
Surface Impoundments :These are shallow lagoons used to store liquid waste.
The USA, for example, has over 180,000 surface impoundments, which can threaten groundwater.
Ideally, the impoundments should have clay liners or leachates to prevent leaching. But even with the leachates,
ensuring they’re in good condition is essential. Defective leachates can cause leakages, leading to contamination of
water.

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Agricultural Chemicals
Millions of tons of agricultural chemicals, such as fertilizers and pesticides, are used worldwide to increase
crop production. However, one thing that people don’t understand is that excessive use of these chemicals can
lead to contamination of groundwater. Chemicals such as pesticides are known to remain in the ground for
years, and when diluted with rainwater, they seep deeper into the groundwater.
Injection Wells
Injection wells serve diverse purposes, encompassing storm water collection and disposal of industrial and
commercial effluents. Yet, inadequate regulation can lead to improper disposal of hazardous chemicals.
Misplaced, poorly regulated, or inadequately designed injection wells pose a risk of groundwater
contamination.
Other Causes
Other causes of ground pollution are abandoned wells, which can act as a pathway for contaminants to reach
the aquifers. Also, poorly constructed wells that lack proper casing and covers may cause
groundwater contamination when pollutants find their way into such wells.
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