Prepared by: Mrs.

Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

UNIT-2
Abstractions and Runoff
Syllabus
Introduction, Abstractions- Evaporation, Factors affecting evaporation, measurement of
evaporation using evaporation pans, Methods of reduction of reservoir evaporation.
Transpiration, Evapotranspiration, Estimation of Evapotranspiration, Infiltration- Infiltration
capacity, Infiltration rate, Measurement of Infiltration, Infiltration indices. Runoff- Introduction,
types of Runoff, Factors affecting Runoff, Basin yield, Rainfall-runoff correlation, stimation of
runoff with empirical formula- Dicken’s formula, Ryve’s formula and Ingli’s formula.

Introduction
In a hydrologic cycle, precipitation is considered as input to a basin, and runoff is considered as
output from the basin. The loss of water between the input and output is considered as losses
(abstractions) in the basin. The loss of water occurs in the form of evaporation, transpiration,
infiltration, surface detention and storage etc.

Precipitation – Losses (Abstractions) = Runoff

Precipitation Evaporation+Transpiration

Runoff

Infiltration Surface detention and storage

Fig 1 Hydrologic cycle

Evaporation from water bodies and soil masses along with transpiration from vegetation forms
evapotranspiration. Interception and surface depression storage forms surface detention.

1
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

Percolation of water into ground surface, increasing the soil moisture and groundwater storage is
called infiltration. These are some of the major losses from precipitation.

Estimation of these losses becomes most important for the hydrologists to understand the
processes in the hydrologic cycle. This helps in the estimate of available water in the form of
runoff, designing the reservoir capacity, simulation studies, etc.

Evaporation
It is the process in which liquid changes to gaseous state at free surface below boiling point
through transfer of heat energy. All hydrological processes including evaporation are generally
measured in mm/day, mm/hr, mm/month or cm/yr.

Consider a water body, i.e., pond/lake. The molecules in the water body are in constant motion
with varying instantaneous velocities. Addition of heat in any form increases the range of the
instantaneous velocity as well as the average velocity of the molecules.

When molecules posses sufficient kinetic energy, they may cross over the water surface and
become a part of atmosphere as water vapour. Similarly, the molecules in the atmosphere as
water vapour, if loose energy, they may enter the free surface of the water body and get
converted to liquid form. The net escape of water molecules from liquid state to gaseous state
constitutes evaporation. Thus evaporation is essentially a cooling process where latent heat of
vaporization is provided by water body and in turn cooling it.

As the process of evaporation continues the gaseous medium a stage, when it can no longer
accommodate any more vapour molecules and it rejects the molecules. This stage is called
saturation stage. These molecules condense in the solid state and the process is called
condensation.

Out of the total atmospheric pressure on free surface there will be some contribution from the
vapour molecules present in it called as vapour pressure. This partial pressure of vapour at
saturation stage is called saturation vapour pressure (es). Saturation vapour pressure depends on
the temperature and other climatic factors.

For evaporation to occur it is necessary to have:

i. Supply of water molecules

ii. Source of heat energy
iii. Vapour pressure deficit
(i.e., difference between saturation vapour pressure and actual vapour pressure, e s – ea)

The rate of evaporation from water bodies depend on the following factors:

i. Vapour pressure at water surface:

2
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

For given temperature, evaporation increases as vapour pressure deficit increases. This
is given by Dalton’s law as,
E = C(es – ea)
Where, C is a constant
When es = ea, evaporation seizes
When ea > es Condensation occurs

ii. Temperature:
Other factors remaining same, evaporation increases with increase in temperature.
But no good correlation exists due to the effect of deep water bodies which stores
heat energy and releases during cold weather conditions.
iii. Wind:
Wind movement aids in evaporated water vapour from the zone of evaporation and
consequently creates scope for more evaporation. However if the speed is beyond a
critical speed where all the evaporated water is instantaneously carried away by the
wing, any increase in the speed does not affect the rate of evaporation.
iv. Atmospheric pressure:
Other factors remaining same, evaporation increases with decrease in atmospheric
pressure. i.e., as atmospheric pressure decreases, vapour pressure also decreases, thus
increasing the evaporation. But as altitude decreases, atmospheric pressure and
temperature decreases, thus complicating the correlation.
v. Quality of water:
Vapour pressure of soluble salts is less then that of pure water. Thus rate of
evaporation of sea water is 2-3%less than that of pure water.
vi. Size:
Deep waters have heat storing capacity. Deep lakes can store solar heat for as long as
from summer to winter, thus affecting the rate of evaporation.
vii. Radiation:
It is the main source of energy because of which water body gets heated. It is
observed that evaporation and radiation shows the same trend at monthly time scale.

Estimation of evaporation:

It has been given major importance in hydrologic studies due to its influence on hydrologic
processes.

1. Emperical equations:
Most of the empirical equations relate evaporation to the vapour pressure deficit. Some of
the empirical equations are:
i. Horton’s equation:
E = 0.4(Ψes – ea)

3
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

Where, Ψ is wind velocity function

ii. Meyer’s equation:
E = C(es – ea)(1+0.06215V)
Where, C = 15 for small shallow ponds
V is monthly mean wind velocity in km/hr at 10m above ground.

2. Analytical methods:
Lake evaporation can be estimated using the analytical methods listed below:
i. Water balance method
ii. Energy balance method
iii. Mass- transfer method

Measurement of evaporation

Evaporimeters are the water containing pans which are exposed to the atmosphere for
evaporation and loss of water by evaporation is measured in them at regular intervals. Many
types of evaporimeters are used. Some of the commomly used pan type evaporimeters are
discussed here.

i. Class A Evaporation Pan:

It is a standard pan of 1210mm diameter and 255mm depth used by the US Weather
Bureau. It is made up of unpainted galvanized iron sheet placed on a wooden
platform 15cm above ground. The wooden platform is provided for the air
circulutaion below pan. Water depth in pan is maintained between 18 and 20cm. The
measurement is taken with the help of a hook gauge in the stilling well.

Fig 2 US Class A Evaporation Pan

ii. ISI Standard Pan (Modified Class A Pan):

4
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

It is modified from Class A Evaporation Pan according to Indian weather conditions.

The diameter of the pan is 1220mm and depth is 255mm. it is made up of 0.9mm
thick copper sheet, tinned and painted. The measurement is taken with a point gauge.
Pan is covered with a hexagonal wire net of galvanized iron to avoid disturbance due
to birds. This reduces the rate of evaporation by 14%. The wooden platform is
1225mm wide and 100mm height.

Fig 3 ISI Evaporation Pan

iii. Colorado Sunken Pan:

It is a square pan of 920mm and 460mm deep made up of unpainted galvanized iron
sheet buried in ground within 100mm of top. Water level is mainatained as same as
the ground surface. Thus its advantage is that the radiation and aerodynamics is
similar to lake. However it is difficult to detect leakage, the surrounding area should
be free from tall grass, dust, etc., and it is expensive to install.

5
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

Fig 4 Colorado Sunken Pan

iv. US Geological Survey Floating Pan:

To simulate evaporation from a large water body, a floating pan was developed to
measure evaporation. It is a square pan of 900mm and 450mm deep supported by
drum floats in the middle of a raft and set afloat. The water level in the pan is
maintained at the same level as lake with a rim of 75mm. Its high cost of installation
and maintenance along with the difficulty involved in performing measurements are
its major disadvantage.

Pan Coefficient

Evaporation pans do not completely simulate large reservoirs. The principal drawbacks are:

i. They differ in heat storing capacity. Though Sunken and Floating pan is designed to
reduce this effect, it depends on the size of the pan. A pan of 3m diameter simulates
the lake well.
ii. Height of the rim affects the wind action and casts shadow on water.
iii. Heat transfer characteristics of pan are different from lake or reservoir.

Thus, to correct the observed reading, a correction factor called Pan Coefficient is introduced.

Lake Evaporation = CP X Pan Evaporation

Where, CP is Pan Coefficient

Type of Pan Average value Range

6
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

Class A Land Pan 0.7 0.6-0.8

ISI Pan 0.8 0.65-1.10

Colorado Sunken Pan 0.78 0.75-0.86

USGS Floating Pan 0.8 0.7-0.82

Errors in Pan Evaporimeters are:

1. Cover due to dust of film, oily secretion of birds and screen cover provided to protect
water.
2. Evaporation from fresh water is more than solvent having soluble salts. Therefore water
should be changed regularly.

Methods of reduction of Reservoir Evaporation

1. Reduction of surface area:

Evaporation is directly proportional to the surface area of the water body. Evaporation in
deep reservoirs with less exposed area is less when compared to shallow reservoirs.
Straight streams have less surface area, thus evaporation also reduces.
2. Mechanical covers:
Mechanical roofing arrangements such as permanent roof, temporary roof, floating roof
like rafts and lightweight floating particle can be made for small water bodies.
3. Chemical films:
Chemical called as evaporation inhibitors when applied to a water body, due to its polar
nature forms a monomolecular thin film on water surface. Currently this is the most
feasible method of evaporation reduction. Most commonly used chemicals are Cetyl
alcohol and Stearyl alcohol.

Desirable features of chemical film are:

i. It is strong, flexible and bdoes not break due to wave action.

ii. If punctured due to insects, birds or rain, it closes back almost immediately.
iii. It is pervious to O2 and CO2. Therefore water quality is not affected.
iv. It is colourless, odourless and non-toxic.

It is observed that using Cetyl alcohol reduces evaporation by 60% in pans. In field it is observed
to reduce by 20- 50%.

Transpiration

7
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

It is the process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reaches atmosphere as
water vapour. The source of water is the soil moisture. Water from soil is taken up by plant-root
system and escapes through the leaves to atmosphere.

The important factors affecting transpiration are atmospheric vapour pressure, temperature,
wind, light intensity and characteristics of plant.

While transpiration is confined to day light with the rate of transpiration varying depending on
the growth period of plants, evaporation continues all day and night at different rates depending
on the factors mentioned earlier.

Evapotranspiration

Evaporation takes place from soil and water bodies and transpiration takes place from plants in
the land area. It is difficult to estimate these two processes separately. Thus it is advantageous to
estimate them together as evapotranspiration. Loss of water due to evapotranspiration is also
called as consumptive use of water.

The factors affecting evapotranspiration can be classified as:

i. Plant factors
ii. Soil factors
iii. Atmospheric factors

Based on the availability of water, if there is enough water in the soil as soil moisture to meet the
needs of vegetation completely, then the evapotranspiration is called as Potential
evapotranspiration (PET). In this condition, the crop can produce maximum yield with healthy
growth.

Evapotranspiration occurs even when soil moisture is less than field capacity(maximum water
storing capacity) of soil, this is termed as, Actual evapotranspiration (AET).

Reference evapotranspiration (ET0)is potential evapotranspiration that takes place from a healthy
green grass of 12cm height that completely covers the land surface of a given plot when water is
supplied abundantly. This is considered as a standard value for a given climatic and soil
conditions. PET for other crops is obtained by multiplying a coefficient called Crop coefficient
for same soil and climatic conditions.

ET=k X ET0

Where, k is crop coefficient (0.5-1.3)

k depends on the crop and stage of crop growth

8
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

Estimation of evapotranspiration

Difficulty in direct measurement of evapotranspiration, has given rise to number of methods to

estimate it. Estimation is generally based on some of the climatic data available.

i. Penman’s equation:
It is based on the energy balance and mass transfer approach.
𝐴Hn + Eaγ
𝑃𝐸𝑇 =
A+γ
Where,
PET is Potential evapotranspiration in mm/day
A is slope of saturation vapour pressure v/s temperature curve at mean air
temperature in mm of mercury/ºC
Hn is Net radiation in mm of evaporable water / day
Ea is parameter for wind velocity and saturation deficit
γ is psychrometirc constant = 0.49 mmof mercury /ºC

ii. Blaney-Criddle formula:

It is an empirical formula based on the solar radiation.

ET=2.54kF

∑Pn Tf
𝐹=
100
Where,
ET is PET in a crop season in cm
k is empirical coefficient
F is sum of monthly consumptive use factors for period
Pn is monthly % of annual day-time hours, depends on the latitude of place
Tf is mean monthly temperature in ºF

(Note: A problem has been solved on estimation of ET)

iii. Thornthwaite formula:

It is based on the temperature variation.

10T
𝐸𝑇 = 1.6 𝐿𝑎
It

Where,

9
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

La is adjustment for number of hours of daylight and days in the month, depends on
the latitude of the place

T is mean monthly air temperature in ºC

It is total of 12 monthly values of heat index ∑ 𝑖

.
Where 𝑖 =

a is an empirical constant based on It

Infiltration
It is the flow of water into the ground through soil surface. Infiltrated water first meets soil
moisture deficit and crop water requirement, and then percolates deep to form groundwater body.

Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which a given soil at a given time can absorb water.
It is represented by fp.

Field capacity is the soil moisture retained against the free drainage due to gravitational force. It
is represented as FC.

If the actual rate of infiltration is given by fa, then,

fa = fp when i ≥ fp

fa = i when I < fp

Where, i is intensity of rainfall

Infiltration capacity is high at the beginning of storm and reduces exponentially with time.

Factors affecting infiltration capacity are:

i. Soil characteristics:
Soil texture, porosity, hydraulic conductivity, compaction etc affect infiltration rate.

10
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

Fig 5 Variation of Infiltration Capacity

Infiltration capacity of sand is more than clay because of its good drainage capacity.
Land use pattern also influence infiltration capacity. Forest area has higher infiltration
rate than urban area.
ii. Soil surface or surface of entry:
Fine particles in soil, if displaced due to impact of raindrop and clog pores available
for infiltration, infiltration rate decreases. Apart from thus other factors such as
vegetation cover and soil temperature also affect infiltration rate.
iii. Fluid characteristics:
Impurities in the fluid, turbidity and suspended particles block the minute pores
available for infiltration and decreases rate of infiltration. Fluid temperature also
affects the viscosity of the fluid which in turn affect infiltration rate.

Measurement of infiltration

Infiltration characteristics of a soil at a given location can be estimated by,

1. Infiltrometers
a. Flooding type infiltrometer
b. Rainfall simulator
2. Measurement of subsidence of free water in large basin or pond
3. Hydrograph analysis

Flooding type infiltrometer

11
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

It is an instrument used to measure infiltration at a small area. The device can be used to obtain
variation of infiltration capacity with time. There are two types of devices:

i. Tube type (or Simple) infiltrometer

ii. Double-ring infiltrometer

Tube type (or Simple) infiltrometer

The instrument is 30cm diameter and 60cm length made up of metal cylinder and is open at both
the ends. The cylinder is driven till a depth of 10cm above ground. A perforated disc is provided
on top of the cylinder to prevent turbidity and settling of fines through dust. Water level is
maintained 5cm above ground level. Amount water added at regular interval to maintain the
water level is noted, which gives the infiltration capacity. The experiment is continued till a
constant infiltration rate is reached.

Fig 6 Tube type (or Simple) infiltrometer

The major conceptual drawback in the setup is that water spreads or percolates laterally as it goes
down. Thus, it does not simulate the actual infiltration from rainfall.

Double-ring infiltrometer

To overcome the drawback of lateral movement of water from tube type infiltrometer, another
outer ring of 60am diameter is provided along with the inner ring of 30cm diameter. The height
of the instrument is 25cm with the rim 10cm above ground. A perforated disc is provided on top
of the cylinder to prevent turbidity and settling of fines through dust. Water level is maintained
5cm above ground level.

The outer ring prevents water from inner ring to move laterally. Measurement of water from
inner ring shows the infiltration capacity. The experiment is continued till a constant infiltration
rate is reached.

12
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

Fig 7 Double-ring infiltrometer

The disadvantages of flooding type infiltrometers are:

 Raindrop impact effect is not simulated

 Driving of tubes/rings disturb the soil structure
 Infiltration rate is susceptible to variation in the size of infiltrometer
Larger infiltrometers show less infiltration rates than small infiltrometers

Classification of infiltration capacities

Knowing infiltration capacities of soil helps in soil classification. This in turn is usefull in the
estimation of Runoff generated in the basin.

Infiltration capacity
Infiltration class Remarks
(mm/hr)
Very low < 2.5 Highly clayey soil
Shallow soil, clay soil, Soil
Low 2.5 - 25.0
low in organic matter
Medium 12.5 – 25.0 Sandy loam, silt
Deep sand, well drained
High > 25.0
aggregated soil
Infiltration Indices

Infiltration rate varies for a given storm from the time of its beginning. In the beginning of a
storm infiltration rate is high and then it decreases exponentially as the time elapse. It is difficult
to estimate this variation in rate for every intensity and duration of storm. Therefore a constant
value of infiltration rate is assumed throughout the storm duration. This infiltration rate is called
infiltration index.

There are two types of indices commonly used:

i. Φ index

13
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

ii. W index

Φ Index

It is defined as the average rainfall intensity above which the rainfall volume is equal to
runoff volume. A Rainfall Hyetograph of Intensity of rainfall v/s time helps in easy analysis.
If Φ is a constant infiltration rate, then,

if, Rainfall intensity < Φ, Infiltration = Rainfall

if, Rainfall intensity > Φ, Rainfall – Infiltration = Runoff

Fig 8 Φ Index

Φ represents the total abstraction from rainfall. The amount of rainfall in excess of Φ Index is
called Rainfall excess or Effective rainfall.

W Index

Φ Index represents the total abstraction including initial losses. W Index is refined by
separating initial losses from total abstractions. Therefore the average value of infiltration
rate for a storm is equal to W Index.

𝑃 − 𝑅 − 𝐼𝑎
𝑊=
𝑡𝑒
Where,

14
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

P is total storm precipitation (cm)

R is total storm runoff (cm)

Ia is Initial losses (cm)

Te I duration of rainfall excess i.e., total time in which Rainfall intensity > Windex (hrs)

Initial losses which include depression storage and interception is difficult to estimate.
Therefore accuracy of W index depends on the accuracy with which initial losses has been
estimated.

(Note: Two problems have been solved on Infiltration rate and Φ Index)

Runoff
It is the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area through a surface channel.
It represents the output from the catchment in unit time at outlet. The units of runoff if measured
in terms of volume in a given time, it is generally expressed in cumecs (m 3/s) and if it is
measured in terms of depth per unit time, it expressed as mm/day, mm/month or mm/yr.

Though the variation of rainfall is more in temporal scale, runoff is more or less uniform. This is
because of the storage components of hydrologic cycle.

Classification / components of RO K.Subramanya

Factors affecting RO Jaya Rami Reddy

Yield (Basin yield)

It is the total quantity of surface water that can be expected from a stream in a given period at the
outlet of its catchment. Analysis is generally carried out on annual basis or seasonal basis.
Analysis of annual yield of a catchment is helpful in estimation of available water for different
uses. Analysis on seasonal scale gives information about variation of available water and also
about the source of water.

Natural flow / Virgin flow is the runoff generated at the outlet of a catchment without any human
interruption (i.e., without any storage or diversion work)

Return flow is that part of runoff which is produced when water from stream is diverted for uses
irrigation. The water that leaks or non-consumptive part of diverted water that returns back to
hydrologic cycle is called return flow.

i.e., Y = NRO – RF

Where,

15
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

Y is the yield in the basin

NRO is the Natural runoff

RF is return flow

Rainfall Runoff correlation K Subramanya with problem

Emperical formulae

Estimation of peak runoff is most important in flood mitigation and other water storage
structures. Some of the empirical formulae available for estimation of peak flood discharge are
discussed here:

i. Dicken’s formula
It was developed for estimation of runoff in Central and North Indian region. It yields
reasonable runoff for local area.
Qp = CD A3/4
Where,
Qp is Maximum flood discharge in m3/s
CD is Dicken’s constant
A is Catchment area in km2

Region Dicken’s constant

North Indian plains 6
North Indian Hilly region 11-14
Central India 14-28
Coastal Andhra and Orissa 22-28

ii. Ryve’s formula

The formula is originated in Tamil Nadu and yields good results in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh.

Qp = CR A2/3
Where,
Qp is Maximum flood discharge in m3/s
CR is Ryve’s constant
A is Catchment area in km2

Where, CR is 6.8 for area within 80km from east coast

8.5 for area from 80 – 160km from east coast

16
 Prepared by: Mrs. Shilpa D N (DNS), MSRIT, Bangalore

10.2 for limited area near hills

iii. Inglis formula

It is developed based on the flood data of western ghats catchments in Maharashtra.

124 𝐴
𝑄𝑝 =
√𝐴 + 10.4
Where,

Qp is Maximum flood discharge in m3/s

A is Catchment area in km2

17