Bowling water drops on water surface

Cite as: Phys. Fluids 31, 067101 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5096235

Submitted: 15 March 2019 • Accepted: 07 May 2019 • Published Online: 03 June 2019

Kiat Li Law and Hong-Yu Chu

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This paper was selected as an Editor’s Pick

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Phys. Fluids 31, 067101 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5096235 31, 067101

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Bowling water drops on water surface

Cite as: Phys. Fluids 31, 067101 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5096235
Submitted: 15 March 2019 • Accepted: 7 May 2019 •
Published Online: 3 June 2019

Kiat Li Law and Hong-Yu Chua)

AFFILIATIONS
Department of Physics, National Chung Cheng University, ChiaYi 62102, Taiwan

a)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: phyhyc@ccu.edu.tw.

ABSTRACT
In our daily experience, the drops falling on a water pool usually immediately merge into water. The liquid drops floating at different envi-
ronments are fascinating but attract less attention. Here, we report that the water drops are capable of floating on a water surface without
heating, shearing, or oscillating the water pool. Water drops are generated from a beveled needle and fall on the clean water in an acrylic con-
tainer. Water drops released from a beveled needle are found to travel on the water surface in a speed of tens of millimeter/second for several
centimeters, which can be adjusted by the injection rate. A particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique is employed on the air, water drop,
and water pool to confirm the rotation-induced shear effect for the delay coalescence. TiO2 particles and water aerosols served as visualized
particles for PIV measurements in air, drop, and water pool. We show that the water drop can float on the water surface if it rotates or slides
fast enough. The relative motion of the drop and the underneath surface plays an important role in the delay coalescence. The flow in the air
layer between the drop and water pool not only shears the drop but also replenishes the loss of squeeze-out air in the thin layer.
Published under license by AIP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5096235

I. INTRODUCTION thermocapillary convection drives the surrounding air flowing into

In our daily life, when a rain drop falls on a pool of water, it
usually merges into the water bulk. However, when making a cup
of coffee or having an intravenous treatment, one sometimes might
see the drop floating on the pool of the same liquid. The liquid
drops floating on the liquid surface are interesting for their lubri-
cation effect.1 In 1881, Reynolds had pointed out this interesting
phenomenon that the water drops that float on the surface for the
water is not dusted.2 Since then, the studies about the floating drop
on the water surface were focusing on the purity of water and other
parameters.3 In fact, in 1879 Rayleigh had shed light on the phenom-
ena of noncoalescence drops and jets.4 The rebounds of colliding
liquid jets and drops were reported, and the idea of gas squeezed out
between two liquids was introduced.
It has been reported that the drop can keep floating on liq-
uid and solid surface due to the air flowing in the lubrication layer.
A water drop rapidly moves on a hot pancake plate because the
rapidly vaporized gas supplies the loss of the air layer, which is
known as the Leidenfrost effect.5 The vapor layer serves as an air
cushion for the floating drop, which leads to a rotating drop.6,7 A
drop can also float on the same liquid with smaller temperature dif-
ference between two liquid bodies. A surface temperature gradient
induces the liquid flowing in the drop and the air flowing around the
drop, which is known as the thermal Marangoni convection.1,8 The
the lubrication gas layer for the floating drop. A bouncing drop is
another example of the air cushion for the delay coalescence drop.9,10
The air layer is repeatedly replenished by the rapidly falling liquid
bath. On the other hand, a liquid jet rebounding on a circulating liq-
uid pool,11 drop surfing on moving liquids,12,13 and drop trapped
inside a circular hydraulic jump surface14,15 are the examples of
noncoalescence jet and drop without temperature difference. The
flowing liquid surface shears the air near the surface into the lubri-
cation layer that prevents the liquid from merging.16–21 The relative
motion between the drop and the beneath surface plays the key role
of replenishing the loss of the air layer. The effect of delay coales-
cence drop on the water surface was studied by changing the ambient
air pressure.22
Here, we report the experimental results of a water drop float-
ing on a water surface without heating, shearing, or oscillating the
liquid pool. The drop is found to float on the water surface for sev-
eral centimeters. Through the measurements of the free-surface syn-
thetic Schlieren (FS-SS) technique,23 we find that the floating drop
is not driven by the capillary wave on the water surface. A particle
image velocimetry (PIV) technique24 is employed on the air, water
drop, and water pool to show that the relative motion of the drop and
water surface plays an important role in the delay coalescence. The
shear-induced air flow replenishes the loss of escaping air between
drop and water pool. The shear flow also drives a nonrotating drop

Phys. Fluids 31, 067101 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5096235 31, 067101-1

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Physics of Fluids
to rotate and drives a fast rotating drop without moving forward to
move with increasing speed.
II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experiment was conducted in a simple setup. Clean water
in an acrylic container and a syringe with beveled needle are the
basic apparatus. The sizes of the containers used in the experi-
ment are 9 cm × 9 cm and 30 cm × 15 cm. The small container
was used in Figs. 1(c) and 1(d) (Multimedia view), and the rest
of the experiments were conducted in the large container. A peri-
staltic pump (DG100LV, DGS) was employed for flow rate con-
trol, as illustrated in Fig. 1(a). Liquid drops are produced from a
sharp beveled needle and a blunt tip needle which are released at
6 mm above the water surface. Floating drops can be observed when
it is released near the water surface. The profile of the capillary
wave on the water pool surface was measured by the free-surface
synthetic Schlieren technique. The pattern of random distributed
dots was displayed on a 7-in. screen below the container, and the
experimental results were recorded from the top. Different visu-
alized particles were prepared for PIV measurements in air, drop,
and water pool. TiO2 particles mixed in water with density about
100 µg/l and water aerosols generated by an ultrasonic nebu-
lizer were used for PIV measurements in water and in air. A
high speed camera (SC1, Edgertronic), a digital camera (GS3-PGE-
23S6M, FLIR), and a green laser sheet were used to visualize and
to record the traveling drop. Recording from a high speed cam-
era was done at 1000 frames per second, exposure of 1/2000 s,
which gave the spatial resolution of about 70 pixels per mm.
The PIV measurement was analyzed by MATLAB software with a
16 × 16 pixel correlation window size and overlapping of 0.5 window
size.
FIG. 1. (a) Illustration of the experimental setup. (b) The traveling of drops releas-
ing at the center and corner of the container. It is noted that the drops released
at the corner (labeled in triangles) travel with faster speed, longer distance,
and longer life time than the ones released at the center (labeled in squares).
[(c) and (d)] The water drops float and travel on the water surface which are
released at the center and corner of the container. Multimedia views: (c) and (d)
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5096235.1 and https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5096235.2
Phys. Fluids 31, 067101 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5096235
Published under license by AIP Publishing
ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/phf
Reynolds pointed out that the water drops that float on the
pool surface for the water is not dusted.2 Besides the FS-SS and PIV
measurements, the Fourier transform profilometry25 measurement
was employed on the floating drop for measuring the heights of the
surface wave and drop. A milky liquid solution (4 g TiO2 /l) was used
to enhance the reflectivity of the projected image. There is no contra-
diction for the requirement by Reynolds that the water is not dusted,
although we put a lot of TiO2 particles inside the water pool. The
micron meter-sized carbon particles were used for the PIV measure-
ments in drop and water pool. The drops were difficult to travel on
the water pool. We suspect that some carbon particles (dust parti-
cles) might float on the surface of the water pool which makes the
air flowing in the thin lubrication layer less smooth.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figures 1(c) and 1(d) (Multimedia view) show the water drops
that float and travel on the water surface which are released at the
center and corner of the container. Unlike our daily experiences,
the drops are able to float on a still water surface instead of merg-
ing into the water pool immediately. Figure 1(b) shows the trav-
eling distance of drops released at the corner (labeled in triangle)
and center (labeled in square) of the container. It is noted that the
drops released at corner travel with faster speed, longer distance, and
longer life time than the ones released at the center. The pathway of
the drops is the same for each condition, but the distance of the trav-
eling drop can be different (labeled in various colors). Surprisingly,
the drop is able to travel on the water surface more than 10 cm from
such a simple setup without external driving.
Figures 1(c) and 1(d) (Multimedia view) inspire us two dif-
ferent scenarios for the drop floating on the water surface: (1) the
drop is propelled by the front of the surface wave like a surfer and
(2) the drop is rotating on the water pool like a bowling ball. The
free-surface synthetic Schlieren measurement was conducted on the
water pool. Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show the distribution of relative
height on the water surface where the profile of the drop was unable
to be acquired and labeled in white. The profiles of the surface wave
were clearly observed which were induced by the impact of the drop
falling on the water pool and by the collapse of other drops on the
water pool. It reveals that the speed of the floating drop is about
70 mm/s and the capillary wave propagates in a speed of 350 mm/s.
The drop keeps floating, while the wave is passing through.
It is suspected that the traveling speed of the drop is enhanced
when the drop is released at the corner by the meniscus surface. We
employed a high speed camera to record the position of the drop
near the corner of the container at 500 frames per second (fps) and
a digital camera to record the propagation of the drop at a large
field of view (50 fps) as shown in the insets of Figs. 3(a) and 3(b).
Figures 3(a) and 3(b) reveal that for a drop released at the cor-
ner, it rapidly increases its speed by the meniscus surface within
0.05 s and keeps the maximum speed for about 0.1 s. After mov-
ing away from the meniscus surface, the drop then gradually slows
down until it merges with the water pool. The shape of the meniscus
surface was studied by Wereley.26 By using the free-surface synthetic
Schlieren technique, the change of surface height was measured and
fitted well with numerical simulations. The drops are produced by
a beveled needle near the wall of the container at the same injec-
tion rate. Figure 3(c) shows that the maximum speed of the traveling
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 Physics of Fluids ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/phf

FIG. 2. (a) Distribution of height of the surface wave mea-

sured by the FS-SS technique. (b) The change of the sur-
face height measured at x = 30 mm. The speeds of the
floating drop and capillary wave are 70 mm/s and 350 mm/s,
respectively.

drop is slightly smaller than the speed shown in Fig. 3(a) because the
meniscus effect is stronger at the corner [Fig. 3(a)] than at the wall
[Fig. 3(c)]. Because the water surface is not a rigid surface, it deforms
when the drop is landing on the surface. For drops released at differ-
ent heights (the same distance to the wall), the speeds of drops are
almost the same as shown in Fig. 3(c).
The contact angle determines the boundary condition of the
meniscus surface. However, the contact angle can be very different
for acrylic wall and glass wall. Controlling the contact angle is diffi-
cult since the wax and some waterproofing spray cannot be used in
the experiment. More details about the effect of the meniscus profile
on the floating drop are beyond the scope of this report.
The drops float on the water surface only when they are released
above the surface within a small distance. While the drop is released
at a higher position, the drop usually merges into the water pool
immediately. It can be easily understood that for a water drop with
a diameter of 2 mm, the mass of the drop is 4.2 mg. If it free falls at
10 mm above the surface, the potential energy of the drop is about
4.1 × 10−7 J. After landing on the surface, the bending energy of
the deformed liquid surface becomes Eb = σ ⋅ A = 72 mN/m ⋅ 2πR2
= 4.5 × 10−7 J, if the half drop is underneath the flat water surface.
The deformed liquid surface barely supports the impact of the liq-
uid drop. Figure 3(d) shows the rebound probability of the liquid
drop produced by a blunt tip needle at the center of the water pool
and released at different heights. The rebound event is counted if
the falling drop does not directly merge with the water pool after
impact. The liquid drops easily rebound when they are released near
the surface. The fast decrease of the rebound probability implies that
the concave water surface might not support such large bending
curvature.
In fact, the water drop is not quiet at all when it is produced
from a beveled needle. There is a fast circulating flow inside the water
drop. A small amount of TiO2 particles were added in the syringe to
reveal the flow inside the drop, as shown in Fig. 3(e). Therefore, we
propose the scenario that the drop floats on the water pool like a ball
rolling on a surface but without direct contact. The air layer between
the drop and water pool separates them from merging. Since the
water pool is still in the container, the delay coalescence should be
induced by the rotating drop. Like the experiments of the shearing
liquid layer,11–21 the rotating liquid drop performs relative motion
between two liquid surfaces. A syringe pump was employed to con-
trol the injection rate of liquid drops. Figure 3(f) shows the traveling
speed of the liquid drop produced by a beveled needle at the center of
the water pool with different flow rates which is similar to Fig. 1(d).
It is noted that the internal flow is faster at higher injection rates
and the traveling speed of the drop on the flat liquid surface is about

FIG. 3. [(a) and (b)] Change of traveling speed of the liquid drop. Traveling of the liquid drop produced by a beveled needle near the corner of the container is recorded at
500 fps and 50 fps. Insets: positions of the liquid drop. (c) Liquid drop released at different height travels in a similar speed on the water surface. Drops are produced by a
beveled needle near the wall of the container at the same injection rate. Height was measured by the vertical distance of the drop and the flat water surface. (d) Rebound
probability of the liquid drop produced by a blunt tip needle at the center of the water pool and released at different heights. (e) Small amount of TiO2 particles added in the
syringe showing the circulating flow inside the drop, exposure of 1/320 s. (f) The traveling speed of the drop increases with a faster injection rate.

Phys. Fluids 31, 067101 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5096235 31, 067101-3

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Physics of Fluids
linearly increased with the injection rate. It supports the assumption
that the rotating drop floats on the water pool like a ball rolling on a
surface.
Here, different PIV measurements of flow fields were con-
ducted in air, water drop, and water pool to show the role of the
rotating water drop. Water aerosols produced by an ultrasonic neb-
ulizer were employed for the PIV measurement in air as shown in
Fig. 4(a) (Multimedia view). Figure 4(b) and its inset show the air
flow speed distribution induced by the traveling drop in the refer-
ence frames of the drop and of lab (inset) that the drop is moving
to the right and rotating clockwise. The wake flow behind the drop
suggests that the traveling water drop dissipates its kinetic energy
not only through the head-on collision with incoming gas but also
through the viscous diffusion to the ambient gas. In the reference
frame of the drop, the drop sees the nearby air flowing around itself.
The PIV measurement shown in Fig. 4(c) reveals the velocity distri-
bution of the flow field around the drop in the reference frame of
the drop. The nearby air flows clockwise around the drop because it
is sheared by the boundary of the rotating liquid drop. Figure 4(d)
shows the speed distribution along the y-direction at the top of the
drop. The fast decayed flow distribution is similar to the case of
sheared flow due to an impulsively moving plane boundary.27 The
PIV measurement reveals that the rotating drop provides a shear
force on the ambient gas. It is suspected that there is some air flowing
Phys. Fluids 31, 067101 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5096235
Published under license by AIP Publishing
ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/phf
FIG. 4. (a) Water aerosols produced by
an ultrasonic nebulizer for the PIV mea-
surement. (b) Speed distribution of the
surrounding air flow due to the rotat-
ing drop in the reference frame of the
drop. Inset: speed distribution of air in
the reference frame of lab. (c) Veloc-
ity distribution of air flow in the ref-
erence frame of the drop. The direc-
tion of air flow near the drop surface is
found along the direction of the rotating
drop. (d) Speed distribution of air flow
at the top of the drop. (e) Illustration of
the shear-enhanced floating drop. Flow-
in air replenishes the loss of squeeze-
out air in the thin lubrication layer for
delay coalescence. Multimedia view: (a)
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5096235.3
into the gap of the drop and water pool. The scenario of the floating
drop is illustrated in Fig. 4(e). The rotating drop drags the surround-
ing air flowing into the gap, which replenishes the loss of squeeze-out
air in the thin lubrication layer for delay coalescence. It means that
the pressure in the lubrication layer prevents the drop from merging
and the tangential shear stress should enhance the circulating flows
inside the water drop. However, the air layer is too thin to measure
the shear flows especially while the drop is moving. The thickness
of the air layer is estimated for about 10 µm at a traveling speed of
50 mm/s.14 Because of the important role played by the air flow in
the lubrication layer for the floating drop, experiments of a nonro-
tating drop sliding on the water pool and a fast rotating drop without
moving on the water pool were conducted.
TiO2 particles in the syringe were employed for the PIV mea-
surement inside the drop. A nonrotating drop was produced from a
blunt tip needle near the wall as shown in Fig. 5 (Multimedia view).
It is noted that in the beginning, the drop slides without rotation on
the water pool where there is no relative motion of TiO2 particles
inside the drop. However, after it slides for some distance, there are
some internal flows appearing at the bottom of the drop and then
the flows diffuse and circulate. Insets of Fig. 5 (Multimedia view)
show the PIV measurements inside the drop at different locations in
the reference frame of the drop. Here, a nonrotating drop is used
to emphasize the effect of shear-induced rotation on the floating
FIG. 5. PIV measurement inside the liq-
uid drop. A nonrotating liquid drop is
released by a blunt tip needle near the
wall. The drop is sliding on the meniscus
surface first. Some internal flow appears
at the bottom of the drop, and the flows
diffuse and circulate at the latter stage.
Insets: flow fields inside the drop in the
reference of the drop. Multimedia view:
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5096235.4
31, 067101-4
 Physics of Fluids
FIG. 6. (a) PIV measurement in the water pool. The flow in the water pool is
induced by a fast-rotating drop without moving on the water pool. (b) The fast-
rotating drop slowly increases its translational speed on the surface. Multimedia
view: (a) https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5096235.5
drop like bowling a water drop. The internal flow inside the drop
appearing at a lower corner supports the assumption of the flow-in
air and squeezes-out air flows in the lubrication layer.
The shear-induced flow effect is also observed by the fast-
rotating drop. The flow in the pool can be induced by the air shearing
on the surface and by the displacement of the deformed water sur-
face due to the drop motion. In order to distinguish the effects, a
water drop with fast internal circulation was produced by a beveled
needle with blunt tip. A fast rotating drop was produced by the
beveled surface, sliding down and hanged at the flat tip. Finally, the
fast rotating drop free fell on the flat water surface due to gravity.
Consequently, the drop performed rapid rotation with slow transla-
tional speed. Figure 6(a) (Multimedia view) shows the flow fields in
the water pool at the reference frame of lab where the drop is rotat-
ing clockwise. The flow is only observed beneath the drop which
shows the air flowing in the gap between the drop and water pool.
Figure 6(b) shows the slow increase of the translational speed of
the fast rotating drop on the flat water surface. The drop slowly
transfers its rotational kinetic energy to translational kinetic energy
through the air friction. The rotational speed of the drop decreases
from about 70 rps to 25 rps before the drop merges with the water
pool. The air shearing on the floating drop plays a similar role of the
friction force in the rolling bowling.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
In summary, we show that when a water drop free falls on a
still water pool, the drop can float and travel on the surface. Differ-
ent from previous investigations, the water pool does not need to be
heated, sheared, and oscillating. Drops released from a beveled nee-
dle at the edge are traveling faster than the one released at the center
of the tank, which are enhanced by the meniscus surface. Drops
released from a beveled needle at the center of the tank cannot be
accelerated by the flat water surface, but the traveling speed of the
water drops can be manipulated by the injection rate. The traveling
speed of water drops increases with a larger injection rate due to the
faster internal rotation in the drop. The PIV measurements show
that the rotating drop is able to drag the surrounding air along the
direction of rotation, but the rotation is not crucial for the floating
drop. The air flow in the gap of the drop and the water pool plays an
important role in the delay coalescence which provides shear on the
drop and the pool surface. Therefore, a nonrotating drop produced
by a blunt tip needle can slide and then roll on the water surface. The
Phys. Fluids 31, 067101 (2019); doi: 10.1063/1.5096235
Published under license by AIP Publishing
ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/phf
drop with rapid rotation and slow traveling speed on a flat water sur-
face also supports the speculation about the shear-enhanced floating
drop. From the FS-SS measurement, we show that the drop floating
on the water surface is not propelled by the capillary wave on the
surface. The drop keeps floating, while the wave is passing through.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Tech-
nology, Taiwan, under Contract No. MOST-105-2112-M-194-001-
MY3.
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