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Where,
n is the porosity (percentage), Vv is the volume of void space in
a unit volume of earth materials (L3, cm3 or m3), and V is the
unit volume of earth material, including both voids and solids
(L3, cm3 or m3)
Porosity in sedimentary rocks
• In sediments or
sedimentary rocks the
porosity depends on
factors such as:
– grain size,
– the shape of the
grains,
– the degree of
sorting and
– the degree of
cementation.
Porosity in Igneous and metamorphic rocks
Where;
Where;
C is the shape factor which depends upon the shape, particle size and
packing of the porous media; dm is the mean particle size (d50) (L, m); ρ
is the mass density (kg/m3); g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2);
μ is the viscosity (kg/s.m)
Permeability of Earth Materials
• Permeability is a property of the porous
medium that allows it to transmit fluids.
• It depends on size of openings, degree of
interconnection, and amount of open space.
Thus, permeability depends on grain size and
sorting.
• Coarse grained and well-sorted sediments
have higher permeabilities.
Measuring Hydraulic Conductivity
• Usually we use permeameters in measuring
hydraulic conductivity in the laboratory.
• There are two types of permeameters
1. Constant head
2. Variable head
Constant Head Permeameter
Where,
K = Coefficient of permeability
a = Area of the burette
L = Length of soil column
A = Area of the soil column
h0 = Initial height of water
h1 = Final height of water = h0 - Δh
t = Time required to get head drop of
Δh
Transmissivity (T)
• Transmissivity (T) is the discharge rate at which
water is transmitted through a unit width of an
aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. Thus,
– T = Kb (confined aquifer) or T = Kh (for unconfined
aquifer)
Where;
b is the saturated thickness of the aquifer, It is equal to
the average thickness of the saturated zone of an
unconfined aquifer, h.
• Transmissibility is usually expressed as m2/s
Specific Storage (Ss)
• Specific Storage (Ss) is the amount of water per unit volume of a saturated
formation that is stored or released from storage due to compressibility of the
material and the pore water per unit change in hydraulic head.
– This is also called the elastic storage coefficient.
– The concept can be applied to both aquifers and confining units.
• The specific storage is given by the expression (Jacob 1940, 1950; cooper
1966):
Where;
ρw is the density of the water (Kg/m3), g is the acceleration of
gravity (m/s2), α is the compressibility of the aquifer (m2/N), n is
the porosity, β is the compressibility of water (m2/N)
Storage Coefficient (S)
• Storage coefficient (S) is the volume of water released from storage, or
taken into storage, per unit of aquifer storage area per unit change in head.
– The storage coefficient is also called Storativity.
– The storage coefficient is a dimensionless as it is the ratio of the
volume of water released from original unit volume.
• The water-yielding capacity of an aquifer can be expressed in terms of its
storage coefficient.
• In unconfined aquifers, Storativity is the same as the specific yield of the
aquifer.
• In confined aquifer, Storativity is the result of compression of the aquifer
and expansion of the confined water
– when the head (pressure) is reduced during pumping.
Estimation of Storage Coefficient (S)
• Storage coefficient normally varies directly with
aquifer thickness:
Where;
Where;
Q - flow rate (L3/T), K - hydraulic conductivity (L/T), h-head (L), dh/dl - hydraulic
gradient, A - cross-sectional area of porous media (L2)
• The minus sign on the right hand reflects that the hydraulic head always
decreases in the direction of flow.
The Application of Darcy’s Law
• Darcy’s velocity is usually used in determining
whether the floe is Laminar or turbulent
through estimation of the Reynolds Number
Where;
R - Reynolds number, dimensionless
ρ - fluid density
v - discharge velocity (Darcy's velocity)
d - diameter of passageway through which fluid
moves
μ -viscosity (M/TL)
Fig. Laminar and turbulent flow
Darcy’s Velocity
Where;
ne is the effective porosity
Classification of Hydrogeological
Environments
• There are five classes of hydrogeological
environments
– Alluvial systems
• Alluvial fans
• Deltas
• Floodplains/river valley deposits
– Glacial Deposits
– Clastic sedimetary rocks – sandstone/shale
– Chemical sedimentary rocks – carbonates/Evaporites
– Hard rocks
Alluvial systems
• Alluvial fans
– This occurs when a stream flows out of a
mountainous area into a flat plain, leaving behind a
big pile of sediment called an alluvial fan
• Deltas
– Deltas are like alluvial fans, but they form where a
stream enters a larger body of water, such as a lake,
inland sea, gulf, or ocean.
– As the stream enters the larger body of water, its
velocity suddenly decreases drastically, and it drops
almost all of its sediment.
Alluvial systems
• Floodplains/River Valley Deposits
– The area around rivers can be very productive
aquifers, and have historically been extensively used
as a source of water for irrigation and drinking.
– These areas usually contain unconsolidated high-
permeability coarse grained channel deposits
interspersed with finer grained overbank deposits.
– They are also usually shallow and easy to drill, will
interchange with surface streams and have a fairly
constant source of recharge, and usually have fairly
good water quality.
Glacial Deposits
• Glacial sediments are found worldwide in high
mountainous areas.
– The ICE cap of Kilimanjaro mountain
• Glacial deposits can be very permeable or very
tight.
• Glacial deposits are either unstratified or
stratified depending on the depositional
processes
– Stratified – with defined layers
– Unstratified – different sizes that are not well sorted
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks –
Sandstone/Shale
• Similar to unconsolidated sediments, the porosity
and permeability of sandstones is affected by
sorting and grain size.
• Cementation also plays a big role.
– Well-cemented sandstones can have very low
permeabilities, and have hydraulic properties that are
more like granite than sandstone
– As a general rule, older sedimentary rocks (e.g.
Silurian) are more cemented than younger (e.g.
Miocene).
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks –
Carbonates and Evaporites
• Limestone, dolomites, and, to a lesser extent, evaporite like
gypsum and halite, are widespread over the surface of the Earth.
– Since calcite is fairly soluble, these rocks can get well-cemented fairly
easily, and limestone can have very little open pore space.
– Limestone are also subject to extensive karstification, or dissolution.
– Karstification usually starts in fractures, and tends to occur at the water
table where CO2 can outgas from the system
• Evaporite units very rarely form aquifers.
– They have low primary porosity, and are so ductile that fractures don’t stay
open for so long.
Hard Rocks
• Granites, basalts, and metamorphic rocks are
usually not very good aquifers.
– These rocks tend to have very low primary porosities,
and in the ones that do have significant porosity (e.g.,
weathered basalts), the porosity is often not well
connected.
• However, in general, productivity of these
aquifers is almost always dependent on fractures
– These fractures can come from cooling stresses, from
exfoliation and release of overburden stress, and from
tectonic stresses.