ENGINEERING GEOLOGY 2021-22

MODULE-5: HYDRO-GEOLOGY

The branch of geology deals with the occurrence, distribution and circulation of water on the earth
and atmosphere with its quality and quantity aspects. It is concerned with the atmospheric water (moisture),
precipitation (rainfall and snowfall), water in lakes & stream, snow & ice on the land, and groundwater
covering an area of 75% of earth’s surface.

Hydrologic cycle
The hydrologic cycle also known as the world’s water cycle, describes the continuous movement of
water on above and below the Earth surface. Although the water balance on Earth remains fairly constant
over time, individual water molecules can come & go, in and out of the atmosphere. The water dynamically
circulates from earth to the atmosphere and from atmosphere back to the earth surface by the physical
processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. During
entire process, the water goes through different phases of solid (ice), liquid and gas (vapor) state.
Hydrological cycle is the continuously transfer of water occurs in the nature with the following important
phases:

1. Evaporation: Is the escape of water molecule from all water bodies to the
atmosphere due to increase in temperature and wind velocity. Evaporation occurs
from the surface of ocean, lakes, ponds, reservoir and moist soil etc.

2. Transpiration: The escape of molecules occurs from plants, trees, shrubs etc
which moves upwards and forms clouds. However the evaporation and
transpiration is very low in the Desert and semi-desert region.

3. Condensation: Water vapor converts to mass of cool air forming clouds and
changes back into liquid.
4. Precipitation: The discharge of atmospheric water on the earth’s surface and oceans as solid (snow) or
liquid (water) state such as rain, snow, mist, hail, sleet, frost etc .

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5. Infiltration: It is the absorption of water by soil that
stores for plant growth.

6. Percolation: Downward movement of water through the

tiny pores between rocks and soil particles like water fills
the tiny holes of a sponge. Water percolates through ground
forming pockets of water called groundwater. This helps to
replenish aquifers under the ground.

7. Run-off:- Runoff is a major component of the water cycle. It is the excess flow of water occurs during
heavy rainfall and fills nearby river, streams which finally reach oceans.

WATER BEARING HORIZONS/ GEO-HYDROLOGIC UNITS

Ground water occurs in many types of geological formations those known as aquifers, Aquiclude,
Aquitard, and Aquifuges.

1. AQUICLUDE: Aquicludes are water bearing formations that cannot yield adequate water for wells.
Eg., Shale, clay.

2. AQUIFUSE: Impermeable formation neither containing nor transmitting water to wells.

Eg., Granite, dolerite, quartzite

AQUITARD: It is a saturated formation which yields inappreciable quantities of water to wells. Eg., Marly
limestone, shell sandstone.
3. AQUIFER
4. An aquifer may be defined as a geological formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material
to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs. This implies an ability to store and transmit
water.
There are various types of confining beds.
1. Aquifers- means “water bearer”.
2. Aquiclude- means “to shut or close”.
3. Aquifuge- means “to drive away”.
4. Aquitard- means “slow”.
AQUIFERS AND ITS TYPES
Aquifers: Aquifers are water bearing layers (or formations) that yield water to wells in usable amounts. Typical
aquifers are made of sand, gravel or sandstone. These materials have large interconnected pore spaces between grains
that water moves freely. The word aquifer is derived from Latin. Aqua- means “water” and fer- means “to bear”.
Eg., Sandstone.

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1. Unconfined aquifers (Open aquifers):- These are connected directly to the atmosphere through pore spaces in the
soil. It is a shallow, productive and prone to contamination from the surface effluents. The volume of water is
mainly depends on seasonal rainfalls that refill the aquifer. This also depends on pump age from wells,
permeability, rise & fall, and volume of water in an aquifer.
2. Confined aquifers (Closed aquifers):- A confined aquifers are trapped by the layers of impermeable rock or clay.
This restricts the flow of groundwater from one formation to another and do not have direct contact with the
atmosphere. Aquifers that are completely saturated with water and under pressure are called artesian aquifers.
3. Perched Aquifers: A part of groundwater body of small aerial extent is separated from the main groundwater
source in the zone of aeration is called perched aquifers. This occurs when an impermeable layer stops the water
movement below the land surface. Bore hole drilling on perched aquifers yield only temporary small packet of
water.
Eg., clay beds.

AQUIFER PARAMETERS

i. Porosity:- It is the ratio between the total Voids or Pores to the total volume
of the rock or material. 3

ii. Permeability:- Permeability is the ability of a rock bed to

transmit water through its pores. It can be defined as the
flow per unit of cross sectional area and has the dimension
of velocity.

iii. Specific yield:- It is the water removed from unit volume of

aquifer by pumping and expressed in percentage. Specific yield
depends up on grain size,
shape & distribution of pores and compaction of the formation.

iv. Specific retention:- It is the percentage (%) of total volume of

the saturated Aquifer which holds/
retained in a unit volume of saturated Aquifer by molecular and surface tension forces against the force of Gravity.

Groundwater Exploration

Groundwater investigations are extremely important in arid regions (desert), where insufficient amount of
quality water is not supplied. The very first indicator of groundwater is the presence of well grown plants and trees due
to deep rooted system to reach the deep water table. The type of grown plants, its leaf color and stem thickness will
indicate the depth of the water table and its quality to some extent. Resistivity survey is one of the important types of
geophysical investigation to explore groundwater conditions. This works on the fact that the increases in water content,
decreases the rock resistivity. Based on the geological information, if the resistivity is decreasing below 60m rock

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100m, then it canbe easily concluded that water is present below 60m depths by electrical testing.

1. Electrical Resistivity Methods

These methods are based on the principle that electrical resistivity of weathered products such as soil, alluvium
sand and clay derived from underlying parent rocks. The electrical resistance of the rock is low in case having more
porous/ jointed and fissured. Thus igneous and metamorphic rocks have greater resistance than sedimentary rock.

Sl No. Geologic Bodies Resistivity

1. Clays 200 – 500 ohms/cm
2. Sedimentary rocks 500 – 10,000 ohms/cm
3. Igneous rocks Above 10,000 ohms/cm
4. Metamorphic rocks Above 10,000 ohms/cm

i. Equipment: - The resistivity equipment consists essentially

a) Power pack of a high voltage battery of 200volts, voltmeter or potentiometer and a multi range millimeter for
measuring current and small potential difference accurately.

b) Four Stainless Steel electrodes about 800mm (8cm) long 20mm (2cm) diameter.

c) Abundant insulated single conductor cable of 0.5m2 on portable reels.

ii. FIELD PROCEDURE AND INTERPRETATION

Four electrodes are fixed into the ground in a straight line at equal distances and electric current is passed
through the insulated wires of two outer electrodes called current electrodes. These are connected by insulated cable
wire through a milliammeter to a power pack. The current flows through the ground extend to indefinite depths but the
intensity diminishes with depth. Hence, current is measured within a depth approximately equal to one-third where the
current is travelled. The intensity of the current travelled
into the ground is recorded by the ammeter. Distance between the electrode spacing may provide error
i n t he milliammeter. Next, the voltage drop due to potential difference between two inner electrodes called potential
electrodes is measured from the potentiometer.

Resistivity is then obtained by the expression

R=2P/I
R=Resistivity, P= Potential difference, I= Current applied between electrodes

Since, the ground is rarely homogeneous, the value of R is considered as apparent resistivity of the ground. The

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difference in the value obtained represents the underground rock/ soil characteristics at various depths. The depth
determined would be over the central point of electrode system. Thus principally there are two distinct methods of
resistivity determinations, as follows

a) Expanding electrodes separation techniques or Vertical Profiling

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEY USING WENNER ARRAY

In this method, electrode spacing is increased about a fixed central point thereby depth of current penetration is
increased. Resistivity and its graph are constant for all electrode spacing, if the ground is homogeneous. The resistivity
curve is then compared with a series of master curves and computed values to determine the various values of depth
and resistivity ratio.

Test Values of Electrical Resistivity Curve analysis

b) Lateral traversing techniques or Horizontal Profiling

In this method, the depth is kept constant and horizontal variations of geological formations are measured. The
apparent resistivity is measured at successive stations along the line of traverse and plotted the water bearing
formations. In addition with other information such as the dip, strike of rock bed, vertical dykes, folds, faults etc, can
be traced.

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POTENTIALITY OF DIFFERENT ROCKS AS AQUIFERS

The various kinds of rocks posses’ variable water-bearing properties, depending chiefly
on their permeability and porosity. Of the three important types of rocks, the Sedimentary
rocks, generally, constitute the best aquifers, the Metamorphic rocks and especially the
foliated ones, making moderate to good aquifers; and the Igneous rocks generally
behaving as the poor aquifers. The various kinds of rocks and their water-bearing
potentials are briefly discussed below.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS AS AQUIFERS: - Among the Sedimentary rocks, Gravels

posses the highest water retaining as well as water yielding capacities. This is truer in
case of loose and weakly cemented coarse gravels. In general, next to Gravel, the other
Sedimentary rocks in their successive order of decreasing water bearing capacity are;
loose sand, sandstone, limestone etc. Shale (Clay) is the poorest in absorbing water, being
impermeable although porous, and hence classified as aquicludes.

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Among sandstones, the water-bearing capacity depends much upon their texture and
nature of cementing material. Coarse-grained sandstone may be good aquifers. Whereas
fine grained sandstone may prove to be the poorest aquifers.

The water-bearing capacity of limestone depends much upon the presence of solution
channels, crevices, fissures and other such opening in the rock. Hence, fissured and
cracks limestones may prove to be excellent aquifers and other compacted limestones mat
prove to be totally unproductive.

IGNEOUS ROCKS AS AQUIFERS: - The intrusive igneous rocks like granites,

syenites etc., are generally very compact and dense and hence are non-porous. They are
barren groundwater under normal conditions. However when they are traversed by
fissures or cracks, they may be capable of holding some groundwater quantities. Even
these cracks and fissures die out with depth, and as such, there is absolutely no possibility
of getting any groundwater in these rocks at depths greater than 80-100mts.

The extrusive igneous rocks also exhibit great variations in their water-bearing properties.
Basic igneous rocks like basalts are generally rich in cavities and contraction cracks; and
as such may become permeable and sources of groundwater. Acidic igneous rocks like
rhyolites may or may not contain groundwater, because such rocks although generally
posses interstices, but may be filled up with ash and other material, and hence the
uncertainty.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS AS AQUIFERS: - Non-foliated metamorphic rocks like

Marble and Quartzite are generally impermeable,

except along the original bedding, if the same is not
completely destroyed during metamorphism. Foliated
metamorphic rocks like Slates, Schist, Phyllites and
sometimes even Gneiss may contain some good
amount of groundwater due to their being highly
fractured.

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CYCLONES
Cyclone refers to any spinning storm that rotates around a low-pressure center which is also
referred to as the 'eye' of the storm. Cyclone is a swirling atmospheric disturbance in which strong winds
blow in a circle and rotate in the same direction as rotation of the earth. These comprise spiraling winds
that are usually centered in low atmospheric pressures surrounded by high pressure. They usually occur
in tropical regions due to high temperature and humidity. Cyclones are referred to as typhoons in the
Pacific Ocean, cyclones in the Indian Ocean and hurricanes in America. About 65-75 cyclones arise in
the world every year. They are very common in India because of its long coastline.

EFEECTS
The main effects of tropical cyclones include heavy rain, strong wind, large storm surges at
landfall, and tornadoes. Even well inland, heavy rainfall can lead to mudslides and landslides in
mountainous areas.
1. Strong winds: Strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges, trees, personal
property and other outside objects. Tropical cyclones often kill tens or hundreds of thousands of people,
preventing vital communication and hampering rescue efforts. Tropical cyclones often destroy key
bridges, overpasses, and roads, complicating efforts to transport food, clean water, and medicine to the
areas that need it.
2. Storm surge: The storm surge or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone is typically the worst
effect from land falling, historically resulting in 90% of tropical cyclone deaths. The relatively quick
surge in sea level can move miles/kilometers inland, flooding homes and cutting off escape routes. The
storm surges and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human-made structures, but they also stir up
the waters of coastal estuaries, which are typically important fish-breeding locales.
3. Heavy rainfall: Cyclones are the primary cause of the most extreme rainfall variability in the world.
The thunderstorm activity in a tropical cyclone produces intense rainfall, potentially resulting in
flooding, mudslides, and landslides. Heavy inland rainfall eventually flows into coastal estuaries,
damaging marine life in coastal estuaries. On the other hand, the occurrence of tropical cyclones can
cause tremendous variability in rainfall over the areas. Large areas of standing water caused by flooding
also contribute to mosquito-borne illnesses. Furthermore, crowded evacuees in shelters increase the risk
of disease propagation.
4. Tornadoes: The broad rotation of a land-falling tropical cyclone often spawns tornadoes,
particularly in their right front quadrant. While these tornadoes are normally not as strong as their non-
tropical counterparts, heavy damage or loss of life can still occur.
5. Deaths: During the last two centuries, tropical cyclones have been responsible for the deaths of
about 1.9 million people worldwide. It is estimated that 10,000 people per year perish due to tropical
cyclones. The deadliest tropical cyclone was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which had a death toll of
anywhere from 300,000 to 500,000 lives.

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VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF GROUNDWATER

Water in the subsurface region can be divided into two major zones:
1. Zone of Aeration or Vadose zone
2. Zone of Saturation

1. Zone of Aeration or Vadose zone: Soil pore spaces in the vadose zone lying immediately below the
surface. Here the small pore spaces between soil particles are filled with a mixture of water and air
resulting less than saturated zone. This zone may be divided with respect to occurrence and circulation
of water into the uppermost zone of soil water, the intermediate zone and the capillary fringe,
immediately above the water table. Water in this zone is called capillary water. This water moves
upward slowly from the water table by capillary action in any direction. Water cannot be withdrawn
from this zone for residential or commercial water supply purpose because the capillary forces hold it
too tightly. The roots of trees, plants and crops, however, can tap into this water. The capillary fringe
moves upwards and downwards together with the water table due to seasonal pattern.

2. Zone of Saturation: It is the water falling entirely in all rock interstices (void spaces) in the
saturated zone. The water located in this zone can be withdrawn for various uses. The variation in the
flow of groundwater depends on the type of rocks or other permeable material, the size of the pore
spaces in the soil or rock, connectivity of pore spaces, and the configuration of the underground strata.

3. Water Table: The upper surface of the zone of saturation is known as water table. The hydraulic
pressure at any level within a water table aquifer is equal to the depth from the water table point and is
referred to as the hydraulic head. When a well is dug in a water table aquifer, the static water level in the
well stands at the same elevation as the water table. The groundwater table sometimes called the free or
phreatic surface. It may rise when more water is added to the saturated zone by vertical percolation, and
drops down during drought periods when the stored water flows out towards springs, streams, well and
other points of groundwater discharge.

D.K.Tod., 1984

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