Chapter One

GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
General
The study of groundwater flow is equally important as studying the surface water
resources since about 22% of the world‟s fresh water resources exist in the form of
groundwater. Further, the subsurface water forms a critical input for the sustenance of life
and vegetation in arid zones. Because of its importance as significant source of water
supply, various aspects of groundwater dealing with the exploration, development and
utilization have been extensively studied by workers from different disciplines, such as
geology, geophysics, geochemistry, agricultural engineering, hydraulic engineering and
civil engineering etc.
Groundwater flow is one part of the complex dynamic hydrologic cycle. Saturated
formations below the surface act as mediums for the transmission of groundwater, and as
reservoirs for the storage of water. Water infiltrates to these formations from the surface and is
transmitted slowly for varying distances until it returns to the surface by the action of natural
flow, vegetation, or actions of man (Todd, 1980).

Figure 1.1: Groundwater flow in the hydrologic cycle

1
Table 1.1 Amount of water on earth according to the survey conducted within the
international geophysical year (Holy, 1982)
Water occurrence 103 Gm3 Amount of water Rate of exchange
% of water % of freshwater (Years)
World oceans 1300000 97 - 3000
Salt lakes/seas 100 0.008 - -
Polar ice 28500 2.14 77.6 8000
Atmospheric water 12 0.001 0.035 0.027(10 days)
Water in 1 0.000 0.003 -
organisms
Fresh lakes 123 0.009 0.335 -
Water courses 1 0.000 0.003 0.031 (11 days)
Unsaturated zone 65 0.005 0.18 1
Saturated zone 8000 0.60 21.8 500
(Groundwater)
Total fresh water 36700 2.77 100 -
Total water 1337000 100 - -

Historical Background
Old Greek and Roman philosophers have speculated about groundwater. They were
puzzled by springs and discharge of water in to rivers in dry seasons; long after rainy
season has passed. Greek Plato (427-347 BC) and other philosophers offered solution for
that groundwater originated form the cavern which was connected to the ocean. By wave
action, water of the sea and ocean was transported upward in to caverns and from there to
the springs and rivers. They assumed that groundwater purifies by filtration of salt of sea
and ocean water, in order to explain that springs and river waters are fresh.
True explanation of groundwater was put forward by the French scientist Perrault (1608-
1680) and Mariotte (1620-1684). They found that precipitation could infiltrate in to the
ground in appreciable quantities that could sustain springs and rivers. French water
works engineer Darcy (1803-1858) made a start with groundwater hydraulics. Modern
trends of hydrogeology concern the development of flow systems concepts,

2
hydrochemistry and groundwater contamination. In this regard Thiem (1906), Theis
(1935), Jacob (1950) developed radial flow in to wells. Scientists including Van Dam
(1983) developed equations of fresh water lenses and fresh-saline water interface. Apollo
and Postman (1996) have paid attention to the interrelationship between groundwater
chemical compositions associated with rock types. Stuyvesant (1999) researched on
groundwater classification in to different water types. Recent research has increased in
the field of groundwater tracing in fractured and karstic rock areas. Such chemical
aspects are focused based on the need to provide good quality water for drinking water
supply and irrigation purposes.
History of Groundwater use
Since early days of humanity people have used groundwater for domestic water supply
and irrigation. Both springs and water wells were utilized for this purpose. Well
construction was carried out in old civilization in china, Middle East and Egypt. 2500
years ago, Khanates were installed in Persia (Iran) and latter practiced in Afghanistan and
Egypt. Since 12th century, due to modern technology many African countries including
Ethiopia are utilizing groundwater from wells.
Hydrogeology is the study of occurrence, movement and chemistry of groundwater in its
geological environment.

Checklist
Q#1 what is ground water?
Q#2 what is the importance of ground water in hydrologic cycle?
Q#3 Give a comment on the water supply scheme of Arba Minch University with respect
to ground water abundance.
Q#4 what are the purpose for which ground water can be used.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Occurrence of Groundwater

Groundwater system is the zone in the earth‟s crust where the open space in the rock is
completely filled with groundwater at a pressure greater than atmospheric. Groundwater
stretches out below the groundwater table. Groundwater table, which is the top most part
of groundwater, may be located near or even at land surface and not fixed meaning it
fluctuate seasonally.
Two zones can be distinguished in which water occurs in the ground:
a) The unsaturated zone/ Zone of aeration
b) The saturated zone
For the hydro-geologist both zones are important links and storage devices in the
hydrologic cycle. For the engineer the importance of each zone depends on his field of
interest.
The process of water entering into the ground is called infiltration. Downward transport
of water in the unsaturated zone is called percolation, whereas the upward transport in the
unsaturated zone is called capillary rise. The flow of water through saturated porous
media is called groundwater flow. The out flow from groundwater to surface water is
called seepage.

4
Figure 1.2a: Schematic representation of subsurface water in the soil

The type of openings (voids or pores) in which groundwater occurs is an important

property of the subsurface formation. Three types are generally distinguished.
a) Pores: Openings between individual particles as in sand and gravel. Pores are
generally interconnected and allow capillary flow for which Darcy‟s law can be
applied.
b) Fractures, Crevices or joints: This meant fractures and crevices in hard rock which
have developed from breaking of the rock. The pores may vary from super capillary
size to capillary size. Only for the latter situation application of Darcy‟s law is
possible. Water in these fractures is known as fissure or fault water.
c) Solution channels and caverns in limestone (karst water): This meant solution
channels and openings resulting from gas bubbles in lava. These large openings result
in a turbulent flow of groundwater which cannot be described with Darcy‟s law.

5
Table 1.2 Variation of groundwater density based on temperature and total dissolved
solids (TDS) concentration.
Temperature (oC) Density (Kg/m3) TDS (mg/l) Density at 4oC(Kg/m3)
0 999.87 0 1000
4 1000 1000 1000.70
5 999.90 5000 1003.60
10 999.75 100000 1072
20 998.27

Density differences as a result of variation in TDS concentration are more pronounced

than variations resulting from changes in temperature. Groundwater is contained in rocks.
Rocks may be classified as consolidated and unconsolidated. Consolidated rocks include
granites, basalt, gneiss, sandstone, shale etc.

The porosity, n of the subsurface formation is that fraction of its volume which consists
of openings and pores: n=Vv/V; Where Vv is the pore volume or volume of voids and V
is the total volume of the soil.
When water is drained by gravity from saturated material, only a part of the total volumes
is released. This portion is known as Specific yield (Sy). The water not drained is called
specific retention (Sr) and the sum of Sy and Sr is equal to the porosity. In fine-grained
material the forces that retain water against the force of gravity are high due to the small
pore size. Hence, the specific retention of fine-grained material (silt or clay) is larger than
that of coarse material (sand or gravel). Specific yield (Sy) =Vw/V and specific
retention (Sr) =Vr/V and Vv=Vw+Vr as shown above n=Vv/V.
While porosity gives a measure of the water storage capability of a formation, not all the
water held in the pores is available for extraction by pumping or draining by gravity. The
pores hold back some water by molecular attraction and surface tension. The actual
volume of water that can be extracted by the force of gravity from a unit volume of
aquifer material is known as the specific yield, Sy. The fraction of water held back in the
aquifer is known as specific retention; Sr. Details of these will be discussed in part 1.3.

6
2.2 Unsaturated Zone/ Zone of aeration
Unsaturated Zone: This is also known as zone of aeration. In this zone the soil pores are
only partially saturated with water. The space between the land surface and the water
table marks the extent of this zone. Further, the zone of aeration has three sub zones: soil
water zone, capillary fringe and intermediate zone.

The soil water zone lies close to the ground surface in the major root band of the
vegetation from which the water is lost to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration.
Capillary fringe on the other hand hold water by capillary action. This zone extends from
the water table upwards to the limit of the capillary rise. The intermediate zone lies
between the soil water zone and the capillary fringe.

The thickness of the zone of aeration and its constituent sub-zones depend upon the soil
texture and moisture content and vary from region to region. The soil moisture in the
zone of aeration is of importance in agricultural practice and irrigation engineering. This
part is however concerned only with the saturated zone.

Figure 1.2b: Classification of subsurface water and variation in degree of saturation

7
Important conditions in the unsaturated zone are the wilting point and the field capacity.
Field capacity is the moisture content in the soil a few days after irrigation or heavy
rainfall, when excess water in the unsaturated zone has percolated. Often the soil water
pressure is given as a pF value, which is the 10base logarithm of the pressure in
centimeters of water column h, i.e. pF = log10 (-h).
Field capacity is often taken (by definition) as the soil moisture situation corresponding
to an under-pressure of 100cm (pF 2) but also larger pF values are used (pF 2.3 or pF
2.7). Wilting point corresponds to a minimum soil moisture content for which the plant is
no longer capable of taking up the soil moisture and dies. The corresponding under-
pressure is approximately -16 bar (pF 4.2). At the phreatic surface, where the soil is
completely saturated, the under-pressure is zero (pF=0) and the moisture content equals
the porosity (n).

Figure 1.3: Typical pF-curves or soil moisture characteristics

8
1.1.2 Saturated Zone
Groundwater is the water which occurs in the saturated zone. All earth materials, from
soils to rocks have pore spaces although these pores are completely saturated with water
below the groundwater table or phreatic surface (GWT). From the groundwater
utilization aspect only such material through which water moves easily and hence can be
extracted with ease are significant.

Natural variations in permeability and ease of transmission of groundwater in different

saturated geological formations lead to the recognition of aquifer, Aquitard, Aquiclude
and Aquifuge.
a) Aquifer: This is a water-bearing layer for which the porosity and pore size are
sufficiently large that which not only stores water but yields it in sufficient quantity
due to its high permeability. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good
aquifers (e.g. sand, gravel layers).
b) Aquitard: It is less permeable geological formation which may be capable of
transmitting water (e.g. sandy clay layer). It may transmit quantities of water that are
significant in terms of regional groundwater flow.
c) Aquiclude: is a geological formation which is essentially impermeable to the flow of
water. It may be considered as closed to water movement even though it may contain
large amount of groundwater due to its high porosity (e.g. clay).
d) Aquifuge: is a geological formation, which is neither porous nor permeable. There
are no interconnected openings and hence it cannot transmit water. Massive compact
rock without any fractures is an aquifuge.
2.3 Aquifers and their characteristics
For a description or mathematical treatment of groundwater flow the geological
formation can be schematized into an aquifer system, consisting of various layers with
distinct different hydraulic properties. The aquifers are simplified into one of the
following types (see Fig. 1.4).
a) Unconfined aquifer (also called phreatic or water table aquifer): Such type of
aquifer consists of a pervious layer underlain by a (semi-) impervious layer. This type
of aquifer is not completely saturated with water. The upper boundary is formed by a

9
 free water-table (phreatic surface) that is in direct contact with the atmosphere. In
most places it is the uppermost aquifer.
b) Confined aquifer: Such an aquifer consists of a completely saturated pervious layer
bounded by impervious layers. There is no direct contact with the atmosphere. The
water level in wells tapping these aquifers rises above the top of the pervious layer
and sometimes even above soil surface (artesian wells).
c) Semi-confined or Leaky aquifers: consists of a completely saturated pervious layer,
but the upper and/or lower boundaries are semi-pervious. They are overlain by
aquitard that may have inflow and outflow through them.
d) Perched aquifers: These are unconfined aquifers of isolated in nature. They are not
connected with other aquifers.

Figure1.4: Different types of aquifer formations

The pressure of the water in an aquifer is measured with a piezometer, which is an open
ended pipe with a diameter of 3-10 cm. The height to which the water rises with respect
to a certain reference level (e.g. the impervious base, mean sea level, etc.) is called the

10
hydraulic head. Strictly speaking the hydraulic head measured with a piezometer applies
for the location of the lower side of the pipe, but since aquifers are very pervious, this
value is approximately constant over the depth of the aquifer. For unconfined aquifers,
the hydraulic head may be taken equal to the height of the water table. Water moves from
locations where the hydraulic head is high to places where the hydraulic head is low. The
hydraulic head will be split into its gravitational and pressure components. Generally the
head can be written as h = z + p/γw whereby the z is the gravitational elevation head and
the p/γw the pressure head.

Figure 1.5a: Cross section showing hydraulic head (h)

2.4 Determination of groundwater flow parameters

The following are some of the groundwater flow parameters or aquifer properties which
are important in the storage and transmission of water in aquifers.
Porosity (n), Specific yield (Sy), Specific retention (Sr), Coefficient of permeability (K),
Transmissivity (T), Storage coefficient (S) etc.
1. Porosity (n)
The porosity, n is the ratio of volume of the open space in the rock or soil to the total
volume of soil or rock.
 Vv 
n    *100 (1.1)
 VT 
Where:
Vv = the pore volume or volume of voids

11
 VT = the total volume of the soil
Porosity is also the measure of water holding capacity of the geological formation. The
greater the porosity means the larger is the water holding capacity. Porosity depends up
on the shape, size, and packing of soil particles. Porosity greater than 20% is considered
large; 5-20% medium and less than 5% is small.

Table 1.3 Variation of porosity based on the rock type

Type of rock Range of porosity Type of rock Range of porosity
Unconsolidated Consolidated
Gravel 0.2-0.4 Basalt 0.05-0.5
Sand 0.2-0.5 Lime stone 0.05-0.5
Silt 0.3-0.5 Sand stone 0.05-0.3
Clay 0.3-0.7 Shale 0.0-0.1

While porosity gives a measure of the water storage capability of a formation, not all the
water held in the pores is available for extraction by pumping or draining by gravity. The
pores hold back some water by molecular attraction and surface tension. The actual
volume of water that can be extracted by the force of gravity from a unit volume of
aquifer material is known as the specific yield, Sy. The fraction of water held back in the
aquifer is known as specific retention, Sr.
2. Specific yield (Sy)
When water is drained by gravity from saturated material, only a part of the total volumes
is released. The ratio of volume of water in the aquifer which can be extracted by the
force of gravity or by pumping wells to the total volume of saturated aquifer is called
Specific yield (Sy).
V 
S y   w  *100 (1.2)
 VT 
Where:
Sy= Specific yield,
Vw=the volume of extractible water,
VT = the total volume of the soil.

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 1.5b. Specific yield of unconfined aquifer

All the water stored in the water bearing formations can‟t be extracted by gravity
drainage or pumping; a portion of water remains held in the voids of the aquifer by
molecular and surface tension forces.
For unconfined aquifers the specific yield (Sy) is defined as the amount of water stored or
released in an aquifer column with a cross-sectional area of 1m2 as a result of a 1m
increase or decrease in hydraulic head.
Table 1.4 Common values for Sy
Type of Rock Range Mean
Medium gravel 0.17-0.44 0.24
Fine gravel 0.13-0.40 0.28
Medium sand 0.16-0.46 0.32
Fine sand 0.01-0.46 0.33
Silt 0.01-0.39 0.20
Clay 0.01-0.18 0.06
Tuff 0.02-0.47 0.21
Sandstone 0.02-0.30 0.21
sandstone (non-cemented) 0.12-0.30 0.27
Siltstone 0.01-0.28 0.12

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3. Specific retention (Sr)
The water which is not drained or the ratio of volume of water that can not be drained
(Vr) to the total volume (VT) of a saturated aquifer is called specific retention (Sr).
V 
S r   r  *100 (1.3)
 VT 
In fine-grained material the forces that retain water against the force of gravity are high
due to the small pore size. Hence, the specific retention of fine-grained material (silt or
clay) is larger than that of coarse material (sand or gravel). The total volume of voids
(Vv) equals to the sum of volume of water drained out (Vw) and volume of water
retained (Vr); hat is Vv=Vw+Vr.
From the above expression we can get:
Vv V  V 
*100   w  *100   r  *100 ↔n= Sy + Sr (1.4)
VT  VT   VT 
Meaning sum of Sy and Sr is equal to the porosity. It should be noted that; it is not
necessarily the soil with a high porosity will have a high specific yield because of its
permeability.
Example
For an aquifer located in Oromiya Region, a zone of 930sq.km is bounded by confined
aquifer of 22m thick. The average maximum and minimum piezometric level variation
range between 5-12m.Taking storage coefficients as 0.001.Calculate the annual
rechargeable ground water storage from the area. Calculate the average well yield.
Solution
Annual rechargeable ground water storage=a=A x∆piezo. Level x Storage coefficient
=930x106x (12-5) x0.001
=6.51x106m3=6.51Mm3
Average well yield/day x pumping days x numbers of wells
=Annual fluctuation in piezo.head (average well yield /day)
= Annual fluctuation volume of water/ (pumping days x No. of wells)
=6.51Mm3/ (250x40) =6.51x106m3/1000
=651m3/day=27.125m3/h=7.5lt/sec

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Example
In an unconfined aquifer covering 2 sq.km,the original water table was 12.3m below
ground level. Pumping of 1Mm3 of water from the area dropped the water table to 15.1m
below GL. Calculate specific yield and retention of the aquifer if porosity of aquifer
material is 23%.
Solution
Volume of water pumped out=Aquifer area x change in ware table x specific yield
Sy =106/(2 x 106m2 x (15.1-12.3)m)=0.1786 or 17.86%
Sr=n-Sy=23-17.86=5.13%

4. Coefficient of permeability (k)

Coefficient of permeability is also called hydraulic conductivity reflects the combined
effects of the porous medium and fluid properties. It is an ease with which water can flow
through a soil mass or rock and usually it is the capacity of geological formation to
transmit water. Coefficient of permeability is primarily dependant on the soil property
and water contained in it. Unconsolidated rocks are permeable when the pore spaces
between grains are sufficiently large.
K=ki.kw (1.5)
Where:
K = Coefficient of permeability,
ki = Intrinsic permeability; depending on rock properties (such as grain size &
packing),
kW = Permeability depending on fluid properties (such as density and viscosity of
water)
Further for unconsolidated rocks, from an analogy of laminar flow through a conduit the
coefficient of permeability K can be expressed as:
K = C dm2 ( / ) = C dm2 (g / ) (1.6)
Where:
dm = Mean pore size of the porous medium (m),
 = unit weight of the fluid (kg/m2s2),
 = density of the fluid (kg/m3),

15
 g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2),
 = dynamic viscosity of the fluid (kg/ms),
C = a shape factor which depends on the porosity, packing, shape of grains and
grain-size distribution of the porous medium. Thus for a given porous material K  1/
where  = kinematic viscosity = / = f (temperature).
Eq (1.6) can be split into two components: intrinsic permeability (ki) and permeability
due to fluid properties (kw).  ki = C dm2 and kw = / = g/.

 n3 
According to Kozeny-Carman‟s formula K i  Cd m
2
 
2 
 (1  n) 
5. Transmissivity (T) and Vertical Resistance (C):
Transmissivity is the product of horizontal coefficient of permeability and saturated
thickness of the aquifer. For an isotropic aquifer (Kx = Ky = K):
T = KB (1.7)
Where:
T = aquifer Transmissivity (m2 / day),
B = aquifer thickness (m).
The vertical resistance of an aquitard is defined as the ratio of the thickness of the
aquitard and its permeability in the vertical direction (kz):
C = D / KZ (1.8)
Where:
C = vertical resistance (days),
D = thickness of the aquitard (m).
Values for the transmissivity of aquifers and vertical resistances of an aquitard are
usually determined from pumping tests. There are different stratifications in aquifers may
be stratification with different permeability in each stratum. Two main kinds of
stratifications (flow situations in stratified aquifers) are possible in aquifers; horizontal
and vertical stratifications.
a) Horizontal stratification
When the flow is parallel to the stratification as in (Fig. 1.6) equivalent permeability Ke
of the entire aquifer of thickness b = bi is:

16
 n

K B i i
Ke  i 1
n
(1.9)
B i 1
i

Transmissivity of an aquifer formation will therefore be given as follows:

n n
 T  K e  Bi   K i Bi
i 1 i 1

Figure 1.6: Flow parallel to stratification

b) Vertical Stratification
When the flow is horizontal and normal to the stratification as in (Fig.1.7) the equivalent
n
permeability Ke of the aquifer length L   Li is:
i 1

L i
Ke  i 1
(1.10)
n
 Li 
 
i 1  K i



17
Figure 1.7 Flow normal to stratification
Note that in this case L is the length of seepage and the thickness of the aquifer does not
come into picture in calculating the equivalent permeability. Transmissivity of the
aquifer, T = Ke.B
Example
The hydraulic conductivity (K) of silty sand is 1.36x10-5 cm/sec at 15 oC. What is the
intrinsic permeability (Ki) in cm2? At 15 oC, density of water is 0.9991 gm/cm3 and
viscosity is 0.0114 poise and g=980 cm/sec2.
Solution: K = KiKw= C dm2 (g /)
K=1.36x10-5 cm/sec
g=0.9991 gm/cm3*980 cm/sec2=979.118 g/cm2sec2
µ=0.0114 poise=0.0114 g/cm. sec
Kw=g / =85887.544 cm/sec
Ki=K/ Kw=1.36x10-5 cm/sec/85887.544 cm/sec=1.58*10-5 cm2.
6. Storage Coefficient (S)
The amount of water stored or released in an aquifer column with a cross sectional area
of 1m2 for a 1m increase or drop in head is known as storage coefficient. Storage
coefficient of unconfined aquifer is equal to the specific yield.
In confined or semi-confined aquifers water is stored or released from the whole aquifer
column mainly as a result of elastic changes in porosity and groundwater density.

18
Common values for the storage coefficients for confined and semi-confined aquifers
range form 10-7 to 10-3.
The volume of water drained from an aquifer, Vw may be found from the following
equation.
Vw=SAh
Where A is horizontal area and h is fall in head
Example
An unconfined aquifer with a storage coefficient of 0.13 has an area of 120 m2. The
water table drops 5 m during drought. How much water is lost from storage?
Solution: Vw=SxAxh=0.13*120*5=78 m3
7. Specific Storage (Ss)
In a saturated porous medium that is confined between two transmissive layers of rocks,
water will be stored in the pores of the medium by a combination of two phenomena;
water compression and aquifer expansion. As water is forced in to the system at a rate
greater than it is being extracted, the water will compress and the matrix will expand to
accommodate the excess. In a unit of saturated porous matrix, the volume of water that
will be taken in to storage under a unit increase in head, or the volume that will be
released under a unit decrease in head is called specific storage. It is also the storage
coefficient per unit saturated thickness of an aquifer.
For confined aquifer, the relation between the specific storage and the storage coefficient
is as follows:
S = Ss*b (1.11)
Where:
S = Storage coefficient (dimensionless),
b = aquifer thickness (m)
Specific Storage is also called elastic storage coefficient and is given by the following
expression.
Ss=g (+n) (1.12)
Where:
=fluid (water) density,
g=gravitational acceleration,

19
 =aquifer compressibility,
n= porosity,
=water compressibility.
Elastic storage is the only storage occurring in semi-confined and confined aquifers.
Example
An artesian aquifer 20m thick has a porosity of 20% and bulk modulus of compression
108 N/m2.Estimate the storage coefficient of the aquifer. What fraction of this is
attributable to the expansibility of water?
Solution

S=Ssxb=ρxg (ᵅ+ᵝn)=9.81x20(1/10 +0.2x1/2.1x10 )=1.98X10

8 9 -3

The fraction of storage attributable to the expansibility of water (Taking only the second
term within the brackets) :
Sw=0.0187x10-3=1.87x10-5/1.98x10-3 of S=1% of S

2.5 Laboratory and field determination of hydraulic conductivity

Definition: If hydraulic conductivity is consistent throughout a formation, regardless
of position, the formation is homogeneous. If hydraulic conductivity within a formation
is dependent on location, the formation is heterogeneous. When hydraulic conductivity
is independent of the direction of measurement at a point within a formation, the
formation is isotropic at that point. If the hydraulic conductivity varies with the
direction of measurement at a point within a formation, the formation is anisotropic at
that point. Figure 1-8 is a graphical representation of homogeneity and isotropy.
Geologic material is very rarely homogeneous in all directions. A more probable
condition is that the properties, such as hydraulic conductivity, are approximately
constant in one direction. This condition results because of:
a) Effects of the shape of soil particles, and
b) Different materials incorporate the alluvium at different locations.
As geologic strata are formed, individual particles usually rest with their flat sides down
in a process called imbrications. Consequently, flow is generally less restricted in the
horizontal direction than the vertical and Kx is greater than Kz for most situations.
Layered heterogeneity occurs when stratum of homogeneous, isotropic materials are

20
overlain upon each other. Layered conditions commonly occur in alluvial, lacustrine, and
marine deposits. At a large scale, there is a relationship between anisotropy and layered
heterogeneity. In the field it is not uncommon for sites with layered heterogeneity to have
large scale anisotropy values of 100:1 or greater. Discontinuous heterogeneity results
from geologic structures such as bedrock outcrop contacts, clay lenses, and buried oxbow
stream cutoffs. Trending heterogeneity commonly occurs in sedimentary formations of
deltaic, alluvial, and glacial origin.

Figure 1.8: Homogeneity and isotropy

2.5.1 Laboratory Tests

Permeability could be determined by direct method in either the laboratory or the field.
Direct and indirect methods are also applied for the determination of Permeability.
Determination of fine grained soils permeability takes considerable time. Hence indirect
methods are applied for instance consolidation test and triaxial compression test.
Direct permeability tests
1. Constant head permeameters
Permeameters (see the fig. 1.9a, b) may be Constant head or Falling head.

21
Figure 1.9a: Constant head permeameter

The principle in this setup is that the hydraulic head causing flow is maintained constant;
the quantity of water flowing through a soil specimen of known cross sectional area and
length in a given time is measured by graduated cylinder. In highly impervious soils the
quantity of water that can be collected will be small and accurate measurements are
difficult to make. Therefore constant head permeameters are mainly applicable in
relatively pervious soils.
Q * dl
K For k >10-3 cm/sec
A * dh
Water should be collected after a steady state of flow is attained.

22
2. Falling head permeameters

Figure 1.9b: Falling head permeameter

Falling head permeameter is used for relatively less permeable soils where the discharge
is small. The water level in the standpipe falls continuously as water flows through the
soil specimen. Observations should be taken after a steady state of flow has reached. If
the head of water level in the stand pipe above that in the constant head chamber falls
from h0 to h1, corresponding to elapsed time t0 and t1, the coefficient of permeability, k is
determined as follows.
a L h
K * ln 0
A t1  t 0 h1
Where:
a= Cross sectional area of stand pipe,
A= Cross sectional area of soil sample,
L= Length of the soil sample,

23
Derivation
 Kh  dh  KA  dh
Q  KiA    A  a  dt  
 L  dt  aL  h
Integrating both sides and applying the limits t0 and t1 for t, and h0 and h1 for h
t
h 
h h
 KA 
t
KA 1 1
dh 0 dh
 dt      t1  t 0   ln  0 
aL t0 h0
h h1 h  aL   h1 
Transposing terms we get:

a L h
K * ln 0
A t1  t 0 h1
2.5.2 Field Methods
The average permeability of a soil in the field may be different form values obtained in
the laboratory. Some of the field methods are:
- Pumping tests (We will see it under ch-3)
- Tracer test (fluorescence) (Remember your Hydrometry course)
- Double Ring Infiltrometer tests (Remember your basic Hydrology co

Solved problems
1. The volume of a moist sand specimen was 72.5 cm3 and its weight is 152.0 grain.
After oven dryness, at 105 oc for 24 g hours, the specimen weighed 145 gram and its
volume was 71.2 cm3.The oven dried sample was then immersed in a chamber
containing 500 cm3 of water and left until it becomes saturated (the chamber is sealed to
prevent water evaporation).Finally the sample was, removed from the chamber and the
volume of water in the chamber was measured to be 483.5 cm3.compute
A. Over all porosity
B. Effective porosity.
Solution
Given
Vt=72.5cm
Wt=152g
Wd=145g
Vd=71.2cm3
A) n=vv/vt, vv=vt-vs, vs=ms/2.65=145/2.65=54.717cm3
Vv=72.5-54.717=17.783cm3
n=17.783/72.5 x100=24.53%
B) neff= Vveff/ Vt=500-483/72.5=0.2275
2. An undisturbed core sample is obtained from a sandy material at a height of 20 cm
above a water table. The core is 10.186cm in height and 5 cm diameter (inside

24
measurement).The net weight of the sample is 419 gram before drying and 371 gram
after oven drying. Calculate the following aquifer properties in relation to water
occurrence.
A. water content by weight
b. Volumetric water content
C. Porosity
D. Void ratio
E. Saturation percentage and
F. Bulk density.
Solution
Given A) ω= = =12.94%
h=10.186cm B) θ=ωx ρb/ρw =12.94x1.805=24%
d=5cm C) n=vv/vt= ,vs=371/2.65
=140cm3
Wt=419g
Wd=371g n= =30%
D) e=n/1-n=0.3/0.7=0.4286
E) Sp=vw/vv=48/60=0.8
F) Vt=10.186x52/4 xП =200cm3
Ρb=wd/vt=371/200=1.855 g/cm3

3. following data is obtained from the difficult rocky areas of Tigray:

Area (rocky) = 1km2
Normal rainfall = 700mm
Water table fluctuation before and after rain = 3.2
Specific yield of the rock = 2%
Examine how far the drinking water needs of the local population can be met.

Solution

Ground water storage available annually= Area x Gw fluctuation x specific yield

=106x 3.2x 2%=64,000m3(replenished by normal rainfall)
Assume infiltration rate=10%, rainfall volume=106 x 0.7 x 0.1=70,000m3.Again
assuming a per capital consumption of 180lpd,
Annual drinking water supply required is =154 x 180 x 365=10,120,000lt or 10,120m3.
The annual drinking water supply required is 10,120m3 against availability of 64,000m3.
Thus there is enough replenish able ground water resource available in the area to meet
their demand.

4. In a phreatic aquifer extending over 1km2 the water table was initially at 25m below
ground level. Sometime later after irrigation with a depth of 20cm of water ,the water
table rose to a depth of 24m b.g.l. Later 3 x 105m3 of water was pumped out and the
water table dropped to 26.2m b.g.l. Determine
i) specific yield of the aquifer
ii) deficit in soil moisture(below field capacity) before irrigation.

25
 Solution
i)Volume of water pumped out=Area of aquifer x drop in g.w.t x specific yield

3x 105 =106 x 2.2 x sy

Sy=0.136 or 13.6%
ii) Volume of irrigation water recharging the aquifer=Area of aquifer x rise iin g.w.t x sy
Assume an area of 1m2 of aquifer and recharge depth of y:
Soil moisture deficit (below field capacity) before irrigation =200-136=64mm.

5. In an area of 100ha, the water table dropped by 4.5m.If the porosity is 30% and the
specific retention is 10% determine
i) the specific yield of aquifer
ii) Change in ground water storage

Solution
i)Porosity =Sy+ Sr
30%=sy+10%
Sy=20%
ii) Change in ground water storage=Area of aquifer x drop in g.w.t xSr
=100x4.5x0.2
=90ha-m or 9o x 104m3
6. In a certain place in Ethiopia, the average thickness of the confined aquifer is 30m and
extends over an area of 800km2.the piezometric surface fluctuate annually from 19m to
9m above the top of the aquifer. Assuming a storage coefficient of 0.0008,what ground
water storage can be expected annually?
Assuming an average well yield of 30m3/yr and about 200days of pumping in a year,
how many wells can be drilled in the area?

Solution
∆GWS=Aaq x∆piezo.surface xS =(800x106) (19-9)x0.0008
=6.4Mm3
Annual draft=30x24x200=0.144Mm3
Number of wells that can be drilled in the area= =44.5 wells, say 44
7. An aquifer has an average thickness 0f 60m and an aerial extent of 100ha.Etmate the
available ground water storage if the aquifer is unconfined and the fluctuation in ground
water is observed as 15m.If
a) The aquifer is unconfined and the fluctuation in GWT is observed as
15m,
b) The aquifer is confined and the piezometric head is lowered by 50m,
which drains half the thickness of the aquifer.
Solution
a) ∆GWS=Aaq.∆GWT.Sy=100hax15mx0.16=240ha-m.
b) ∆GWS=Aaq. (∆ piezo.head Xs +∆GWTxSy)
(as confined) (as unconfined)
-4
=100ha (20(2x10 ) +30(0.16))=480.4 ha-m.

26
8. A constant-head permeameter has a cross-sectional area of 78.5 cm2. The sample is
23 cm long. At a head of 3.4 cm, the permeameter discharges 50 cm3 in 38 s.

(A) What is the hydraulic conductivity in centimeters per second and feet per day?
(B) What is the intrinsic permeability if the hydraulic conductivity was measured at
15°C?
(C) From the hydraulic conductivity value, name the type of soil.

Solution
A.

B.

C.

27
9. The hydraulic conductivity of a silty sand was measured in a laboratory permeameter
and found to be 3.75 3 10–5 cm/s at 25°C. What is the intrinsic permeability in cm2? Refer
to Appendix 14 for values of density and viscosity.

Solution

10. An aquifer has a specific yield of 0.19. During a drought period, the following
average declines in the water table were noted:

Area Size (km2) Decline (m)

A 15 2.34
B 7.5 1.22
C 18.3 0.76
D 22.5 3.44
E 9.44 1.89
F 22.7 0.35
What was the total volume of water represented by the decline in the water table?
Solution
Vw=SAh

28
 and

11. An aquifer has three different formations. Formation A has a thickness of 22 ft and a
hydraulic conductivity of 17.0 ft/d. Formation B has a thickness of 3.5 ft and a
conductivity of 99 ft/d. Formation C has a thickness of 26 ft and a conductivity of 22 ft/d.
Assume that each formation is isotropic and homogeneous. Compute both the overall
horizontal and vertical conductivities.

A 17.0 22
B 99 3.5 and total
C 22 26

29
Checklist:
1. Differentiate between various saturated geological formations such as aquifer,
aquitard, aquiclude and aquifuge.
2. What is the difference and similarity between unconfined aquifer, confined
aquifer, perched aquifers and semi-confined or leaky aquifers?
3. Discuss about some of the groundwater flow parameters (aquifer properties)
which are important in the storage and transmission of water in aquifers.
4. What is the difference between:
a. Transmissivity (T) and vertical resistance (C)?
b. Storage coefficient (S) specific storage (Ss)?
c. Falling head and constant head permeameters?

30
Chapter Two
GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT

General
Part of the rain falling over the land surface infiltrates into the soil and the remaining flows
down as surface runoff. From the point of view of water resources engineering, the surface
water forms a direct source which is utilized for a variety of purposes. However, most of the
water that infiltrates into the soil travels down to recharge the vast groundwater stored at a
depth within the earth. In fact, the groundwater reserve is actually a huge source of fresh
water and is many times that of surface water. Such large water reserve remains mostly
untapped though locally or regionally, the withdrawal may be high.

Figure 2.1: Subsurface water movement

What happens to the water that is infiltrated at the surface of the unsaturated soil during
application of water from above? It moves downward due to gravity through inter connected
pores that are filled with water. With increasing water content, more pores fill, and the rate of

31
downward movement of water increases. A measure of the average rate of movement of
water within soil (or permeable bed rock) is the hydraulic conductivity, indicated as „K‟, and
has the unit of velocity. Though it is more or less constant for a particular type of soil in the
saturated zone, it is actually a function of the moisture content in the unsaturated portion of
the soil.
In literature, the term „groundwater flow’ is used generally to describe the flow of water in
the saturated portion of soil or fractured rock. No doubt it is important from the point of
extraction of water from the zone using wells, etc. But the unsaturated zone, too, is important
because of the following reasons:
• The water in the unsaturated zone (the soil water) is the source of moisture for vegetation.
• This zone is the link between the surface and subsurface hydrologic processes as rain water
infiltrates through this zone to recharge the groundwater.
• Water evaporated or lost by transpiration from the unsaturated zone (mainly from the soil
water zone) recharges the atmospheric moisture.
The water that infiltrates through the unsaturated soil layers and move vertically ultimately
reaches the saturated zone and raises the water table. Since it increases the quantity of water
in the saturated zone, it is also termed as „recharge‟ of the groundwater.

2.1 Darcy’s law and groundwater movement

The theory of groundwater movement originates from a study by the French water works
engineer Henry Darcy, first published in 1856. From many experiments with a setup (Fig. 2.2) he
concluded that the groundwater discharge, Q is proportional to the difference in hydraulic head,
h and cross-sectional area A and inversely proportional to the length, l, thus:

Q = A*V = -K*((h2-h1) / l)*A = KiA (2.1)

Where:
K = the proportionality constant, hydraulic conductivity, expressed in units of velocity
(h2-h1) = -h = the drop in the hydraulic grade line in a length of l of the porous medium
V = the specific discharge and we use the letter q instead of V.
Darcy‟s law is a particular case of the general viscous fluid flow. It has been shown valid for
laminar flows only. For practical purposes, the limit of the validity of Darcy‟s law can be taken
as Reynolds number (Re) of a maximum value of ten. Practical experiences show that Darcy's
law can be applied to most cases of groundwater flow in porous medium.

32
Re= (*q*d)/ µ = (q*d)/ (2.2)
Where:
 = Density of the flowing fluid,
q = the specific discharge, also called the discharge velocity through a unit area of 1m2,
d = representative particle size, usually d = d10 where d10 represents a size such that 10% of
the aquifer material is of smaller size,
µ= Dynamic viscosity and  is kinematic viscosity of water.
It may be noted that the apparent velocity, q used in Darcy‟s law is not the actual velocity of flow
through the pores. Owing to irregular pore geometry the actual velocity of flow (V act) varies from
point to point and the bulk pore velocity which represents the actual speed of travel of water in
the porous media is expressed as:

Vact = q/ne (2.3)

Where:
ne = the effective porosity which is smaller than the porosity n, as the pores that do not
contribute to the transport are excluded (dead end pores).
The actual velocity is important in water quality problems, to determine the transport of
contaminants. The bulk pore velocity (V) is the velocity that is obtained by tracking a tracer
added to the groundwater.

Figure2.2. Setup showing tube experiment of Henry Darcy

33
For the analysis of groundwater flow in natural groundwater basins, Darcy‟s law is usually
written in a somewhat different form. The basic form of Darcy‟s law is usually written in the
differential form and the water levels in the manometers are replaced by the so called hydraulic
heads. Instead of the flow through a cross-section of a sand column we will consider the specific
discharge or the flow rate per unit area of rock material. Darcy‟s law for the computation of the
specific discharge is then as follows:

 h 
q  K   (2.4)
 l 
Where:
q = specific discharge or flow rate per unit area (m/day),
K = coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity of rock (m/day),
h = hydraulic head (m),
l = distance measured in flow direction (m).

We may split up the specific discharge into its components in the Cartesian coordinates X, Y and
Z directions. For the three dimensions, the following equations are then valid for flow in
isotropic porous medium and Darcy's law will be written as:

 h   h   h 
qx  K x  , q y   K y  , q z   K z   (2.5)
 X   Y   Z 
Where:
qx, qy, qz = Specific discharge in the X, Y and Z direction (m/day).
Kx, Ky, Kz = Coefficient of permeability in the X, Y and Z direction (m/day).

Example 2.1: At a certain point in an unconfined aquifer of 3 km2 area, the water table was at an
elevation of 102.00 m. Due to natural recharge in a wet season, its level rose to 103.20 m. A
volume of 1.5 Mm3 of water was then pumped out of the aquifer causing the water table to reach
a level of 101.20 m. By assuming the water table in the entire aquifer to respond in a similar way,
estimate (a) the specific yield of the aquifer and (b) the volume of recharge during the wet season.

Solution:
Volume pumped out = area * drop in water table * Sy  V=SAh, S=Sy

34
 1.5*106 = 3*106 * (103.20 - 101.20) * Sy  Sy = 0.25
b) Recharge volume = V=SAh =0.25 (103.20-102.00)*3*106 = 0.9*106 m3

Example 2.2: A field test for permeability consists in observing the time required for a tracer to
travel between two observation wells. A tracer was found to take 10h to travel between two wells
50 m apart when the difference in the water surface elevation within them was 0.5m. The mean
particle pore size of the aquifer was 2mm and the porosity of the medium 0.3. If  = 0.01cm2/s,
estimate (a) the coefficient of permeability and intrinsic permeability of the aquifer and (b) the
Reynolds number of the flow.

Solution:
a) The tracer records the actual velocity of water
S 50 *100
Va    0.139cm / s
t 10 * 60 * 60
Discharge velocity, q = n*Va = 0.3*0.139 = 0.0417cm/s
h 0.50
Hydraulic gradient,   0.01
S 50
q 0.0417
Coefficient of permeability, K    4.17cm / s
h 0.01
S
K 4.17 * 0.01
Intrinsic permeability, K i    4.25 *10 5 cm 2
g 981
Since 9.87*10-9 cm-2 = 1 Darcy  Ki = 4306 darcys

qd 0.0417 * 2 *10 2
b) Taking d = 2 mm, Reynolds number, Re    0.834
 10
2.2 Mathematical equation for groundwater flow problems
Continuity equations: Darcy‟s law is a powerful tool and can be used by itself to compute
groundwater flow in groundwater basins. Nevertheless, the relationship is often used in
combination with the law of conservation of mass and its mathematical equivalent: the equation
of continuity.
Total mass in - total mass out = change of mass storage
If the density of groundwater is constant, mass balance will be identical to water balance.
Water balance states that:
Total flow in - total flow out = change of water storage

35
Figure 2.3 Elemental control volume for deriving continuity equation of groundwater flow

If we denote the mass of groundwater flowing through the left face as:

qyXZ (2.6)
Then we can approximate the mass flow through the right face by taking the first two terms of a
Taylor series:

 q y  
 q y  Y  XZ (2.7)
 Y 
The loss or gain of mass flow per time unit in the Y-direction can then be expressed as follows:

 q y 
XYZ (2.8)
Y
The law of the conservation of mass states that the sum of the gains or losses of mass flow in the
X, Y, and Z directions is equal to the loss or gain in mass of the groundwater stored in the
elemental control volume Per time unit and realizing that the change of the groundwater mass in
the control volume is equal to its volume times the change in density and porosity n, we then
obtain:

36
  ( q x ) ( q y ) ( q z )  M  n 
-    XYZ   XYZ (2.9)
 X Y Z  t t
For a unit volume (say with sides of 1m):

 ( q x ) ( q y ) ( q z )  n 
    (2.10)
 X Y Z  t
For a constant density, ():

 q x q y q z  n 
    0 (2.11)
 X Y Z  t
Combining Eq. (2.11) with Darcy‟s law Eq. (2.5) and for the case that there is no change in the
coefficient of permeability in the X, Y and Z direction:

  2h    2h    2h 
K x  
2 
 K  
 Y 2   K  2   0 (2.12)
 X   Z 
y z
 
In case the coefficients of permeability in the X, Y and Z directions are also the same, then
equation (2.12) reduces to the well known Laplace equation:

 2h   2h   2h 

    2    2   0 or 2h = 0
2 
(2.13)
 X   Y   Z 
Let us also consider the unsteady state flow, in which there is a change of the mass of
groundwater in the control volume resulting from changes in the porosity of the rock material and
changes in the density of groundwater itself. By introducing the concept of specific storage the
change in the mass of groundwater can also be expressed in terms of a change in hydraulic head.
From (Eq. 2.10) including the specific storage term and for  = constant:

q x q y q z  h 
   Ss  (2.14)
X Y Z  t 
Where:
Ss = Volume of groundwater stored or released in a unit control volume for a 1m increase
or decline of the head h (1/m).

37
Also combining Eq. (2.14) with Darcy‟s law equation:

  2h   2h    2h   h 
K x  
2 
 K 
y

2 
 K  2   Ss 
z (2.15)
 X   Y   Z   t 
For K being constant in the directions X, Y and Z (Kx = Ky = Kz = K):

  2 h    2 h    2 h   Ss  h 
    2    2     
2 
(2.16)
 X   Y   Z   K  t 
Equations (2.11) to (2.16) are considered the basic continuity equations for the description of
groundwater flow. Equation (2.16) is considered to be three dimensional basic differential
equation governing unsteady groundwater flow in homogeneous isotropic confined aquifer. This
form of the equation is known as diffusion equation.

If the flow is steady, the h/ t term does not exist, leading to 2h= 0. This equation is known as
the Laplace equation and is the fundamental equation of all potential flow problems. Being linear,
the method of superposition is applicable in its solutions.
Flow in aquifer systems: The Darcy and continuity equations have been introduced as a basis for
the computation of groundwater flow. To apply these equations to practical cases we can follow
an analytical approach where by the combined Darcy and continuity equations (for example
Eq.2.11 & 2.16) are solved taking into account realistic boundary conditions. Another approach is
the numerical treatment of the basic equations which forms the platform for the building of
mathematical groundwater models.
As an application of the Laplace‟s equation a simple steady state one dimensional confined
porous media flow is given below.

2.2.1 Groundwater flow in confined aquifer between two water bodies:

This is an application of the Laplace equation, a simple situation of steady state one-dimensional
confined porous media flow.

Fig. 2.4 shows a very wide confined aquifer of depth H connecting two water bodies. A section of
the aquifer of unit width is considered. The piezometric head at the upstream end is H 0 and at a
distance X from the upstream end is h.

38
The relevant Darcy equation is: qx = -Kx (h / X).

Figure 2.4 Confined groundwater flow between two water bodies.

For one-dimensional flow in the X-direction only the continuity equation for steady flow
simplifies to:

2h / X2 = 0 (2.17)

Integrating twice  h = C1 X + C2 (2.18)
The boundary conditions are:
(i) At X= 0, H = H0 hence, C2 = H0

 H0  HL 
(ii) At X = L, H = HL hence, C1   
 L 
Up on substitution of the boundary conditions C1 and C2

 H  HL 
H  H0   0 X (2.19)
 L 
This is the equation of the hydraulic grade line, which is shown to vary linearly from H 0 to HL.

By Darcy Law, the discharge per unit width of the aquifer is:

 h   H  HL 
q  K     K *  0  (2.20)
 X   L 

39
  H0  HL   H  HL 
 q  K  , And the total discharge with a thickness, H is Q  KH  0 
 L   L 
Where KH= Transmissivity (m2/s)

q K  H  HL 
Average groundwater velocity, V    0 
ne ne  L 
L
dS dS dX ne L ne L2
t 
V 0 V
To compute travel time, V   t  
dt q K (H 0  H L )
Example 2.3: In order to determine the groundwater discharge, velocity and travel time,
hypothetical aquifer parametric values are given below. H0=20 m, HL=19 m, B=10 m, K=10 m/d,
L= 1000 m, ne=0.2. Find Q, q, V, and t.

 H0  HL 
Solution: q  K   =10*1/1000=0.01 m/day
 L 
Q=q*H=0.01*10=0.1 m3/day
q 0.01
V   0.05m / day
ne 0.2
ne L 0.2 *1000
t   20,000days
q 0.01

2.2.2 Groundwater flow in an unconfined aquifer

In unconfined aquifers the free surface of the water table, known as phreatic surface, has the
boundary condition of constant pressure equal to atmospheric pressure. These boundary
conditions cause considerable difficulties in analytical solutions of steady unconfined flow
problems by using the Laplace equation.
Consider an unconfined aquifer is above a horizontal impermeable base;
- The porous medium is homogeneous (K = constant);
- The aquifer receives uniform recharge (w = constant) on the top; w is defined as amount
of water entering to aquifer per unit length and width per unit time.
- The aquifer is bounded by two rivers of constant stages h0 and hL.
- Although flow is two-dimensional in the cross-section, vertical flow velocity is much
smaller than the horizontal flow so that the flow is assumed to be one-dimensional
horizontal flow (Dupuit's assumption).

40
A simplified approach based on the assumptions suggested by Dupuit (1863) which gives
reasonably good results in relatively easier manner is described below.
i.) The curvature of the free surface is very small so that the streamlines can be assumed to be
horizontal at all sections.
ii.) The hydraulic grade line is equal to the free surface slope and does not vary with depth.
iii.) The flow in aquifers is horizontal and that in aquitard is vertical.
As shown in Fig. (2.5). Further, there is a recharge at a constant rate of W (m3/s) per unit
horizontal area due to infiltration from the top of the aquifer. The aquifer is of infinite length and
hence one dimensional method of analysis is adopted. For a unit width of aquifer:

Figure 2.5 Unconfined groundwater flow between two water bodies

The water balance of the control volume taking the reference level of an aquifer at the bottom of
the aquifer and the height equals to saturated thickness of the aquifer is:
(hq x )
hq x  wx  hq x  x (2.21)
x
Substituting Darcy‟s equation in eq. (2.21) and rearranging terms we get:
  h  w
h    0 (2.22)
x  x  K
Equation (2.22) is the non linear governing groundwater flow equation in unconfined aquifer.

  2 h 2  2w
Rearranging we get,  2   0
 x  K
 
Integrating this equation twice w.r.t x gives,

41
  w
h 2    x 2  C1 x  C 2 (2.23)
K
Where C1 and C2 are constants of integration and must be determined from the boundary
conditions.
The boundary conditions are:
(iii) At X= 0, h = h0 hence, C2 = h02

 h0 2  hL 2  w
(iv) At X = L, h = hL hence, C1    L
 L  K
 

Thus substituting C1 and C2 in Eq. (2.23) gives:

 h 2  hL 2 wL 
h 2  h0   0
2
 x  w x 2 (2.24)
 L K  K

This is not equation of a straight line.

The unit width discharge in the aquifer will be:

h K  h0  hL wL 
2 2

q x   Kh     wx , Which is not a constant through the aquifer.

x 2  L K 

It is obvious that the discharge qx varies with X. At the upstream water body, X = 0 and discharge
to this left river will be:

 wL K h0 2  hL 2  K  h0 2  hL 2  wL
q L     
 2

 2 (2.25)
 2 2 L   L 
The (-) sign do mean flow is in opposite x-direction.
Discharge to this right river when x-L will be:

 wL K h0 2  hL 2  K  h0 2  hL 2  wL
q R     
 2

 2 (2.26)
 2 2 L   L 
When h0= hL, discharge to two rivers will be the same.
 wL 
qL  qR    And the total discharge to the two rivers, q L  q R  wL which is equals to
 2 
the total aquifer recharge.

42
The water table is thus not a straight line as shown by Eq. (2.24). The value of h will in general
rise above h0, reaches a maximum at X = d and falls back to hL at X = L as shown in Fig (2.5).
The value of d is obtained by equating dh/dX = 0 and qx=0, and is given by:

K  h0  hL wL 
2 2

qx    wx  0
2  L K 

L K  h0  hL 
2 2

d   
2 2  wL  (2.27)

The location X = d is called the water divide. In Fig. (2.5), the flow to the left of the divide will
be to the upstream water body and the flow to the right of the divide will be to the downstream
water body.
In the case where there is no recharge to the aquifer, w = 0, water table (2.24) reduces to:

 h0 2  hL 2 
h  h0   x
2 2

L  (2.28)
 
This has a parabolic shape. In this case, the flow occurs only from the left river to the
right river with unit width discharge as:

K  h  hL  h  hL h0  hL
2 2

q x   0 K 0

, This is the well-known Dupuit formula derived
2 L  2 L

in 1863. It indicates that the unit width discharge is a constant and can be obtained using
Darcy's law with average aquifer thickness, (h0 + hL)/2, and average hydraulic gradient,
(h0 - hL)/L.

Example 2.4: Two rivers located 1000 m apart fully penetrate a phreatic aquifer. The parameters
of the aquifer are: K= 0.5 m/d, w=1.4*10-4 m/day, h0=20 m, hL=18 m.
a.) Derive a formula for calculating a unit width discharge.
b.) Determine the location of d and the maximum height (hmax.) of the water divide.
c.) What is the unit width discharge of the aquifer to the right river?

Solution:
a.

43
 h K  h0  hL wL  0.5  20 2  18 2 1.4 *10 4 *1000 
2 2

q x   Kh     wx      1.4 *10 4 x
x 2   2  1000
L K  0.5 
q= -0.051+1.4*10-4x
At qx=0, x=0.051/1.4*10-4=364.3 m, which is the location of water divide.

L K  h0  hL  1000 0.5  20 2  18 2 
2 2

b. d    
    4
  364.3m
2 2  wL  2 2  1.4 * 10 *1000 

 h 2  hL 2 wL 
hmax  h0   0
2 2
 d  w d 2
 L K  K

 20 2  18 2 1.4 *10 4 *1000  1.4 *10 4 * 364.32

hmax
2 2

 20  4
 
 * 364.3   437.14
 1.4 *10 *1000 0.5  0.5
hmax=20.9 m

 wL K h0 2  hL 2 
c. q R    =-0.051+1.4*10-4x= 0.089 m/d
 2  2 L 
 

Example 2.5: Two parallel rivers A and B are separated by a landmass as shown in the figure
below. Estimate the seepage discharge from river A to River B per unit length of the rivers.

44
Solution:
The aquifer system is considered as a composite of aquifers 1 and 2 with a horizontal impervious
boundary at the interface. This leads to the assumptions:
a) Aquifer 2 is a confined aquifer with K2 = 10 m/day,
b) Aquifer 1 is an unconfined aquifer with K1 = 25m/day. Consider a unit width of the aquifers.

For the confined aquifer 2:

Here, h1 = 35.0 m, h2 = 15m, L = 3000 m, K2 = 10 m/day and B = 10 m.

 H0  HL 
From Eq. (2.20), q  K  
 L 
q2 = 0.667 m3/day/meter width

For the unconfined aquifer 1:

Here, h1 = (35 - 10) = 25 m, h2 = (15 - 10) = 5 m, L = 3000 m, K1= 25 m/day

K  h  hL  h  hL h0  hL
2 2

From Eq. (2.25), q x   0 K 0 q1 = 2.5 m3/day/meter width

2  L 
 2 L

Total discharge from river A to river B = q1 + q2  q = 0.667 + 2.5 = 3.167m3/day/ unit length of
the rivers

Example 2.6: An unconfined aquifer (K = 5m/day) situated on the top of a horizontal impervious
layer connects two parallel water bodies M and N which are 1200 m apart. The water surface
elevations of M and N measured above the horizontal impervious bed are 10.00 m and 8.00 m. If

45
a uniform recharge at the rate of 0.002m3/day/ m2 of horizontal area occurs on the ground surface,
estimate:
a) The water table profile
b) The location and elevation of the water table divide
c) The seepage discharges into the lakes and
d) The recharge rate at which the water table divides coincides with the upstream edge of the
aquifer and the total seepage flow per unit width of the aquifer at this recharge rate.

Solution:
Consider unit width of the aquifer referring to the figure below: h0 = 10.00 m, R=w = 0.002
m3/day/m2, h1= 8.00 m, L = 1200 m, K = 5 m/day.

 h1 2  h2 2 wL 
a) The water table profile: By Eq. (2.24), h  h1  
2 2
 x  w x 2
 L K  K

h = -0.0004X2 + 0.45X +100

L K  h0  hL 
2 2

b) Location of water table divide: From Eq. (2.27), d    d = 562.5 m

2 2  wL 

At x = a=d = 562.5m, h = hm = height of water table divide
hm2 = - 0.0004 (562.5)2 + 0.45 (562.5) +100 = 226.56
hm = 15.05m

46
 K  h0  hL wL 
2 2

c) Discharge per unit width of the aquifer: Form Eq. (2.25) q x    wx

2  L K 

K  h0  hL wL 
2 2

At x =0, q1    1.125m 3 / d / m
2  L K  

The negative sign indicates that the discharge is in (-X) direction i.e, into the water body M.
At X = L, q2 = qL and from Eq (2.25) q2 = wL + q1
Hence, q2 = discharge into water body N = 0.002*1200 + (-1.125) = 1.275 m3/day/meter width

d) When the distance of the water table divide d= 0: From Eq. (2.27),

L K  h0  hL 
 
2 2

d    w  K2 h0 2  hL 2
2 2  wL 
 L
 w = 5/12002(102 - 82) = 1.25*10-4m3/day/m2
Since d = 0, q1 = 0 and by Eq. (2.24) q2 = qL = w *L = 1.25*10-4 *1200 = 0.15m3/day/meter width

2.3 Regional and local groundwater flow

Elementary flow system

The simplest flow system consists of a rectangular spatially-bounded region with impermeable
sides and bottom and one infiltration/recharge area and one exfiltration/discharge area which are
separated by a mid-line and connected by a single flow branch. In the steady state flow conditions
the boundaries of the recharge and discharge areas are fixed as well as the position of the mid-
line. Under non-steady state flow conditions due to variations in recharge or discharge the
recharge- and discharge areas will shrink or expand and the boundary line will shift on the
topographic slope. The position of the stream lines will shift than as well.

Groundwater flow system

A groundwater flow system is a subsystem of a hydrological (water) system. It is located in a
geographically distinct domain of the subsoil, which it fills with a pattern of flow lines from one
coherent infiltration- or recharge area by one or more flow branches to one or more

47
exfiltration/discharge areas. The groundwater flow system includes the water and the part of a
flow medium which it occupies, together with its biotic communities and all associated natural
and artificial physical, chemical, biological characteristics and processes.

Infiltration- or recharge area

Each spatially coherent infiltration/recharge area feeds one or more flow branches of a single
flow system. A common infiltration area is subdivided by groundwater divides if more flow
branches are fed from the same area. A composite infiltration/recharge area may consist of a
mosaic of different planar, linear or point recharge elements with different infiltration/recharge
rates, e.g.: leaky, infiltrating surface water systems, precipitation-fed recharge through the
unsaturated zone, artificial recharge by different types of irrigation systems, recharge wells.

Exfiltration/discharge area
Each spatially coherent exfiltration/discharge area is fed by one or more flow branches from one
or more different flow systems e.g. recharge areas. A composite exfiltration/ discharge area may
consist of a mosaic of different planar, linear or point-discharge elements with different
exfiltration/discharge rates, e.g.: draining surface water systems (sea, lake, river, canal, ditch),
springs, seepage zones, evaporating saline soils, phreatophytic vegetation, groundwater
abstraction schemes, etc.

Hierarchy of flow systems

In nature the available subsurface flow will contain a number of different flow systems of
different orders of magnitude and relative, nested hierarchical order. Local systems are nested in
sub-regional systems, sub-regional systems in turn are nested in regional systems.
Theoretically three types of flow systems may occur in a basin: local, intermediate and regional
as shown in figure (2.6). This original terminology by Toth (local, sub regional and regional)
relates to the relative position of flow systems in space but is not indicative of their actual size
(extent and penetration depth). Thus a local flow system might be just as well of large extent and
penetrate deeply or be very small and shallow, depending upon the topography and permeability-
scales.

Local flow systems

In local systems flow lines connect a topographic high acting as a recharge/infiltration area with
the immediately adjacent topographic low and the corresponding discharge/exfiltration area. In

48
case of local flow systems the in- and exfiltration areas are juxtaposed and flow takes place via
phreatic groundwater, implying that no other flow systems are positioned on top of the system.
'Local" bears no relation with the size and scale of the systems. Hence, these flow systems may
vary from shallow small-sized rainwater lenses under minor topographic culminations with
seasonally varying shape and travel times in the order of weeks or months to large systems with
dimensions of many kilometers and travel times in the order of hundreds or thousands of years,
but in which the discharge areas are still juxtaposed to the recharge area without smaller nested
systems on top.

Sub-regional (intermediate) flow systems

A sub-regional flow system has its origin also in a topographic high acting as a
recharge/infiltration area but it has flow branches to several discharge/exfiltration areas which are
separated from each other and located at some distance from the recharge area. A local flow
branch originating in the outer zone of the recharge/infiltration area feeds the directly adjacent
local discharge/exfiltration area. One or more deeper and farther reaching flow branches
originating in the central part of the recharge/infiltration area feed one or more distant
discharge/exfiltration areas which crop out as "windows" between other hierarchically nested,
overlying local flow systems. Again the scale, size and depth of the flow may differ widely.

Regional flow system

Regional flow systems are at the top of the hierarchical organization and thereby the highest level
of scale. All other flow systems are nested within the regional one. A regional flow system
originates in the main and highest topographical culmination and may have local, intermediate
and regional flow branches, which are fed successively from the periphery, the middle parts and
the core of the regional recharge/infiltration area. The local flow branches end up in them
discharge/exflltration areas in the topographic lows or breaks in slope immediately adjacent to the
regional topographic high. The intermediate flow branches discharge into discharge/exfiltration
windows in still lower topographic depressions farther away. The regional flow branches finally
are the deepest penetrating and farthest reaching branches which end up as groundwater
discharge/exfiltration windows in the regionally lowest topographic locations. Note that in the
example of figure 1.7 the configuration of the topography/hydraulic head is such that the
particular regional flow system in it has only one regional flow branch with a regional discharge
window and one local flow branch but no intermediate flow branch, e.g. sub-regional discharge
window.

49
In many cases the exfiltrating groundwater flow branches are connected to and feed seepage
zones and or surface water networks, especially in humid climates. In topographically closed
basins and under semi-arid and arid conditions groundwater discharge areas may end in and be
responsible for saline soils, playa lakes, phreatophytic vegetations, etc.
The higher the local topographic relief and the vertical permeability, the greater is the importance
of local systems. The flow lines of large, unconfined flow systems do not cross major topographic
features. Semi-stagnant bodies of groundwater can occur in zones where branches of different
flow systems converge or diverge. Motion of groundwater is sluggish or nil under extended flat
areas with little chance of the water being freshened.
Regional flow systems show often the following properties:
1. Groundwater discharge will tend to be concentrated in major valleys;
2. Recharge areas are invariably larger than discharge areas,
3. In hummocky terrain, numerous sub-basins are superposed on the regional system;
4. Buried aquifers tend to concentrate flow toward the principal discharge area, having a limited
effect on sub-basins, and not outcrop to produce artesian flow conditions;
5. Stratigraphic discontinuities can lead to distributions of recharge and discharge areas that are
difficult to anticipate and that-are largely independent of the water table configuration.

Figure 2.6: Theoretical Flow pattern and boundary of flow systems

50
 2.3.1 Regional Groundwater Flow Analysis
Regional groundwater can be analyzed using the basic groundwater flow equations. We will
assume that the groundwater basin is composed of one or more aquifer systems. Local
groundwater flow problems such as the flow to canals or rivers, the flow to wells, or the flow to a
building pit will be discussed.

Some of the methods that one can use to analyze regional groundwater flow in these systems are
the following:

 Methods primarily based on groundwater head contour maps

 Methods focusing on the compilation of flow nets

 Methods based on the application of groundwater flow models

Groundwater head contour maps

Whatever method we follow for our analysis the compilation of groundwater head contour maps
is a crucial activity. Groundwater head contour maps are maps, which show the projections of the
equipotential planes of groundwater heads in the aquifers. These maps are also referred to as
isohypse maps.

Figure 2.7 Regional Groundwater flow

51
Using groundwater head contour maps we can determine the direction of groundwater flow. It is
known that groundwater moves perpendicular to equipotential lines. Therefore this flow is also
perpendicular to the groundwater head contours on the contour maps. It is also known that
groundwater moves from locations with a high groundwater head to locations with a lower head.
On the basis of these criteria the flow directions can be indicated.

A. Simple Computations with Contour Maps:

Fig. 2.8 shows a cross-section indicating an aquitard sandwiched between two aquifers. The
section shows the groundwater heads in the upper and the lower aquifer. To compute the average
flow for a surface area, A through the aquitard the average difference in hydraulic head, (h)
should be estimated by subtracting groundwater heads for the upper and lower aquifer. The
groundwater head contour maps for both aquifers can be used for this purpose. The area, A can be
scaled off from the contour map. Also, the resistance, C can be evaluated from pumping tests. It
is emphasized that we work with average groundwater head differences for the area A, which
implies that we compute an average flow. In particular if we select a large area, A then within the
area itself there may be a substantial variations in vertical flow.

The volume of groundwater stored or released in a confined or semi-confined aquifer can be

computed by:

Qgws = A*S*(h / t) (2.29)

Where:
Qgws = Stored or released flow in the aquifer (m3/day),
A = Surface area of the aquifer (m2),
S= Storage coefficient (dimensionless),
h = difference in hydraulic head (m),
t = discrete length of time (day).

The expression for the computation of volumes of groundwater stored or released in an

unconfined aquifer is:

Qv = A*Sy *(h / t) (2.30)

Where:
Sy = specific yield (dimensionless)

52
Figure 2.8: Vertical flow through an aquitard

To compute the flow in the aquifer at a selected location we can consider two adjoining
groundwater head contour lines to calculate the hydraulic gradient (h/S). The width, w of the
aquifer can be scaled off from the map. Additionally the value of the Transmissivity, T can be
evaluated from pumping tests.

To formulate an expression for the computation of the flow through the aquitard we will consider
the Darcy‟s law equation in the vertical (Z) direction. Taking the hydraulic gradient in the vertical
direction in a discrete form the equation can be written as:

qz = -Kz *(h/Z) (2.31)

Then, Z can be replaced by the thicknesses D of the aquitard.

qz = (-Kz / D)*h = -h / C (2.32)

This expresses the specific discharge through the aquitard which is defined for a surface area of
1m2. The total flow through an aquitard can be calculated from:

53
Qz = -A*(h / C) (2.33)
Where:
Qz = total groundwater flow through the aquitard (m3/day)
A = surface area (m2), h = difference in hydraulic head (m)
C = vertical resistance of the aquitard (days)

B. Flow net Analysis:

Flow nets for aquifer systems can be prepared on the basis of groundwater head contour maps.
For this purpose groundwater flow lines or streamlines are drawn perpendicular to the contour
lines on these maps (Fig. 2.9). We will find that we end up with a map showing a grid of squares
or rectangles. Such a grid is referred to as a flow net. For each of the aquifers in an aquifer system
we can make a map showing a flow net composed of groundwater head contour lines and flow
lines.

Figure 2.9 Flow net near a river and subsurface moisture zone before and after infiltration

Flow nets have a characteristic shape at the boundaries of an aquifer system. Figure 2.10 shows
the flow nets at three common types of boundaries: a) Impermeable boundaries b) Constant head
boundaries and c) Groundwater table boundaries.

The following comments can be made:

a) Impermeable boundary: This could be the boundary with an impermeable geological
formation like unfractured igneous rock. Since there can be no flow component across the

54
 boundary flow lines can only run parallel to the boundary while the groundwater head
contour lines are perpendicular to this boundary.

b) Constant head boundary: This could be the boundary with open water such as a river, a lake
or the sea. If we assume that the open water level is constant then the boundary can be
considered as a groundwater head contour line. The flow lines are perpendicular to this open
water boundary.

c) Groundwater table boundary: This is a boundary, which may be influenced by recharge or

discharge or none of these phenomena at all. First consider the case of recharge or discharge.
The flow lines and the groundwater head contour lines one both at an angle to the boundary.
In case there is no recharge or discharge then the groundwater table acts as an impermeable
boundary: the flow lines are parallel to the table and the groundwater head contour lines are
perpendicular.

Figure 2.10 Flow nets at boundaries

55
The flow lines are in fact the borderlines of so called stream tubes. Groundwater which is flowing
through an individual stream tube is not loosing, neither gaining groundwater from the
neighboring tubes. By summation of the flow through individual stream tubes the total flow
through an aquifer or aquitard can be calculated. The computation of the groundwater flow in this
way is more precise than to estimate it from groundwater head contour maps only. This is in
particular true for complex groundwater contour patterns where the contour lines are not straight
and parallel.

Figure 2.11 Flow net computations

Expressions for flow net computations can be formulated. Let us consider a flow net for an
aquifer and try to find an expression for the flow through a stream tube. Using the Darcy equation
the groundwater flow through the tube can be approximated by taking into consideration the
hydraulic gradient for a discrete distance, the width of the stream tube and the depth of the aquifer
as follows:

qs = K*h*Ws*(h / S) (2.34)

Where:
qs = flow through the stream tube (m3/day),
K = coefficient of permeability of the aquifer (m/day),
h = aquifer thickness (m),

56
 Ws = width of the stream tube (m),
h = difference in hydraulic head (m),
S = discrete distance (m)

This expression can be further simplified and evaluated. First of all we can replace the product
K*h by the aquifer Transmissivity T. Secondly, we can also simplify the expression by
constructing the flow lines in the flow net in such a way that, the width of the stream tube is equal
to the distance between selected contour lines: Ws = S. Finally, if there are n stream tubes for
the whole width of the aquifer then, for constant T, the total flow through the aquifer is:

Q = T*Nf/Nd (2.35)
Fig. 2.11 presents a flow net, which demonstrates the flow net computation. The flow net relates
to an aquifer system consisting of a single fully confined aquifer bounded by impermeable
formations. To compute the total flow through the aquifer the distance in hydraulic head (h) is
determined by subtracting the groundwater heads of adjacent groundwater head contour lines.
The number of steam tubes n can be counted from the flow net. The transmissivity, T can best be
assessed from the evaluation of pumping tests. If all the variables are known then equation (2.37)
can be used to compute the total flow through the aquifer.

C. Groundwater flow models:

Regional groundwater flow can be modeled with numerical models. Before 1980‟s, techniques
based on physical models were quite extensively used to simulate regional flow in groundwater
systems. From 1980‟s on wards numerical models replaced the physically based models.
Computerized numerical models are superior to calculation methods based on simple
computations and flow nets. However these latter techniques remain useful as they give quick
estimates on flow rates and provide inputs for the numerical models. Groundwater flow rates and
hydraulic heads can be computed at the cells of a model grid that covers part of the groundwater
system. These models are also used for the optimization of transmissivity, storage coefficients,
recharge rates, or other flow parameters. These models are also used to simulate the effect of
groundwater abstractions or other human activities on groundwater system.
Some examples of groundwater flow models: MODFLOW, SIMGRO, MICROFEM,
3DFEMFAT, FEFLOW, SLAEM, WinFLOW etc.

57
 2.3.2 Local Groundwater Flow
Regional groundwater flow occurs in groundwater basins, which usually occupy large areas.
Regional flow may be influenced by local groundwater flow phenomena. For example, the
construction of canals may influence the regional natural flow. Another example concerns wells:
pumping from wells may also affect the regional flow and this can often be observed on
groundwater head contour lines parallel to the canals on the maps. Around wells or well fields
the contour lines may follow a circular or ellipsoidal pattern.

Computations on local groundwater flow phenomena can also be done in the same way as
regional groundwater flows. Estimates on the local flow of groundwater can be obtained using
groundwater head contour maps, flow nets or numerical groundwater models. Traditionally,
however, these local flow problems were also solved by analytical methods. In these methods the
differential Darcy and Continuity equations are solved in a direct way; either separately or
combined. We had briefly discussed the analytical methods by presenting cases of the flow
between rivers or two water bodies and we will discuss the flow to wells in chapter 3.

2.4 One, two and three-dimensional flow in different aquifers

For isotropic soils one can directly get solution for the Laplace‟s equation by analytical method,
Experimental method or by graphical method. The solution of Laplace‟s equation gives two sets
of curves called equipotential lines and flow lines, which are perpendicular to each other.
Consider the continuity equation for a steady three dimensional flow through anisotropic soil we

  2h    2h    2h 

have: K x  
2 
 K y  2   K z  2   0
  2.36
 X   Y   Z 
Meaning the flow is considered in the x, y and z directions. This is not a Laplace equation
therefore it is very difficult to draw a flow net.
For two dimensional flows, the flow component in the z-direction is considered zero. This result

 2h   2h 
in K x    K y  2   0
2 
2.37
 X   Y 
This is not a Laplace equation therefore it is very difficult to draw a flow net. However this
equation can be converted in to the Laplace‟s equation as follows.

Kx  2h   2h 
    2   0
2 
Ky  X   Y 
This can be transformed by making substitution as follows.

58
 Ky
Xt  X whereX t isnewtransformedcoordinate int heX  direction
Kx

  2h    2h 
  
 X 2   Y 2   0
 t   
This is the Laplace equation for the transformed coordinates Xt and Y.
For one dimensional flow, only the flow component in the x-direction is considered. This result

 2h    2h 
in K x    
2 
0
2 
2.38
 X   X 

Questions:
1. What is the law of Darcy? What are its limitations in groundwater flow?
2. Why it is essential for a water resources engineer to study about unsaturated
zone?
3. Derive the governing three dimensional groundwater flow equation.
4. What is the hierarchy of flow system?
5. What are stream tubes, equipotential lines and flow nets?

59
Chapter Three
HYDRAULICS OF WELLS

General
Wells form the most important mode of groundwater extraction from an aquifer. While wells are
used in a number of different applications, they find extensive use in water supply and irrigation
engineering practice.

Consider the water in an unconfined aquifer being pumped at a constant rate from a well. Prior to
the pumping, the water level in the well indicates the static water table. A lowering of this water
level takes place on pumping. If the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic and the water table is
horizontal initially, due to the radial flow into the well through the aquifer the water table
assumes a conical shape called inverted cone of depression. The dropped line in the water table
elevation at any point from its previous static level is called drawdown curve. The base of the
cone where original water table lies is called circle of influence and its radial extent radius of
influence (Fig. 3.1). At constant rate of pumping, the drawdown curve develops gradually with
time due to the withdrawal of water from storage.

This phase is called unsteady flow as the water table elevation at a given location near the well
changes with time. On prolonged pumping, an equilibrium state is reached between the rate of
pumping and the rate of inflow of groundwater from the outer edges of the zone of influence. The
drawdown surface attains a constant position with respect to time when the well is known to
operate under steady-flow conditions. As soon as the pumping is stopped, the depleted storage in
the cone of depression is made good by groundwater inflow into the zone of influence. There is a
gradual accumulation of storage till the original (static) level is reached. This stage is called
recuperation or recovery and is an unsteady phenomenon. Recuperation time depends upon the
aquifer characteristics.

Changes similar to the above take place to a pumping well in a confined aquifer also, but with the
difference that, it is the piezometric surface instead of the water table that undergoes drawdown
with the development of the cone of depression. In confined aquifers with considerable
piezometric head, the recovery into the well takes places at a very rapid rate.

60
Figure 3.1a: Unconfined aquifer when wells are pumped at constant rate

Figure 3.1b: Confined aquifer when wells are pumped at constant rate

3.1 Steady and unsteady states of flow in different aquifers

Steady Flow into a Well: steady-state groundwater problems are relatively simpler. Expressions
for steady-state radial flow into a well under both confined and unconfined aquifer conditions are
presented below.

61
A. Steady flow to a well in confined aquifer: Fig. 3.2 shows a well completely penetrating a
horizontal confined aquifer of thickness B. Consider the well to be discharging a steady flow, Q.
The original piezometric head (static head) was ho and the drawdown due to pumping is indicated
below. The piezometric head at the pumping well is hw and the drawdown Sw.

Figure 3.2: Radial flow to a well operating in a confined aquifer

At a radial distance r from the well, if h is the piezometric head, the velocity of flow by Darcy‟s
law is: qr = K (dh/dr). The cylindrical surface through which this velocity occurs is 2rb. Hence
by equating the discharge entering this surface to the well discharge, Q = (2rb)*[K (dh/dr)]. 
(Q/2Kb)*(dr/r) = dh. Integrating between limits r1 and r2 with the corresponding piezometric
heads being h1 and h2, respectively:

(Q/2Kb)*ln(r2/r1) = h2 - h1

62
 2Kbh2  h1 
Q (3.1)
r 
ln  2 
 r1 
This is the equilibrium equation for the steady flow in a confined aquifer popularly known as
Theim’s equation.

If the drawdowns S1 and S2 at the observation wells are known, then by noting that
S1 = h0 - h1, S2 = h0 - h2 and Kb = T, Eq. (3.1) will read as:

2T S1  S 2 
Q (3.2)
r 
ln  2 
 r1 
Further, at the edge of the zone of influence, S= 0, r2 = R and h2 = h0 at the well wall r1 = rw, h1 =
hw and S1 = Sw. Eq (3.2) would then be

R
Q ln  
2TS w  rw 
Q K (3.3)
R 2bH  hw ) 
ln  
 rw 
Equation (3.2) or (3.3) can be used to estimate T, and hence K, from pumping tests. For the use of
the equilibrium equation, Eq. (3.2) or its alternative forms could be used and it is necessary that
the assumption of complete penetration of the well into the aquifer and steady state of flow are
satisfied.
Example 3.1: A 30 cm diameter well completely penetrates a confined aquifer of 15 m thickness
and pumped at a steady rate of 30 lps. Under steady state of pumping the drawdown at the radial
distance of 10 m and 40 m are 1.5 m and 1 m respectively. Compute the radius of influence (R),
permeability (k), and drawdown (Sw) at the well.

Solution:
2T ( S1  S 2 ) 2 *15 * K * (1.5  1)
Q   K  8.83 *10 4 m / s
 r2   40 
ln   ln  
 1
r  10 
T=KB=8.83*10-4*15=1.32*10-2 m2/s

63
 2KB( S w  S 2 ) 2 *15 * 8.83 *10 4 * ( S w  1)
Q   S w  3.02m
 r2   40 
ln   ln  
 rw   0.15 

2KB * S w 2 *15 * 8.83 *10 4 * (3.02)

Q   R  634m
R  R 
ln   ln  
 w
r  0.15 

Example 3.2: A 30 cm diameter well completely penetrates a confined aquifer of permeability 45

m/day. The length of the strainer is 20 m. Under steady state of pumping the drawdown at the
well was found to be 3.0 m and the radius of influence was 300 m. Calculate the discharge.

Solution:
In this problem, referring to Fig. 3.2, rw = 0.15 m, R = 300 m, Sw = 3.0 m, b = 20 m, K = 45 m/d
(60*60*24) = 5.208 * 10-4m/s, T= Kb = 10.416*10-3 m2/s, By Eq. (3.3)
2TS w 2 *10.416 *10 3 * 3
Q   0.02583m 3 / s  1550lpm
R  300 
ln   ln  
 rw   0.15 

Example 3.3: For the well in the example (3.1), calculate the discharge: a) if the well diameter is
45cm and all other data remain the same, b) if the drawdown is increased to 4.5 m and all other
data remain unchanged.

Solution:
 R 
ln  
2TS w
  w 2  , and putting R = 300 m, Q1 =
Q1 r
a) Q  , as T and Sw are constants
R Q2  R 
ln   ln  
 rw   rw1 
1550litres/minute, rw1 = 0.15m, rw2 = 0.225m.  Q2 = 0.02728 m3/s=1637litres/minute. Note
that the discharge has increased by about 6% for 50% increase in the well diameter.

b) Q = (2T*Sw)/ ln(R/rw), QSw for constant T, R and rw. Thus Q1/Q2 = Sw1/ Sw2  Q2 = 2352
liters/minute. Note that the discharge increases linearly with the drawdown when other factors
remain constant.

64
B. Steady flow to a well in an unconfined aquifer: Consider a steady flow from a well
completely penetrating an unconfined aquifer. In this case because of the presence of a curved
free surface, the streamlines are not strictly radial straight lines. While a streamline at the free
surface will be curved, the one at the bottom of the aquifer will be a horizontal line, both
converging to the well. To obtain a simple solution Dupuit‟s assumptions as discussed in the
previous section are made. In the present case these are:

a) For small inclinations of the free surface, the streamlines can be assumed to be horizontal and
the equipotential are thus vertical.

b) The hydraulic gradient is equal to the slope of the free surface and does not vary with depth.
This assumption is satisfactory in most of the flow regions except in the immediate
neighborhood of the well.

Consider the well of radius, rw penetrating completely extensive unconfined horizontal aquifers as
shown in Fig.3.3. Water is pumped out from the well at a constant discharge, Q for a long time.
According to Darcy‟s law, at any radial distance r, the velocity of radial flow into the well is: qr =
K (dh/dr). Where h is the height of the water table above the aquifer bed at that location. For

 dh   Q  dr 
steady flow, by continuity: - Q  Aq r  2rh * K  or , hdh     , Integrating
 dr   2K  r 
between limits r1 and r2 where the water table depths are h1 and h2 respectively and on
rearranging:

 Q  r 2 dr  h 2  h1 2  r 
  Q ln  2 
h2
 hdh    r1
 2K  r
  2
2  2K  r 
 1
 
h1

Q

K h2 2  h1 2  (3.4)
r 
ln  2 
 r1 

65
Figure 3.3 Radial flows to a well in an unconfined aquifer

Eq. (3.4) is the equilibrium equation for a well in an unconfined aquifer. As at the edge of the
zone of influence of radius R, H = saturated thickness of the aquifer, Eq. (3.4) can be written as:

Q

K H 2  hw 2  (3.5)
R
ln  
 rw 
Where:
hw = depth of water in the pumping well of radius rw.

Equations (3.4) and (3.5) can be used to estimate satisfactorily the discharge and permeability of
the aquifer by using field data. Calculations of the water-table profile by Eq. (3.4) however will
not be accurate near the well because of Dupuit‟s assumptions. The water-table surface calculated
by Eq. (3.4) which involved Dupuit‟s assumption will be lower than the actual surface. The

66
departure will be appreciable in the immediate neighborhood of the well (Fig. 3.3). In general,
values of R are in the ranges of 300 to 500m and can be assumed depending on the type of
aquifer and operating conditions of a well. Due to difficulty in obtaining the radius of influence
accurately, usually Sichardt’s formula is used to estimate it. R=3000*Sw*K, where R= radius
of influence (m), Sw=drawdown in the well, and K=Coefficient of permeability (m/s).

As the logarithm of R is used in the calculation of discharge, a small error in R will not seriously
affect the estimation of Q. It should be noted that it takes a relatively long time of pumping to
achieve a steady state in a well in an unconfined aquifer. The recovery after the cessation of
pumping is also slow compared to the response of an artesian well which is relatively fast.

Approximate equations: If the drawdown at the pumping well Sw = (H - hw) is small relative to
H, then: H2 - hw2 = (H + hw)*(H - hw)  2hwSw, Noting that T = KH, Eq. (3.5) can be written as:

2TS w
Q (3.6)
R
ln  
 rw 
Which is the same as Eq. (3.3). Similarly Eq. (3.4) can be written in terms of S1 = (H -h1) and S2
= (H - h2) as:
2T S1  S 2 
Q (3.7)
r 
ln  2 
 r1 
Equation (3.6) and (3.7) are approximate equations to be used only when Eq. (3.4) or (3.5) cannot
be used for lack of data. Equation (3.6) over estimates the discharge by [1/2 (H/Sw - 1)] % when
compared to Eq. (3.5).

Example 3.4: A 30 cm well completely penetrates an unconfined aquifer of saturated depth 40m.
After a long period of pumping at a steady rate of 1500 lpm, the drawdown in two observation
wells 25 and 75m from the pumping well were found to be 3.5 and 2.0 m, respectively.
Determine the Transmissivity of the aquifer. What is the drawdown at the pumping well?

67
Solution:
a) Q = 1500*10-3/60 = 0.025m3/s, h2 = 40-2 = 38m, r2 = 75m, h1 = 40-3.5 = 36.5m, r1 = 25m.

r 
Q ln  2 
Substituting these values in Eq. (3.4) and solving for K results in, K 
 r1 
 h2  h12
2
 
K = 7.823*10-5 m/s  T = KH = 7.823*10-5*40 = 3.13*10-3 m2/s

c) At the pumping well, rw = 0.15m, and solving Eq. (3.4) for hW gives, hW = 28.49 m and
hence, drawdown at the well, Sw = 11.51m.

r   75 
Q ln  2  0.025 ln  
hw  h2 
2  rw 
 38 
2  0.15 
 28.49m
K  * 7.82 *10 5

Example 3.5: The following observation was made on a 30 cm diameter well in an unconfined
aquifer. Rate of pumping was 1500 lpm, Test wells are at a distance of 30 m and 60 m with draw
downs of 1.5 m and 0.6 m. The depth of water table in the well before pumping was 40 m.
Determine the radius of influence (R) and coefficient of permeability (K), and Sw.

Solution:
h1=40 m-1.5 m=38.5 m and h2=40 m-0.6 m=39.4 m

Q

K H 2  h1 2  and Q  K H 2
 h1
2

R R
ln   ln  
 r1   r1 

Equating these two,


K H 2  h1 2   K H  h2
2 2
  40  38.5 2 40 2  39.4 2
2

R R R R
ln   ln   ln   ln  
 r1   r2   30   60 

R
ln  
By collecting similar terms,
 30   117.75  2.471
 R  47.64
ln  
 60 
2.471(lnR-ln60) =lnR-ln301.471 lnR=2.471*ln60-ln30R=96 m

68
 R  96 
Q ln   0.025 ln  
K  r1    30   7.86 *10 5 m / s

 H  h1
2 2
 
 40  38.5 2
2

R  96 
Q ln   0.025 ln  
hw  H 
2  rw 
 40 
2  0.15 
 30.75m
K  * 7.86 *10 5
Sw=H-hw=9.25 m

C. Unsteady flow In a Confined Aquifer: When a well in a confined aquifer starts discharging,
the water from the aquifer is released resulting in the formation of a cone of depression of the
piezometric surface. This cone gradually expands with time till equilibrium is attained. The flow
configuration from the start of pumping till the attainment of equilibrium is in unsteady regime.

Figure 3.xx Unsteady flow In a Confined Aquifer

69
In polar coordinates, to represent the radial flow into a well, takes the form

 2 h 1  h  S  h 
     (3.8)
r 2 r  r  T  t 
Making the same assumptions as used in the derivation of the equilibrium equation (3.8), Theis
(1935) obtained the solution of this equation as:

Q e u
4T u u
s  h0  h  du (3.9)

Where: S = h0 - h = drawdown at a point distance r from the pumping well, h0 = Initial constant
piezometric head, Q = constant rate of discharge, T = transmissibility of the aquifer, u = a
parameter = r2S/ (4Tt), S = Storage coefficient and t = time from start of pumping. The integral
on the right-hand side is called the well function, W (u) and is given by:


 e u  u2 u3 u4
W u     du  -0.5772 - lnu  u -  -  ... (3.10)
u 
u 2 * 2! 3 * 3! 4 * 4!
Table of W (u) are available in literature. Values of W (u) can be also easily calculated by the
series (Eq.3.10) to the required number of significant digits which rarely exceed 4. For small
values of u (u 0.01), only the first two terms of the series are adequate.

The solution of Eq. (3.9) to find the drawdown S for a given S, T, r, t and Q can be obtained in a
straight forward manner. However, the estimation of the aquifer constants S and T from the
drawdown v/s time data of a pumping well, which involve trial - and error procedures, can be
done either by a digital computer or by semi-graphical methods such as the use of Type Curve, or
by Chow‟s method.

Q Q u2 u3 u4
s W (u )  [-0.5772 - lnu  u -  -  ...] (3.11)
4T 4T 2 * 2! 3 * 3! 4 * 4!
For small values of u (u 0.01), Jacob (1950) showed that the calculations can be considerably
simplified by considering only the first two terms of the series of W(u), Eq.(3.10). This
assumption leads Eq. (3.9) to be expressed as:

Q  r2S  Q  Tt 
s [-0.5772 - ln    * ln  2.25 2  (3.12)
4T  4Tt  4T  r S

70
If S1 and S2 are drawdown‟s at times t1 and t2:

Q  t2 
s1  s 2  ln   (3.13)
4T  t 1 
If the drawdown S is plotted against time t on a semi-log paper, the plot will be a straight line for
large values of time. The slope of this line enables the storage coefficient S to be determined.
From Eq. (3.12) when S = 0,

2.25Tt0 2.25Tt0
2
1 S  (3.14)
r S r2
In which t0 = time corresponding to zero drawdown obtained by extrapolating the straight-line
portion of the semi-log curve of S vs t. It is important to remember that the above approximate
method proposed by Jacob assumes u to be very small less than 0.01 to avoid large errors.

Example 3.6: A 30-cm well penetrating a confined aquifer is pumped at a rate of 1200 lpm. The
drawdown at an observation well at a radial distance of 30m is as follows:
time from start (min) 1 2.5 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000
drawdown (m) 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.8 2.5 3.1 3.7 4.4 5.0
Calculate the aquifer parameters S and T.

Solution

Time-drawdown plot
1
0.00, 0.36
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-1
Drawdown, S (m)

1.30, -1.80
-2
1.70, -2.50
-3 2.00, -3.10
2.30, -3.70
-4
2.70, -4.40
-5 3.00, -5.00

-6
Time since pumping started, t (min)

Figure 3.4 Time-drawdown plot

71
The drawdown is plotted against time on a semi-log plot as shown in the figure above. It is seen
that for t>10minutes the drawdown values describe a straight line. A best-fitting straight line is
drawn for data points with t>10minutes. From this line, when S=0, t =t0 = 2.5min. = 150s, S1 =
3.1m at t1 = 100min, S2 = 5.0 m at t2 = 1000 min. Also, Q = 1200 lpm = 0.02m3/s. Substituting
these values in Eq. (3.13) and solving for T results in T = 1.929*10-3 m2/s. And from Eq. (3.14),
S = 7.23*10-4.

Q t  0.02
T ln  2   ln(60000 / 6000)  1.929 *10 3 m 2 / s
4 ( s1  s 2 )  t 1  4 *1.9

2.25Tt0 2.25 *1.929 *10 3 *150

S 2
 2
 7.23 *10 -4 m
r 0.15

Example 3.7: A well is located in a 25 m confined aquifer of permeability 30 m/day and storage
coefficient 0.005. If the well is being pumped at the rate of 1750lpm, calculate the drawdown at a
distance of a) 100m and b) 50m from the well after 20h of pumping.

Solution:

 r2S  100 2 * 0.005

a) T = KB = 30/86400*25 = 8.68*10-3m2/s, u     3
 0.02
 4Tt  4 * 8.68 *10 * 20 * 3600
Using Theis method and calculating W (u) to four significant digits, W (u) = 3.3548
 S100 = Q/ (4T)*W (u) = 0.897m.
Q 0.0292
s100  W(u)  * 3.3548  0.897m
4T 4 * 8.68 *10 3
 r2S  50 2 * 0.005
b) r = 50m  u     3
 0.005 u = 0.005<0.01,  W(u) = -
 4Tt  4 * 8.68 *10 * 20 * 3600
Q 0.0292
0.5772 - ln(0.005) + 0.005 = 4.726.  s50  W(u)  * 4.726  1.264m
4T 4 * 8.68 *10 3
S50 = 1.264m.

Well Loss: In a well pumping artesian well, the total drawdown at the well Sw, can be considered
to be made up of three parts:

a) Head drop required to cause laminar porous media flow, called formation loss, SwL.

72
b) Drop of piezometric head required to sustain turbulent flow in the region nearest to the well
where the Reynolds number may be larger than unity, Swt; and
c) Head loss through the well screen and casing, Swc.

Of these three, SwL  Q and Swt and Swc  Q2, Thus:

Sw = BQ + CQ2 (3.15)

Where B and C are constants for given well (Fig.3.5). While the first term BQ is the formation
loss the second term CQ2 is termed as well loss.

R
ln  
B  w
r
2T
The magnitude of a well loss has an important bearing on the pump efficiency. Abnormally high
value of well loss indicates clogging of well screens, etc. and requires immediate remedial action.
The coefficients B and C are determined by pumping test data of drawdown for various
discharges.

Figure 3.5 Definition sketch for well loss

Specific Capacity: the discharge per unit drawdown at the well (Q/Sw) is known as specific
capacity of a well and is a measure of the performance of the well. Its reciprocal is called specific
draw down. For a well in a confined aquifer under equilibrium conditions and neglecting well

73
losses, Q/Sw = 2T/ln(R/rw)  Q/Sw  T. However, for common case of a well discharging at a
constant rate Q under unsteady drawdown conditions, the specific capacity is given by:

Q 1
 (3.16)
Sw  1 R 
 ln    CQ 
 2T  rw  

Where t = time after the start of pumping. The term CQ2 is to account for well loss. It can be seen
that the specific capacity depends upon T, S, t, rw and Q. Further, for a given well it is not a
constant but decreases with increases in Q and t.

3.2 Partially penetrating wells and multiple well systems

The discharge from a partially penetrating well depends up on the depth of penetration of the
well in the aquifer. The partially penetrating well may be gravity well or an artesian well
depending up on the type of aquifer.

Figure 3.8 Partially penetrating wells

Discharge from a partially penetrating artesian well, Qp is given by:

2KS w (3.17)
Qp 
 1  L  0.1 1  R 
 ln     ln  
 L  2rw  b b  2b 

74
In a partially penetrating gravity well the Kozeny‟s equation for discharge is given as follows.

L  L  
1  7 w cos 
r
Q p  Q    (3.18)
   
 H  2 L 2 H

Where Q= Discharge for a fully penetrating well.

If there are a number of pumping wells in a given field, the drawdown at any point is the sum of
the drawdowns due to each pumping well, for which the distance of the point from each well and
the discharge of each well should be known. Multiple well systems are used for lowering the
groundwater table in a given area to facilitate excavation for foundation work or to meet the large
demand for water supply system etc.

Observations indicate that when a number of wells are introduced within a feed contour, the
output increases, but the efficiency of each additional well decreases. The effect is due to the so
called interference among wells.

3.3 Pumping test data analysis and interpretation

Pumped-well techniques (or pumping tests) are conducted to determine the hydraulic properties
of aquifers such as hydraulic conductivity (K), transmissivity (T), and storage coefficient (S) or
specific yield of unconfined aquifers. Pumping tests are performed by pumping a well at a
constant rate and observing the drawdown of the piezometric surface or water table in observation
wells at some distance from the pumped well.

Pumping tests can be performed by either of the following two commonly used methods:

a) Steady-state pumping tests

b) Unsteady or transient-state pumping tests

In steady-state pumping tests, pumping is continued until equilibrium condition is approached for
water levels, whereas in the transient pumping tests, water-level drops in observation wells are
measured in relation to time, which then yields not only T but also S. Transient pumping tests are
more common than steady-state pumping tests.

75
Eq. (3.1) or (3.19) can be used to estimate T, S & K using steady-state pumping tests for wells
fully penetrating a horizontal base of confined and approximate estimate of unconfined aquifers.
2Kbs1  s 2 
Q (3.19)
r 
ln  2 
 r1 
Eqs. (3.12) and (3.19) can be used to estimate S & T using transient pumping tests in the case of
confined aquifers.
Q  Tt 
s * ln  2.25 2  (3.20)
4T  r S
Always it is good to use the largest capacity pump available to conduct the actual pumping.
Steady-state pumping may have continued for days, or even weeks and months. In some cases
before equilibrium conditions are reached. Careful observation of all the wells should, therefore,
be made before starting pumping, at regular intervals throughout the test and during recovery of
the levels after pumping has ceased, until the initial equilibrium levels are regained.

3.4 Applications of mathematical models in groundwater flow problems

A groundwater system has two basic hydraulic functions: in storing water it acts as

a reservoir, and in transmitting water from recharge to discharge areas it serves

a conduit. A groundwater system can be considered as a reservoir that integrates

various inputs (through mixing, among others) and dampens and delays the propagation
of changes in inputs. The water movement is dictated by hydraulic gradients and

geology-dependent hydraulic conductivity. In turn, these gradients are

influenced by groundwater system boundary conditions such as those resulting from
human-induced stresses on the system, climatic effects, and topography (land-surface and
stream-related boundary conditions).

Groundwater systems are characterized by complex inflow-outflow-storage relations.

System outflows are influenced by the origin and pathways of the groundwater.
These relations are difficult to define directly from input and response data because of the
dampening effect of storage on inflow, the lag or delay between the time water enters and
exits the system, the variable rate and sometimes diffuse manner of recharge and

76
discharge, and the heterogeneity of the geology. Therefore, mathematical models,
based on a mechanistic description of the physical and chemical processes internal
to the groundwater system, are widely used in groundwater hydrology.

The mathematical model for groundwater flow is derived by applying principles of mass
conservation (resulting in the continuity equation) and conservation of momentum
(resulting in the equation of motion). The generally applicable equation of motion in
groundwater is Darcy's law, which originated in the mid-nineteenth century as an
empirical relationship. Later, a mechanistic approach related this equation to the basic
laws of fluid dynamics (Bear, 1972). Variability of parameters in space and time and
uncertainty in data are often incorporated in these models.

Mathematical model consists of:

(i) Definition of a geometry of the considered domain and its boundary

(ii) Equations that express the balance of the considered quantities
(iii) Flux equations to the relevant state variables of the problems
(iv) Constitutive equations that define the behavior of the particular material (fluids
and solids) involved
(v) Initial and boundary conditions

Mathematical models of groundwater flow can be undertaken at the start or at the end of a
hydro-geological investigation. At the start for conceptualizing the main controls on
groundwater flow in the model area and for indicating the type and length of field data that will
be required to construct a model; and at the end for predicting future aquifer response under
different groundwater conditions. With a well constructed model, the ability to predict
groundwater flow patterns for example the effects of different groundwater abstraction patterns
on the sensitive aquatic system, or the shape of well head capture zones for protecting
groundwater quality, or future aquifer response to changing recharge amounts under changing
climatic conditions, makes groundwater modeling essential tool for managing local and regional
groundwater resources.

77
The rate of groundwater movement can be expressed in terms of time required for
groundwater to move from a recharge area to a discharge zone. This time ranges
from a few days in zones adjacent to discharge areas in local systems, to thousands of
years for water that moves through deeper parts of the groundwater system. Large
residence time in groundwater basins gives relatively slow chemical processes a chance
to influence the composition of the water.

The groundwater transport of dissolved chemicals and biota such as bacteria and viruses
is directly related to the flow of water in the subsurface. Many of the constituents
occurring in groundwater can interact physically and chemically with solid phases such
as clay particles, and with various dissolved chemicals. As a consequence, their
displacement is both a function of mechanical transport processes such as advection
and dispersion, and of physicochemical interactions such as adsorption-desorption,
ion exchange, dissolution-precipitation, reduction-oxidation, and radioactive decay.
Biotransformation taking place during the transport can alter the composition of the
groundwater significantly.

In modelling the transport of dissolved chemicals, the principle of mass conservation is

applied to each of the chemical constituents present. The resulting equations include
physical and chemical interactions, as between the dissolved constituents and the solid
subsurface matrix, and among the various solutes themselves. These equations might
include the effects of biotic processes. To complete the mathematical formulation of a
solute transport problem, equations are added describing groundwater flow and
chemical interactions, as between the dissolved constituents and the solid subsurface
matrix, and among the various solutes themselves. In some cases equations of state are
added to describe the influence of temperature variations and the changing concentrations
on the fluid flow through the effect of these variations on density and viscosity

The solution of the equations describing a deterministic system is approached in three

ways. If the solution is continuous in both time and space, it is called an analytical
solution or model. For a solution that is discrete in either time or space, the term semi-
analytical model is used. A numerical model is discrete in both time and space and

78
uses approximations for the derivatives in the governing equations. Spatial and temporal
resolution in applying such models is a function of study objectives and availability of
data.

No universal model can solve all kinds of groundwater problems; different types of
models are appropriate for solving different types of problems. It is important to realize
that comprehensiveness and complexity in a simulation do not necessarily equate with
accuracy. An extensive discussion of the status of groundwater models is presented by
Bachmat et al. (1985).

Multiple scales in modelling groundwater systems

A wide range of both spatial and temporal scales is involved in the study of
groundwater problems. Spatial scales range from less than a nanometer for
studying such phenomena as the interactions between water molecules and dissolved
chemicals (Cusham, 1985), to hundreds of kilometers, for the assessment and
management of regional groundwater systems (Toth, 1963). For temporal scales, two
major categories can be distinguished: steady-state, and transient state. Periodic
fluctuations on a seasonal scale are frequent in hydrogeology. Other processes display
certain trends or occur rather randomly in nature. Many processes exhibit a strong
temporal effect immediately after their initiation but become stable after a while, moving
to a steady-state. Other processes fluctuate on a scale that is often much smaller than
necessary to include in the analysis of such systems. An averaging approach is then
taken, resulting in steady-state analysis. The steady-state is also assumed when the
analysis period is so short that temporal effects are not noticeable.

An important aspect of the scaling problem is related to the difference between the scale
on which processes are mathematically described, and the subsequent aggregation into
larger-scale formulations amenable to field analytical procedures. Small-scale
descriptions are aggregated into large-scale models by applying averaging procedures.
Such averaging applied to a statistical description of microscopic processes is commonly

79
used to obtain continuous hydrodynamic field equations on the macroscopic scale (e.g.
Bear, 1979). Although the resulting model requires less supporting field data than is
required for a problem of the same physical extent, a certain amount of information
regarding the real physical systems is lost. Also, in going to larger spatial and temporal
scales, variations in system characteristics that could be ignored on the smaller scale may
become important. Examples are the increasing importance of heterogeneities and
anisotropy as related to the geology of the system for larger spatial scales, and the effects
of long-term recharge variations on the water balance of a system for long time periods.

A major problem in this averaging process lies in evaluating the effects of assumptions
made on the microscopic scale and the effects on the level of uncertainty in the modelling
of a groundwater system. If such assumptions have to be incorporated in the macroscopic
description, their formulation may be problematic. Another problem that may arise as a
result of an averaging approach is that of defining the physical meaning of the resulting
state variables and system parameters. Thus far, no systematic evaluation of the
consequences of this aggregation process in groundwater has been published, although an
extensive database is available to carry out such a study.

The processes of water movement and the transport of energy and dissolved constituents
through porous media are well understood and are mathematically described on a
macroscopic scale, using a representative equivalent volume (Bear, 1979). Such an
approach can also be applied to flow and transport in fractured rock (Wang and
Narasimhan, 1984). One way to make a system of fractures of varying size and
orientation accessible to quantitative analysis is through the concept of equivalent porous
media. Another approach often taken is based on applying stochastic principles to obtain
representative parameters. Such approaches can be used to extend the results of small-
scale studies to larger-scale problems.

The essential scaling problem is how to distinguish between the variables that can be
considered as constants or as being uniform across discrete intervals of pertinent
dimension (space, time), and the variables that cannot be so considered (Beck, 1985).
Problem decomposition in space or time is often applied to obtain optimal resolution in

80
relation to computational efficiency. An example of such spatial and temporal
decomposition is found in the modelling of infiltration into the soil and subsequent
percolation toward the saturated zone. A distinction has been made between spatial
discretization and connectiveness for local (Fig. 3.6) and for regional (Fig. 3.7) scales.
Runoff from precipitation is split into a surface component (lumped horizontal segment)
and infiltration (one- or two-dimensional, vertical). The infiltrated water percolates to the
groundwater where a two-dimensional horizontal or three-dimensional model is used. For
each of the sub models a different time step is used, from hourly for the surface runoff
and daily for the percolation, to weekly or monthly for the flow in the saturated zone.

Figure 3.6 Typical dimensionalities used to represent surface, unsaturated, and saturated
zones in local-scale groundwater models (after Boutwell et al., 1985).

81
Figure 3.7 Typical dimensionalities used to represent surface, unsaturated, and saturated
zones in regional groundwater models

In groundwater models, a significant distinction exists between local and regional

discretization of the surface zone. This distinction reflects the difference in physiographic
character between the subsurface and the surface, resulting in different approaches in
aggregating small-scale phenomena into large-scale models. Also, limitations in presently
existing data acquisition techniques influence the resolution used in modelling the surface
zone.

Note the difference in treatment of the vertical components in groundwater models. In the
regional models the flow in soils and between aquifers is mainly one-dimensional and
vertical, to reduce the computational load. In the local model, second-order effects may
be important enough to warrant the use of two-dimensional vertical simulation in the soil
zone. Consecutively

Another example can be found in simulating solute transport in fractured porous media
where the movement of the solute in the fractures can be two orders of magnitude greater

82
than in the porous matrix. A split-time approach increases the efficiency of the
simulations (DeAngelis et al., 1984).

With the increasing capacity and decreasing cost of computers, a trend prevails toward
using smaller time scales for the same types of problems, resulting in higher temporal
resolution. Some of the applications of Groundwater flow models are for the study of regional
flow in the aquifer system, regional changes in hydraulic head caused by the aquifer system,
change in head near the well field, dewatering the well system, injection well, and surface
groundwater interactions.

3.5 Measurement of groundwater level

Measurement of groundwater level is done usually by using observation wells. Observation wells
enable to measure the drop in groundwater table or piezometric surface. At least three observation
wells at different locations are used in pumping tests.

Observation wells should ideally be spaced at increasing intervals from the pumping well (10 to
100 m) depending on the depth and expected productivity of the aquifer. Loham (1972)
mentioned that a good arrangement consists of a pair of observation wells at distances of one, two
and four times the thickness of the aquifer from the pumped well. Each pair consists of a shallow
well reaching just into the aquifer and a deep well extending to the bottom of the aquifer. For
unconfined aquifers, observation wells should be at a distance of at least 1.5 times the aquifer
thickness from the pumped well to avoid errors due to vertical-flow components in the vicinity of
the well.
Ground-water-level measurements are used to determine hydraulic gradients,
directions of flow, rates of flow, locations of ground-water recharge and discharge,
the amount of water in storage, the change in storage over time, and aquifer
hydraulic characteristics. Repeated measurements of water levels over time provide a
history of water-level fluctuations that aids interpretation of water-quality and water-
quantity data. For example, seasonal variations in recharge induced by pumping can
cause changes in hydraulic gradients that may correspond to changes in water quality and
water quantity.

83
Figure 3.8: Water level measurement using graduated steel tape (single measurement)

Figure 3.9: Water level measurement using Divers (Continuous measurement)

84
3.6 Groundwater exploration
A programme of groundwater investigation is to obtain information on the resource
through systematic collection, synthesis, interpretation and compilation of data.
It seeks information on its occurrence, movement, storage, recharge, discharge, quality &
quantity. It includes the study of geological, environmental, as well as the hydrologic and
hydraulic aspects of its flow system.

A comprehensive programme for hydro-geological investigations may comprise the

following activities:

1. Surface Investigations of Groundwater

I. Geological field reconnaissance, including observations and collection of data
from excavations, bore holes and wells. The appraisal includes information on
geological factors, particularly tectonics, lithology, permeability, fissuring and
outcrop area.
II. Geophysical surveys
a) Electrical resistivity method
b) Seismic refraction method
2. Subsurface Investigation of Groundwater
I. Test drilling and preparation of lithological logs
II. Sub-surface/bore hole geophysical logging
a) Electric logging
b) Radial logging
III. Correlation of lithological & other logs of existing bore hole.
3. Hydrological Investigation of Groundwater
I. Preparing inventory of existing wells, giving their location, depth, depth of
water, construction features, type of pumping equipment used, pumping records
and water analysis.
II. Study of groundwater levels - preparation of water table contour maps, water
level profiles, hydrographs and setting up of observation grids.
III. Collection and analysis of water samples

85
 IV. Aquifer tests - to appraise transmissibility and storage property of aquifers.
V. Hydrologic appraisal of the geological framework: Geometry of aquifers &
boundaries affecting recharge & discharge of groundwater.
VI. Correlation of stream flow factors with groundwater recharge and discharge.
VII. Estimation of seepage & recharge contribution from canals, lakes and ponds.
VIII. Study and analysis of meteorological factors; precipitation and
evapotranspiration
IX. Rainfall and infiltration studies to estimate contribution of rainfall to
groundwater recharged.
X. Hydrologic analysis of groundwater systems through analytical techniques.

3.6.1 Surface groundwater investigations

Although groundwater is invisible resource from on the Earth‟s surface, a variety of
techniques can provide information concerning its occurrence and under certain
conditions even its quality from ground surface or above ground surface locations.

Surface investigations of groundwater are seldom more than partially successful in that
results usually leave the hydrogeologic picture incomplete; however, such methods are
normally less costly than subsurface investigations.

3.6.1a Geologic Methods

Geologic studies enable large areas to be rapidly and economically assessed on a
preliminary basis as to their potential for groundwater development.

A geologic investigation begins with the collection, analysis, and hydrogeologic

interpretation of existing topographic map, aerial photographs, geologic maps and
logs, and other pertinent records.

This should be supplemented, when possible, by geologic field reconnaissance and by

evaluation of available hydrologic data on: stream flow and springs; well yields;
groundwater recharge & levels; and water quality.

86
Such an approach should be regarded as a first step in any investigation of subsurface
water because no expensive equipment is required; furthermore, information on geologic
composition and structure defines the need for field exploration by other methods.

Knowledge of the depositional and erosion events in an area may indicate the extent and
regularity of water-bearing formations.

3.6.1b Geophysical Exploration

Geophysical exploration is the scientific measurement of physical properties of the
Earth‟s crust for investigation of mineral deposits or geologic structure.

Geophysical methods are used to obtain more accurate information about

subsurface conditions, such as type and depth of consolidated or unconsolidated
materials, depth of weathered or fractured zone, depth to groundwater, depth to
bed rock, and salt content of groundwater. These methods detect differences (or
anomalies), of physical properties within the earth‟s crust. Density, magnetism,
elasticity, and electrical resistivity are properties most commonly measured.
Experience and research have enabled pronounced differences in these properties to be
interpreted in terms of geologic structure, rock type and porosity; and water content &
water quality.

The most common techniques for groundwater investigation are the Electrical resistivity
and Seismic methods, which are discussed in the following sections.

1. Electrical Resistivity Method

Resistivity survey is a method where by electric current is sent through the ground
and the potential difference is measured between two points. It is the most commonly
adopted method for the determination of saline and fresh water zone.

87
It is cheapest method and relatively easy to interpret. It is easy to employ and the
equipment is easy to transport from place to place.

The concept of this method is based on the reality that different earth materials display a
characteristic resistance to flow of a set of electrical current.
Geo-electric layers are functions of
 Porosity (Inter-granular, channel, vascular, etc)
 Fluid content (degree of saturation)
 Nature of fluid (saline, fresh, brackish)

Principle: (Electrical Fundamentals)

Resistivity methods are based on the measurement of the resistivity of various portions of
the ground, after passing an electric current into the earth.

Assumptions
 Isotropic and homogeneous medium
 Point electrodes
 Earth is semi-infinite (Z=0)

C x

Z r

P
Figure 3.10 Electrical resistivity methods
I
V= (potential)
2r
r=(x2+y2+z2)1/2
Where  is defined as resistivity of the medium (i.e., the resistance in ohms between
opposite face of a meter cube of a material)

88
Since the earth is semi-infinite, Z=0.
I I
V= 
2r 2 x 2  y 2

+ -
G/S
C1 P1 P2 C2

A M N B
Figure 3.11 Resistivity Set up

C1 and C2 – Current electrodes (metal stakes)

P1 and P2 – potential electrodes
AB is the distance between current electrodes
MN is the distance between potential electrodes

The potential of electrode P1 at M due to current electrode C1 at A is

I
VMA 
2 AM
The potential of electrode P2 at N due to current electrode C1 at A is

I
VNA 
2AN
Similarly,
I I
VMB  and VNB 
2 BM 2 BN

The potential difference, V can be calculated as follows

89
 I  1 1 
VMAB  VMA  VMB  
2  AM BM 

I  1 1 
VNAB  VNA  VNB  
2  AN BN 


I  1 1 1 1 
 V  VMAB  VNAB   AM  BM  AN  BN 
2  
 
V  2 
   1 
I  1 1 1 
  
 AM BM AN BN 

Where:
V= measured potential difference
I= Measured electric current

2
If K = which depends on the electrodes configuration,
1 1 1 1
  
AM BM AN BN
(i.e., electrodes geometry) and called geometrical factor,

V
= .K (ohm  m)
I
As the earth materials are almost heterogeneous and not electrically isotropic, the
resistivity found by the above equation is an apparent resistivity, a.

Electrode Configurations
Many different arrangements of electrode can be used to measure resistivity, i.e., there
are several electrode configuration in common usage. Some of these are:
1. Wenner system
2. Schlumberger system
3. Lee system
4. Dipole-Dipole system

90
The basic relationships in all methods are
 Electrodes (two current & two potential electrodes)
 Linear system.
The commonly used systems of electrode arrangements are the Wenner and
Schlumberger.

1. Wenner system (Electric profiling, mapping or trenching)

C1 P1 P2 C
-2
G/S
M
A N a B
+ve a a
- ve current electrode
current
electrode
Figure 3.12 Wenner systems (Electrode arrangement)

In the Wenner system, the electrodes are spaced at equal distances, a, and the apparent
resistivity, a for a measured resistance R (=V/I) is given by

a = 2Ra (3.xx)
The field curve is plotted on a semi-log paper, a versus a, a being in ohm-meters in
logarithmic scale and „a‟ in meters in arithmetic scale. (In this configuration the depth to
which a measured is considered to be about equal to the voltage electrode spacing).

91
 2. Schlumberger system (Electric drilling, Sounding)

C1 P1 P2 C
-2
G/S
A M b N B
L L
AB = 2L
MN= b=2ℓ

Figure 3.13 Schlumberger arrangement

In Schlumberger system, the distance between the two inner potential electrodes (b) is
kept constant for some time and the distance between the current electrodes (2L) is
varied. The spacing between the potential electrodes is much smaller than the spacing
between the current electrodes.

The apparent resistivity a for a measured resistance R=V/I is given by

 L2   2 
a = R   if 2 L  2
 2  

L2
a = R if 2 L  5(2)
2
The field curve is plotted on a log-log paper a versus L, a being ohm-meters and L in
meters

Types of Instruments
There are basically two types of instruments to conduct the electrical resistivity survey:
i) NGRI resistivity meter, a d.c. type meter manufactured by the
National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad (South India).

In this instrument V and I are separately measured to obtain the resistance R (=V/I).

92
Generally battery packs with different voltage of 15, 30, 45 and 90 volts are employed
ii) Terrameter An a.c. type of instrument manufactured by Atlas Copco
ABEM AB, Sweden.
The output is 6 Watts at 100, 200 or 400 volts using low frequency (1-4 Hz)
square waves. This instrument directly gives the resistance, R, in ohms.

It is a good instrument for conducting rapid electrical resistivity surveys for location sites
for drilling bore wells.

Types of Resistivity Surveys

Regardless of the specific electrode spread employed, there are really two basic
procedures in resistivity work. The particular procedure to be used depends on whether
one is interested in resistivity variations with depth or with lateral extent.
The first is called electric drilling (or electrical depth sounding) for detecting vertical
changes.
The second is called electrical mapping, or trenching or horizontal profiling for detecting
subsurface changes in horizontal direction or the lateral spread.

1) Electric Drilling (or Electrical sounding , Es)

Since the fraction of total current which flows at depth varies with the current
electrode separation, the field procedure is to use a fixed center with an expanding
spread. Both then Wenner and Schlumberger layout are particularly suited to this
technique. But Schlumberger system is superior to the Wenner array for e.g. , because
voltage electrodes do not have to be moved each time.
It is produced by taking a series of measurements at a point, but moving the current
electrodes further apart for each measurement. The depth of current penetration is
then increased.

A curve of the variation of apparent resistivity with depth AB/2=L can drawn on log-
log paper form the results. It reveals the variations of a with depth.

93
The presence of horizontal or gently dipping beds of different resistivites is best
detected by the expanding spread. Hence the method is useful in determining depths
of aquifers, bed rock, fractured or weathered zones in rock and fresh water salt
interfaces.

2) Electric Mapping
This method is useful particularly in mineral exploration, where the detection of
isolated bodies of anomalous resistivity is required. Any method can be used; the
selection depends mainly on the field situation. In all cases the apparent resistivity is
plotted at the midpoint of the potential electrodes, except where one of these is
effectively at infinite when the station is reckoned at the near potential electrode.

In traversing or profiling method the electrode separation is kept constant for two or
three values (say a= 10m, 15m, or 20m) and the center of the electrode spread is
moved from one station to another station (grid points) to have the same constant
electrode separations.

Profiling can be carried out along a series of parallel lines and a resistivity contour
map of the area showing iso-resistivity lines can be prepared. This will indicate areas
of high resistivity and will be useful in identifying aquifer formations.

With lateral surveys, a constant electrode spacing, selected to produce the desired
depth of the survey, is used and a is measured at different locations to yield a map of
iso-resistivity lines.
Such maps are useful for detecting changes in bedrock or aquifer depth (for example,
in tracing buried valleys), vertical discontinuities such as faults and fractured zone,
changes in groundwater quality(including travel of contaminated water), and changes
in the depth of fresh water-salt water interfaces(especially in costal areas).

Field procedure
Essentially there are 2 methods

94
 i) Profiling using Wenner
ii) Depth sounding using Schlumberger

Required is the determination of the thickness and lateral (spatial) extent of the aquifer,
as well as the depth to groundwater table.
1. Have some idea of general geology (aquifer, aquiclude, GWT). That
means, before starting the survey understand the geology, structure &
topography of the area under investigation.

Also ensure that no man made structures like buried pipe lines, high
tension electric wires, exist.
2. Start with depth sounding (Schlumberger method) to determine the
thickness & estimated depth of water table.
3. From the trend of the formation (aquifer) conduct additional depth
sounding (Schlumberger) at sites following the trench of the aquifer.

If there is a control point (bore hole/well) in the area, the results could be correlated &
calibrated accordingly.
4. Finally, keep the electrode spacing constant (Wenner) to map the aquifer,
i.e. conduct electrical mapping.
Use of electrical resistivity method: Some of the geophysical investigations
that can be done by the electrical resistivity method for groundwater studies
are:-
i) Correlating lithology and drawing geophysical section.
ii) Bed rock profile for subsurface studies
iii) Fresh water-salt water interface separation profiling
iv) Water quality in shallow aquifers & groundwater pollution as in oil
field brine pollution, pollution by irrigation waters and pollution by
sea water intrusion, which cause change in electrical conductivity.

95
Presentation of Results
Resistivity depth sounding (Schlumberger)

ℓ=MN/2(m) L=AB/2(m) V(mv) I(ma) R(ohm) K a(ohm-m)K*R Remark

AB/2(m)
Depth Log-log
Paper

a(ohm-m)

Resistivity depth sounding (Wenner)

Electrode spacing a Meter reading Constant K=2a Apparent resistivity
R(ohm) a=K*R(ohm-m)

Interpretation of Results:-
The field data recorded include the magnitude of current applied, electrode spacing & the
potential reading at each electrode spacing.

96
 1. Qualitative
One inflection point ------- 2 layer case
Two inflection points -----3 layer case
Log a 2
1
1 (Two layer case)
2

Log (a) , or Log (AB/2)

The shapes of curves in this case give rise to a number of layers encountered in
the subsurface i.e., the layers can be 2,3 up to 10.
When 2>1. This means the upper layer is more conductive compared to lower
layer.
When 2>1. This means the upper layer is less conductive compared to lower
layer.
The qualitative interpretation of the three layer case has four types of curves

2. Quantitative:

 Automatic interpretation by computer programs is available nowadays.

 Curve matching on log-log graph paper on the same modulus as the
“standard curves”. Example: (Master curve by Orellanar and Mooney
1996)

Master curves for Layered Media

Comparing the field curve of a with the type-curves yields information about the
thickness and resistivity of the various layers. This is most accurately done for the two
layered case. For multilayered situations, the numerous uncertainties & variables
affecting the field data make it difficult to derive a unique interpretation of the lithology.

97
Resistivity data may be interpreted from master curves for a small number of earth layers
assuming them as horizontal of uniform thickness and resistivity. They are prepared for a
particular electrode configuration, like Wenner, Schlumberger, various thickness and
resistivity ratios being assumed for the individual layers.

Such ideal conditions like horizontal beds of uniform thickness and that the lowest bed
extends in depth to infinity may not exist in the earth, but they are of help for comparison
and interpretation of field curves obtained.

Two-layer case:
For a layer of thickness „h‟ overlying an infinitely thick homogeneous substratum of
resistivity 2, a family of curves is given by Tagg (Tagg master curves, 1934) as

1 h
VS for  2  1 , k  Positive
a a
a h
VS for 2  1 , K  negative
1 a
Where 1= a as a0 i.e., at small electrode spacing.
a = resistivities for various electrode spacing by Wenner configurations

Resistivity coefficient, k is given by

 2  1
K=
 2  1
For particular value of „a‟ and 1/a, the values of h/a are read from the „master curves‟
for different values of k. Multiplying the h/a values by the corresponding a, h values are
obtained. These are plotted as k-vs-h.
If the curves for different electrode spacing, „a‟ ,intersect near a point, it can be assumed
as a simple two-layer case, and the coordinate h and k of this point can be read. From this
k, the resistivity of the substratum can be obtained from

98
 1 k 
2 = 1  .
1 k 
And h = thickness of the surface layer.
Limitations of this method are:-
i) The value of 1 obtained at small electrode spacing (a0)
may not truly represent resistivity of the top layer unless it is
homogenous and is tropic
ii) Involves numerous steps and is time consuming

 It is now customary to plot the master curves and the field curves on a log-log
paper and for the Wenner or Schlumberger configuration. The curve of best fit
is the one which is parallel to the relevant master curve.
 Master curves for three and four-layer configurations have been published by
Moony and Wetzel (1956), by Orellana and Mooney (1966), and also by
European Association of Exploration Geophysicists (1963) which allow
greater flexibility in the choice of resistivity patterns.
New methods of plotting the field resistivity data by „direct slope‟ technique has
been developed for determination of absolute resistivity and thickness of layers.

For direct slope method, the field data are processed to obtain a for plotting the
cumulative resistivity curve (a Vsa ), tangents are drawn to the curve and the
values of „a‟ at which the slope of the curve changes give the depths to the top of
each layer.

99
 a()

Z1 I Change in slope

Z2

II

Z3 III

VI
Z4

Fig 3.14 Cumulative Resistivity curve

Proper interpretation of field a curves is always enhanced if additional

information about depth and type of materials- for example, from well logs or
seismic surveys-is also available.
Thus, the interpreted results should be correlated with the drilling results.
Limitations:-
 The method can not be used whenever potential disturbances exist:
underground cables, pipelines or metal fences are in contact with the soil
or near power line (high tension wires) with transformers.
 Depth is up to 500m
 In rugged topography measurements are strongly affected. In areas where
rock formation is dipping greater than 15 the measurements are seriously
affected.

100
Exercise:
Results of resistivity depth sounding are given below:
a(m) 2 4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30
R(=V/I)() 0.0800 0.049 0.036 0.031 0.029 0.023 0.018 0.0165 0.0140

a(m) 35 40 45 50
R() 0.014 0.012 0.011 0.010

Interpret the data by cumulative resistivity plotting.

2. Seismic Refraction Method

Seismic refraction method involves the determination of elastic wave velocities
through geologic formations.

The method is based on the fact that elastic waves travel through different materials at
different velocities.
The waves are produced by a small dynamite explosion, sledge hammer etc. and
picked up at various points on the ground surface by set of receivers called geophones
and recorded.

101
With refraction seismic surveys, the geophones are uniformly spaced on a straight line
from the shot point to record the arrival time of the first shock waves. That is, these
waves may have traveled straight from the shot point to the geophones, or they may have
been refracted and reflected in the deeper layers.

By knowing the arrival time of different waves at different distances from the energy
source, the velocity of propagation of the wave through each rock layer is calculated.
The method is more accurate.
The velocities are characteristic of particular rock in particular conditions, i.e., dry, joint,
saturated with water, weathered, etc.

Average velocities of seismic waves

Rock Formation Range of Velocities
(m/s)
Dry sand and loose soil 150-400
Alluvium 500-1500
Wet sand 600-1800
Clays 900-3000
Sand stone 2000-4300
Shale 2100-4000
Limestone 3000-6000
Igneous and metamorphic rocks 4500-6500

The refracted waves arrive at the surface only on the condition that the velocity of the
propagation in the underlying layer is higher than that in the overlying area.

Seismic waves follow the same laws of propagation as light & may be reflected or
refracted at any interface where a velocity change occurs.
Refracted and reflected shock waves will reach the more remote geophones sooner than
the straight-traveling waves if the velocity of sound in the deeper layers is much greater
than that in the surface materials.

102
 t2

(mill second)
Arrival time t
t1

0 X1 X2 Geophone Distance from shot pt(m)

Figure 3.15 Time-distance graph

Plotting the arrival time of the first shock wave at each geophone against distance of
geophone from shot point yields a curve which for a layered profile consists of a
succession of straight-line sections.

The first section represents the firs layer (or top layer) of the profile, the 2nd section the
second layer etc.
Sound velocity in each layer is calculated as the reciprocal of the slope of the
corresponding straight-line section.

A time-travel curve (time versus distance from source to geophone) is drawn and by
knowing the distance X1 to the first point on the curve where a change in slope is
indicated, the depth to the rock layer can be computed from the equation

X 1 V2  V1
Z1=
2 V1  V2

Where V1 and V2 are the velocities of propagation through the earth and the rock layer
respectively.

Using the intercept time t1 the depth Z1 is given by the equation

t1 V1V2
Z1=
2 V22  V12

103
The depth Z2 of the second layer is given by

t V 2  V12  VV
Z2 =  2  Z1 3  3 2
2 V3V1  V 2 V 2
  3 2

An approximate equation for Z2 presented by Geophysical Specialties Company (1960)

X 2 V3  V2 Z 1
Z2 = 
2 V3  V2 6

Where X2 is the horizontal distance of the second break point in the data curve
The critical angle c is given by

Sin c = V1/V2

For angle of incidence greeter than critical, there are no refractions into the deeper layers
but the waves are totally reflected.
The refraction method is faster and often finds application in
i) Locating the groundwater table
ii) Determining depth to bed rock or impermeable layer and configuration
(volume of material)
iii) Locating a buried stream channel
iv) Locating faults that could act as groundwater barriers.

The velocity of propagation varies from as low as 120 m/s in dry topsoil to more than
6000 m/s in very dense rocks such as granite, limestone & basalt. The velocities in
saturated strata are somewhat greater than in unsaturated strata.

Disadvantage
Lower velocity layer can not be detected beneath the higher-velocity layers.

104
Example
Derive a time-distance relationship for a two layer case as used in seismic refraction
surveys.

Assumptions: - horizontal, isotropic homogeneous media

Acoustic impediment increases with depth (i.e,1V 1< 2V2)
The arrival time of the critically refracted wave at geophone, G is given by
SA AB BG
=  
V1 V2 V1
Z1 x  2Z1 tan c Z1
=  
v1 cos c V2 V1 cos c
2Z1 x 2Z tanc
=   1
V1 cos c V2 V2

x  1 tan c 
=  2Z1   
V2 V1 cos  c V2 

From Snell‟s principle,

Sin c = V1
V2

tan c sin  c sin 2 c

 = tanc 
V2 V1 V1 Cos  c

x  1 sin 2  c 
t=  2Z1   
V2 V1 cos  V1 cos c 
x 2Z1
  (1  Sin 2  c )
V2 V1 cos  c
x 2Z1
  cos 2  c
V2 V1

V1 V12
Sin c =  Sin  c  2
2

V2 V2

V12
 1-Cos2c = 
V22

105
 V12 V22  V12
Cos2c = 1- 
V22 V22

V22  V12 V22  V12

Cos c = 
V22 V2

x 2Z1 V2  V1
2 2

t= 
V2 V1 V2

At critical distance, Xc, the direct wave and the head wave (refracted wave) arrive at the
same time.

Xc Xc V22  V12
t   2Z1
V1 V2 V1V2
1 1  V22  V12
X c     2 Z 1
 V1 V2  V1V2
 V  V2  V22  V12
 X c  2   2 Z 1
 V1V2  V1V2
V22  V12 V2  V1 V2  V1 
X c  2Z1  2Z1
V2  V1  V2  V1
V2  V1
 2Z1
V2  V1
xc V2  V1
 Z1 
2 V2  V1

Example 2:
It is required to derive a time-distance relationship for a three layer case
For the three layers case with Velocities V1, V2 and V3 (V3 > V2 > V1), the treatment is
similar but somewhat more complicated.

106
 S X
G

A D

B C

Fig. Ray paths of least time for three layers separated by horizontal interferes
V1 V
Sin C1 = and Sin c 2  2
V3 V3
The expression for the total travel time from S to G is
t = tSA+tAB+tBC+ tCD+tDG
SA AB BC CD DG 2SA 2 AB BC
       
V1 V2 V3 V2 V1 V1 V2 V3
2Z1 2Z 2 BC
  
V1CosC1 V2 cos  c 2 V3
BC  x  2Z1 tan c1  2Z 2 tan c 2

2Z1 2Z 2 1
t=   ( x  2Z1 tanc1  2Z 2 tanc 2 )
V1 cos c1 V2 cos c 2 V3
x 2 z1 2Z tanc1 2Z 2 2Z tanc 2
=   1   2
V3 V1 cos c1 V3 V2 cos c 2 V3

x 2Z1 2Z Sin c1 2Z 2 sin  c 2  2Z 2

=   1 
V3 V1 cos  c1 V3 cos  c 2 V3 cos  c 2 V2 cos c2

x 2Z 1(V3  V1 sin  c1 ) 2Z 2 (V3  V2 sin  c 2 )

=  
V3 V1V3 cos  c1 V2V3 cos  c 2

x 2Z1 (V3  V1V1 / V3 ) 2Z 2 (V3  V2V2 / V3 )

=  
V3 V1V3 1  (V1 / V3 ) 2 V2V3 1  (V1 / V3 ) 2

107
 x 2Z1 (V32  V12 ) / V3 2Z 2 (V32  V22 ) / V3
= 
 

V3 V1V3 V32  V12 / V3 V2V3 ( V32  V22 ) / V3

x 2Z1 V3  V1 2Z V 2  V22
2 2

=   2 3
V3 V1V3 V2V3
The portion of the time-distance curve corresponding to the first arrival of this wave is a
1
straight line with slope and intercept time, t2
V3

x 2Z1 V3  V1 2Z V 2  V22
2 2
t2 = t-   2 3
V3 V3V1 V3V2
Solving for Z2
 2Z V 2  V12  V3V2
Z2= t 2  1 3 
 V3V1  2 V32  V22

t Z V 2  V12  VV
= 2 1 3  3 2
2 V3V1  V 2 V 2
  3 2

Example 3: In refraction shooting, nine geophones were placed along a straight line at
distance of 40, 60, 80,100,140,180,220,260 and 320 meters from the shoot point. The
seismic second gave the following data.
Geophones G1 G2 G3 G5 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9
Distance from shot 40 60 80 100 140 180 220 260 320
point(m)
Time of first arrival 75 110 150 160 180 200 205 215 225
milli-seconds

Draw the time-distance graph and determine the velocity of the shock wave and thickness
of each layer.

Solution
The time distance graph drawn as:

108
 Time distance graph

250

200
Time (milli sec)

150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Distance (m )

Figure Time-distance plot

The velocity of shock wave (direct wave) in the top soil layer, i.e, reciprocal of slope,

80m
V1=  533 m/sec
0.15 sec
The velocity of the shock wave (refracted wave) in the second layer
(180  80)
V2=  2000 m/sec
(0.2  0.15) sec)
The velocity of the shock wave (refracted wave) in the bottom hard rock layer
(320  180)m
V3= =5600 m/sec
(0.225  0.200) sec)
The thickness of the first layer using the critical distance formula,

x1 V2  V1 80 2000  533
Z1=  =30.44m
2 V2  V1 2 2000  533

The thickness of the first layer using the intercept time formula,
t1 V2V1 0.11 2000 x533
Z1=  =30.41m
2 V2  V1
2 2 2 20002  5332

109
The thickness of the second layer using the intercept time formula,
t V32  V12 
Z2   2
 Z1   V3V2
2 V3V2  V32  V22
 
 0.165 56002  5332  5600 x 2000
  30.4 
 2 5600 x533  56002  20002
 
= 55.08m (54.8m)
An approximate equation for Z2 presented by Geophysical Specialties Company (1960),
in modified form, is

x2 V3  V2 Z
Z2   1
2 V3  V2 6
180 5600  2000 30.4
   56.88m
2 5600  2000 6

3.6.2 Subsurface Investigation of Groundwater

Detailed and comprehensive study of groundwater and conditions under which it occurs
can only be made by subsurface investigation.

Whether the information needed concerns an aquifer (its location, thickness, composition,
permeability, and yield) or groundwater (its location, movement, and quality),
quantitative data can be obtained from subsurface examinations.
Test drilling furnishes information on substrata in a vertical line from the surface.

Geophysical logging techniques provide information on physical properties of geologic

formations, water quality, and well construction.

3.6.2a Test drilling

The most accurate information about the geologic profile and the depth (and the quality)
of groundwater at a given site is obtained by test drilling.

110
It may even be possible to do some preliminary pumping tests or slug tests on the bore
hole to estimate hydraulic properties of the aquifer or aquifers and to calculate potential
well yields.

Test wells normally are of relatively small-diameter holes and can be drilled at a
fraction of the cost of full-sized wells.

When a test well indicates a favorable location, it can often be converted into a
production (or pumping well) by re-drilling or reaming to increase its diameter.
Test holes can also serve as observation wells for measuring water levels or for PS.
Two types of logs can be kept by the driller and drilling progresses.

Geologic log
It is constructed from sampling and examination of well cuttings collected at frequent
intervals during the drilling of a well or test hole. Such logs furnish a description of the
geologic character and thickness of each stratum encountered as a function of depth, there
by enabling aquifers to be delineated.
Considering all types of logs, the geologic log is probably the most important, but
preparation of a good geologic log can be difficult.

One problem is that well cuttings are small and mixed with mud. Drill cuttings are often a
mixture of material from the bottom of the hole, drilling mud, and material from higher
layers that was still in the hole or that caved in from the wall.
Thus, the sample must be carefully analyzed. Often it is better to look for changes in
samples than at actual composition. For example, if the bailer initially yielded primarily
fine materials, and sand begins to show up, a sand layer may be reached. If gravel chips
show up, gravel layer may be reached, etc…
Similarly, a reduction in sand content of the bailer material may indicate that the bottom
of a sand bed has been reached.

111
Experienced drillers with good knowledge of local subsurface conditions often
‘know’ what kind of material the bit is in from its rate of advance and how it
bounces, churns, sounds, or other wise reacts to the material.

Drilling-Time log
It consists of a record of distance drilled per unit time, eg. m/h or it may consists of an
accurate record of the time, in min or sec, required to drill each unit depth of the hole.

Changes in drilling time with depth indicate discontinuities in the geologic profile. The
rate of drilling depends not only on the type of material at the bottom of the hole, but also
on the equipment (wt. Or bit, wear on cutting edges, no of blows or rotations per minute,
etc. and on the skill of the operator. Thus, there is no unique relation between type of
material and drill rate.

3.6.2b Geophysical logging

Geophysical logging involves lowering sensing devices in a bore-hole and recording
a physical parameter that may be interpreted in terms of formation characteristics;
groundwater quantity, quality, and movement; or physical structure of the bore hole.

I. To get information about:

1. Source and movement of water in the well
2. Chemical & physical characteristics of the water, including salinity, temperature,
density & viscosity.

II. To determine:
3. Length & setting of well casing
4. Optimum length & setting of water well screens
5. Porosity & water content of the formation
6. Resistivity of the formation
7. Lithology & formation boundaries
8. Thermal gradient

112
9. Relative quantity of water into or out of zones of water entry into the hole
10. Approximate permeability of lithologic sections penetrated by the hole.
11. Accurate depth referenced for use with other type of logs
12. Depth and thickness of thin beds or aquifers
13. Average bore hole diameter.

III. To locate
14. Position of cement grout behind casing
15. Point of entry of different quality water through leaks in casing or opening in
rocks
16. Cemented & cased intervals
17. Depth of lost circulation
18. Active gas flow
19. Fissures and solution opening in open holes
20. Leaks or perforated sections in cased holes

IV) To measure inherent Radio Activity Information

The following logs are usually use.
1. Electric logging
a) Electric resistivity logging
b) Spontaneous (self) potential logging

2. Radio active logging

a) Natural gamma logging (or Gamma ray logs)
b) Gamma-gamma logging
c) Neutron logging

3. Induction logging
4. Sonic logging
5. Fluid logging
a) Temperature logging

113
 b) Flow meter & Tracer logging

6) Caliper logging and cement bond logging

7) Photographic logging (or down hole photography)

Questions
1. Explain the following groundwater terminologies Interference among wells, partially
penetrating wells, gravity wells and well loss.
2. Discuss how Theis method is used for the determination of aquifer parameters S and T?
3. Discuss about the well fields.
4. Discuss about the application of groundwater models in the application of groundwater
problems.
5. What are the different methods of groundwater exploration?

114
Chapter Four
DESIGN OF TUBE WELLS (DEEP WELLS)

General
Water well is a drilled hole in most cases vertical, sunk in to the ground intercepting
one or more water bearing strata, for extracting groundwater for various water
resources purposes. The objectives of water well is to:
 Provide water of good quality
 Provide water in a sufficient quantity
 Provide water for a long time
 Provide water at a low cost

Construction methods are many and varied ranging from simple digging with hand tools
(hand augers) to high speed drilling with sophisticated equipment. Well construction, in
terms of operations, basically includes:
 Drilling operation
 Casing Installation
 Gravel packing and well screen Installation
 Grouting and well head construction
 Developing the well to insure sand free operation at maximum yield
 Installation of Pumps

There are different equipments and drilling methods available for drilling bore holes. The
diversity of equipments allow to determine what equipment and drilling method is best
suited for drilling bore holes for any water resources project purpose. Selection of
drilling equipment depends upon the hydrogeology of the formation, diameter and
depth of the pumping well, availability of fund, maintenance and spaces, production
capacity, volume of work, operating crew and easy movement of the drilling rig or
drilling machine. Some of these equipments are:
 Hand operated drilling equipments may be most appropriate for bore holes up to
15 m deep & 200 mm diameter which are drilled into unconsolidated formations;

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  Cable-tool drilling rigs may be most appropriate for bore holes up to 50 m deep &
200 mm diameter which are drilled in unconsolidated & semi-consolidated
formations;
 Small air flush rotary rigs may be most appropriate for bore holes up to 50 m deep
& 200 mm diameter which are drilled into consolidated formations;
 A large multipurpose rotary rig could be justified for all holes, if cost, manpower,
and back-up support are not constraints and speed is all important.

Tube wells become an option for groundwater supply when water levels are deeper than,
say 6-10 m. They have the advantage of being able to penetrate deep into the aquifer
unlike dug wells with less water level fall problem and they are protected against
pollution. However, they are more costly, have no storage capacity, and often located
outside the community who cannot be involved to any great extent during the
construction processes.

4.1 Commonly used methods for the construction of shallow wells

Shallow tube wells are constructed by boring, driving and jetting methods, and the
wells constructed by these methods are designated as bored wells, driven wells, and
jetted wells, respectively.

4.1.1 Boring Method

In this method the hole is constructed by the use of a selected diameter hand or power
driven anger which is turned to bore the hole to the designed depth. Cuttings are removed
by pulling and emptying the auger. It can drill to 30 m or more in soft sand & formations
that are free of rocks.

4.1.2 Driving Method

In this method the hole is constructed by forcing a casing (well pipe) equipped with a
drive (well) point into the ground by a series of blows either manually or machine
delivered on the top of the casing. Driven wells should be installed only in soft
formations that are relatively free of cobbles or boulders. A special device called a cap or

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drive head protects the top of the pipe during driving operation. After each length of pipe
is hammered into the ground the top is removed and additional sections are attached and
drive as required.

4.1.3 Jetting method

A jetted well is a well which is constructed by means of boring equipment using water
jetted under high pressure to facilitate rapid boring. Jetting is pumping water down the
pipe and out through the well point where the force of the water losing the
surrounding soil materials.

Figure 4.1 driven and jetted wells

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Figure 4.2 Hand boring or power driven angers

Figure 4.3 Driven angers

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 Figure 4.4 Jetting method

4.2 Methods of deep well construction based on drilling equipments

Deep wells (tube wells) are constructed by drilling. The most commonly used drilling
methods are Cable tool, hydraulic rotary, reverse rotary and down-the-hole
hammer methods, and they are discussed as follows.

4.2.1 Cable Tool Drilling Method (percussion)

The cable tool method consists of repeatedly raising and dropping a chisel-edged bit to
break loose and pulverize material from the bottom of the hole. A small amount of
water is kept in the hole, so that the excavated material will be mixed with it to form
slurry. Periodically the percussion bit is removed, and a bailer is lowered to remove the
slurry containing the excavated material. The bailer or bucket consists of a tube with a
check valve at the bottom and a bail for attaching a cable or rope to the top. When it has
been raised and dropped a number of times to fill it with the slurry it is brought to the
surface for emptying. Bailing is repeated until the hole has been adequately cleaned, at
which time drilling is resumed; drilling and bailing are then alternated. If the hole is
unstable, casing is lowered and the driving of casing is alternated with the other two
processes. In loose granular material, such as sand, bailing alone may be sufficient to
remove the material from the bottom of the hole and allow the casing to be sunk. A heavy

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bailer with a cutting edge at its lower end, known as a "mud scow" is used for this
purpose.

The percussion method is versatile, allowing all types of materials to be penetrated.

However, in very hard stone, progress is slow. While this method is frequently associated
with large, motorized, truck-mounted equipment, it can be successfully scaled down and
used with manpower, or small engines.

In cable tool or percussion drilling there are basically three major operations:
1st: Drilling of the hole by chiseling or crushing the rock, clay, or other material by
the impact of the drill bit,
nd
2 : Removing the cuttings with a bailer as cuttings accumulate in the hole; and
3rd: Driving or forcing the well casing down into the hole as the drilling proceeds.

Well casing is used in most percussion- type drilling operations. This casing is used to
help the well bore from collapsing and to prevent surface or subsurface leakage of
water or contaminants in to the well bore the well bore.
The cable tool bit (drill bit) is a shaped steel bar, generally 4 to 8 ft long. The drill bit is
suspended from a cable called the drill line, which is struck over a pulley at the top of a
near vertical mast erected over the hole. Sharper bits are used in hard rock drilling.

The major advantages of the cable-tool system as opposed to other drilling systems are
listed below.
1. Relatively cheap and ease to operate & maintain
2. Better cuttings of sample, easily make well drillers log, (a more accurate sample
for formation can be obtained)
3. Easy identification of water bearing strata.
4. Lesser amount of water is required during drilling operations
5. Minimum contamination of production zones
6. Water can be tested immediately, for quality & yield from each water bearing
stratum
7. Rate of groundwater can be measured

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 8. Better ability to seal off undesirable zone.
9. Capability of drilling any formation
10. The well driller need not be as skilled as his counterpart in rotary drilling.

The major disadvantages of the cable tool method

1. Slower drilling rate in hard formations.
2. Limitation on depth
3. Lack of control over fluid flow from penetrated formations
4. The need to case the hole as drilling progress, i.e., lack of control over bore hole
stability, the need to use temporary drill casing in overburden drilling to line a
hole in soft formations.
5. Frequent drill-line failure
6. Difficulty in pulling casing from deep wells

Cable tool drilling rigs may be most appropriate for boreholes up to 50 m deep and 200
mm diameter which are drilled into unconsolidated and semi-consolidated formations.
Usually drilling is started with a large diameter & the diameter is reduced telescopically
after drilling certain depths.

Figure 4.5 Basic drilling tools for cable tool method

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Figure 4.6 Cable Tool Drilling Method

4.2.2 Hydraulic Rotary (or Rotary Direct Circulation) Drilling Method

This method uses a rotary bit to cut the rock and a circulating drilling fluid to flash
rock cuttings to the surface. The drilling fluid is usually heavy mud which is able to
support the walls of the well and prevent them from collapsing. Generally, the drilling of
bore holes by the hydraulic rotary method requires a drill bit, a system for rotating the bit,
the means for controlling bit pressure on the formation, and a medium for removing the
material displaced by the bit.
In the conventional fluid-rotary method of drilling, drilling is accomplished by rotating a
drill pipe and bit by means of a power drive. The drill bit cuts and breaks up the rock
material as it penetrates the formation. Drilling fluid is pumped down through the rotating
drill pipe and holes in the bit. This fluid swirls in the bottom of the hole, picking up
material broken by the bit, and then flows upwards in the well bore, carrying the cuttings
to the surface. The drill pipe and bit move progressively downward, deepening the hole
as the operation proceeds.
At the land surface, the drilling fluid flows into a settling pit where the cuttings settle to
the bottom. From the settling (or mud) pit the fluid overflows into a second pit from
which it is picked up though the suction hose of the mud pump and re-circulated through

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the drill pipe. In the rotary drilling method the well casing is not introduced into the hole
until drilling operations are completed, the walls of the hole being supported by the
pressure (weight) of the drilling fluid and/ or mud cake formed on the wall of the bore
hole. Such drilling is widely practiced in Ethiopia.

Advantages of direct Circulation drilling Method

1. Rapid drilling rate (relatively high penetration rates)
2. The avoidance of placement of a casing during drilling
3. The convenience of electric logging
4. Ability to drill and maintain borehole in a wide variety of formations to depths in
excess of those required for water wells
5. Ability to drill small diameter low cost borehole for formation sampling &
geophysical logging. This information leads to the final well design. In most cases
the pilot borehole is used for this purpose.
6. Low cost for well construction in soft unconsolidated alluvium particularly with
depth greater than 300m.
7. Large diameter holes can be drilled more economically by the rotary method.

Disadvantages includes:-
1. A more complex drilling system compared with the cable-tool
2. Relatively high equipment capital cost.
3. Higher bit cost particularly in hard formations
4. Engineering & control drilling-fluid properties (Reynolds number, density, gel
strength, velocities) critical to well logging, completion & development.
5. High noise levels that create operating problems in urban areas.
6. Greater daily operating cost
7. Relatively high makeup water requirements
8. Relatively High equipment transportation cost
9. High cost for drilling karstic formations
10. The need to remove mud cake during well development

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 11. Not suitable for boulder formation and requires more water, repair &
maintenance.

Figure 4.7: Hydraulic Rotary Direct Circulation Drilling equipment

4.2.3 Reverse Circulation Rotary Drilling method

A modification of direct circulation rotary method is known as reverse circulation rotary
method. In this system, the drilling fluid with cutting return inside the drill string & is
discharged into a settling tank or pit. Downward flow is in the annulus between the drill
string & borehole. The system components are similar to those of the direct rotary except
for rotation.

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The reverse circulation rotary differ from direct rotary rigs in the following respects:
a. Rotary rigs have lower speed range & fewer number of speed
b. The drill pipes used are larger in size & are flanged and jointed
c. The pump used is centrifugal
d. Air lift method is used in heavier rigs for drilling deeper depths.

As the diameter of the drill pipe is relatively small, the velocity of the drilling fluid in the
pipe is high. This results in two advantages:
1. There is no need for the rotary bits to crash the formation at the bottom of the hole
into pieces.
2. There is no need to use heavy drilling fluid for bringing the cuttings to the surface
& clear water can be used. Thus the problem of clogging of the aquifer around the
well by mud intrusion is greatly reduced.

It is probably the most rapid method of drilling and hence it has become increasingly
popular:
Reverse circulation rotary drilling has a number of advantages under some drilling
conditions. These include:
1. Lower capital cost than equivalent-capacity direct rotary equipment.
2. Good for drilling large diameter holes in soft, unconsolidated alluvial formations.
3. Formation sampling is more accurate than with direct rotary.
4. High return velocity lowers drilling fluid viscosity requirement.
5. Lower noise levels with insulated compressors
6. Lower transportation costs than equivalent-capacity direct rotary.
7. Simpler and less costly circulating system.
8. Lower bit costs than with direct rotary.
9. Lower development pumping time where water without additives is used as
drilling fluid.
10. The boring is done without a casing and hydrostatic pressure is used to support
the walls of the bore-hole during construction

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Disadvantages include:
1. Drilling efficiency declines rapidly below 250 to 300 m.
2. Large water supply requirements. It requires five times the amount of water
required for direct rotary drilling.
3. The system is not suitable for drilling large boulders, consolidated rock
formations, and karstic formations. When drilling long sections of clay and shale,
drill fluid additives must be used.
4. Difficult to use where the static water level is less than 5m.
5. Boreholes smaller than 18‟‟ can not be drilled due to the eroding effect of the
higher velocity fluid down the annulus.
6. Maintaining borehole alignment is more difficult than with direct rotary because
of the relationship of the drill collar diameter & weight to the large diameter
borehole.
7. Resistivity logs are not reliable where water without additives is used as the
drilling fluid. It is unsuitable for exploratory test drilling.

Figure 4.8: Reverse Circulation Rotary Drilling method

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 4.2.4. Down–the-hole Hammer Drilling method
In this method pneumatic hammer operated at the lower end of the drill pipe is used.
It combines the percussion effect of cable tool drilling & the rotary action of
rotary drilling.

In hard rock, compressed air can be used to blow out cuttings. This method is often
used in conjunction with a special bit that has a hammer action as it is rotated. This
method is called down-the–hole (DTH) -hammer drilling and is commonly used to
bore through crystalline rocks.

The action is rotary percussive and does not rely on heavy down pressure. In hard
formation the DTH hammer is most effective but becomes less so as the rock strength
reduces.

The action is rotary percussive and does not rely on heavy down pressure. In hard
formation the DTH hammer is most effective but becomes less so as the rock strength
reduces.
Factors affecting the drilling rate:
1. Formation characteristics-Strength, abrasiveness, drill ability, etc.
2. Mechanical factors like rotary speed, condition of bit, bit type & diameter.
3. Hydraulic factors- circulation rates, friction losses
4. Drilling fluid properties- density, viscosity, etc
5. Intangible factor- personnel efficiency and rig efficiency.

DTH hammer drilling is the technique of drilling where by hammering action at the
bottom of the well is incorporated to the conventional rotary action. With such drilling
method penetration of about five meters per hours in hard formation is possible.

Percussion and rotary methods of well drilling are usually uneconomical in water well
drilling in hard rock formations due to the slow penetration rate, high bit rate, and high

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maintenance cost of the machinery. Air-operated DTH drilling method has proved to be
the best for the construction of water wells in hard rock areas.

Figure 4.9: Down the hole Hammer Drilling method

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Figure 4.10: Percussion and rotary drilling methods

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 4.3 Drilling fluid
Drilling fluid can simply be defined as the combination of fluids and solids required
in certain drilling processes to facilitate the production and removal of cuttings from a
borehole.
The conveying of the drilled cuttings to the surface is still an essential requirement
but in addition, the drilling fluid must perform other functions such as:-
1. Cooling the drill bit
2. The maintenance of borehole stability in preventing caving and sloughing of
unconsolidated formation.
3. Lubrication of the mud pump, bit bearings, and the drilling string & thus
reducing the torque required to turn it.

Five drilling fluid systems are:-

1. Water base clay mud (e.g. bentonite)
2. Oil base mud
3. Low solids mud
4. Air, gas or moist flush system
5. Low velocity foam system

4.3.1 Water base mud

Drilling mud is a mixture of clay, water & chemicals pumped down the drill string & up
the annulus during drilling in order to lubricate the system carry away rock cuttings
maintain the required pressure at the bit end and provide an aid to formation evaluation
etc.
It consists of
1. A liquid phase
2. A suspended-particle(colloidal) phase, and
3. Cuttings entrained during drilling

The oldest and probably the most widely used drilling fluid for water well drilling is a
water-based mud. In this fluid the continuous liquid phase is fresh water. Bentonite or

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other clay-like materials in suspension in the water are adjusted to give the required mud
viscosity gel-strength (the ability to form a semi-solid, jelly-like –colloidal solution when
the mud is at rest) and filtration property (the formation of a wall or filter cake to prevent
water from the fluid invading the formation adjacent to the bore which may otherwise
cause instability). Other chemicals may be added to control and overcome specific
problems. Salt water may be used occasionally as the continuous phase to overborne
formation clay swelling problems but salt is undesirable in water well & thus is rarely
used.

4.3.2 Oil Base mud

These are drilling fluids in which oil is the continuous phase and water is the dispersed
phase. As with salt water-base muds, the oil base muds are used to prevent the hydration
of the native clays which may reduce permeability, it also has other advantages in oil well
drilling and completion. Because of the obvious contamination problem oil-based
muds have no application in water well drilling.

4.3.3 Low solid Mud

This is a drilling fluid in which the solids content is less than 10% by weight or a mud
weight of less than 2.6 parts per liter. For water well drilling the continuous liquid phase
is water & the solids are CMC (sodium carboxyl methyl cellulose), HEC (Hydroxyethyl
cellulose) & other polymers.

4.3.4 Air, Gas or Mist Flush system

Of these, air has the greatest application in water well drilling. This may be used for air
flush lifting of cuttings from rotary drilled holes or may be used to operate and flush
cuttings from DTH hammers.

Air flush drilling is generally very much faster than water or mud drilling and bit life is
extended considerably as a result of the very rapid removal of drilled cuttings from the
face of the bit. However, problems arise when water is encountered in the hole. It is
impossible to restart drilling below a pressure head of water in the hole which exceeds

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the air pressure available at the bit. Finally, the very high up- hole velocity required to lift
the cuttings (a minimum of 900 m/min) means that large drill pipe, to reduce the annular
area, and / or very large compressors are needed to achieve the velocity.
Obviously the large pipe, with its extra weight, limits the drilling depth capacity of the
drill rig whilst the large compressors have high capital and running costs.

4.3.5 Low velocity Foam system

This is an extreme low solids system in which a slow moving column of foam transports
the cutting up the hole with the particles suspended and separated in bubble clusters.
Very low water & air volumes are required. Generally the system improves in efficiency
as the annular area increases. It can often be used, to considerable advantage, instead of
the reverse circulation system.

The material used for foam flush drilling is a concentrated foaming agent with good
emulsion and foam stability, which gives small, tight, thin –walled bubbles. The foam
column has a cuttings carrying capacity far in excess of conventional water-based muds
and, with a very low hydrostatic head, provides bottom-hole conditions which allow
extremely good bit penetration. The low up-hole velocity (about 15 m/min) of the foam
flush drilling system reduces hole erosion and of course, significantly lowers compressed
air costs.

The addition of HEC based polymers & other additives to the foam, to give a “Modified
Stable Foam” (MSF), increases the foam bubble strength and thus the lifting capacity of
the foam column. The MSF can handle water which may be flowing into the hole, can
stabilize swelling & sloughing shale formations, limit the loss of fluid into porous
formations by the formation of a thin wall cake, reduce the tendency for “balling-up”
(when clay particles adhere to one another) and the formation of mud collars when
drilling in sticky clay and be highly successful in bridging fissures in “lost circulation”
zone.

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The principal limitation to foam flush drilling is in conditions where a high hydrostatic
head is necessary, foam densities are very low, ranging from 0.05 to 0.1kg/liter.
Therefore, high hydrostatic head is not possible; however, this is rarely a water well
drilling requirement.

The quantity of low solids or foam additives to prepare a drilling fluid is roughly one fifth
(by weight) of the quantity of bentonite which would have to be used to achieve similar
results. Thus the use of the low solids mud or the foam flush system can affect a
significant economy in the transport of the drilling fluid additives in the field.

4.3.6 Drilling Fluid requirements

1. The drilling mud must be thick enough to hold the hole from caving
2. The drilling mud should be able to keep the cuttings in suspension where
circulation is stopped for extending the drill rod or any other reasons.
3. The mud should be thin enough for efficiency.

4.3.7 Drilling Fluid Control program

Material used by the driller to prepare the drilling fluid should be composed of fresh,
non-polluted water and suitable fluid or mud additives to meet the viscosity specification
required. All fluid additives used will have to comply with recognized industry standards
and practices, and they should be applied and used as prescribed by the manufacturer. It
is expressly understood that toxic and /or dangerous substances will not be added to the
drilling fluid.

Additionally, the driller is normally responsible for maintaining the quality of the drilling
fluid to assure
a) Protection of water bearing and potential water bearing formations exposed in the
bore hole, and
b) Good representative samples of the formation materials.

The drilling fluid properties required will depend on:-

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 i) The type and size of drilling equipment to be used, and
ii) Down hole conditions anticipated or encountered.

Sample for the measurement or testing of drilling fluid properties are those caught at the
rig pump suction with care taken to assure a true and representative sample.

Tests are to be conducted:

1) Every 15m of depth or
2) Every four circulating hours or
3) Whenever conditions appear to have change or problem arises.

The driller must maintain current records on the site at all times to show
i) Time, depth and results of all mud tests, and
ii) All materials added to the system-kind, amount, time and depth.

4.4 Screened casing and gravel wells

Casing serves two major functions:

(i) To support the sides of the hole against collapse;

(ii) To exclude contaminated surface water.

The screen, which allows the water to enter the well while preventing entry of the
aquifer materials, may be a perforated section at the lower end of the casing or may be a
separate structure attached to the casing.

Depending on the drilling method used and the materials penetrated, the casing may be
sunk as an integral part of the drilling operation, as in the case of jetting; it may be placed
after the hole is completed; or it may be placed at some intermediate point, such as when
the water table is reached and the sides of the hole will collapse if not supported.

A number of different materials have been used successfully for well casing. These
include wrought iron pipe or tubing, tubing rolled from sheet metal, pipe made of
plastic such as polyvinylchloride (PVC) or glass reinforced plastic (GRP), asbestos-

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cement pipe, concrete tile, clay tile, bamboo/coir casing (made of bamboo strips
attached to steel hoops and wrapped with coconut husk fiber cord and burlap), large
diameter bamboo stems with the node membranes removed and split palm trunks. The
type of casing used will be determined by:

(i) What materials are available locally;

(ii) What skills are available locally;

(iii) The relative costs of labour and materials;

(iv) The drilling method being employed;

(v) The nature of the geologic formation; and

(vi) Minimum acceptable life of the well.

Well screens should have as large a percentage of non-clogging slots as possible, be

resistant to corrosion, have sufficient strength to resist collapse, be easily developed
and prevent sand pumping (Driscoll, 1986). These characteristics are best met in
commercial continuous-slot (wire wrap) screens consisting of a triangular-shaped wire
wrapped around an array of rod. If these screens are available, conduct a sieve analysis
on samples on the water-bearing formation and select a slot size which will retain 40-60
percent of the material.

While wire wrap screen should be used whenever possible, it may be exorbitantly
expensive and/or not available. Most wells therefore are constructed using PVC
casing and screen. Grey PVC pipe, which is available in most countries, is relatively
cheap, corrosion resistant, lightweight, easy to work with and chemically inert.

Slot Design: Using a hack saw, cut slots in the plastic casing which are as long and close
together as possible. Slots should be spaced as close together as possible vertically and
should extend about 1/5th the circumference of the pipe; there should be 3 even rows of
slots extending up the pipe separated by 3 narrower rows of solid, uncut pipe (for
strength).

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A gravel pack is coarse sand or fine gravel (2-6 mm diameter) that is placed between
the borehole wall and screen. Filter (gravel) packs are used to settle-out fine grained
particles that may otherwise enter the well and to increase the effective hydraulic
diameter of the well. A filter pack is like a well "lungs" passing water to the "heart of
the well" (the screen). A filter pack should be installed in all wells except those
completed in rock, coarse sand or gravel.

Finding Material: The best material is coarse silica sand and fine gravel material
which is usually found in river-beds or ocean beaches. Separate the desired size
fraction by using two screens which have slot sizes of 3 and 6 mm. Put the screens on
the top and bottom of a strong wooden frame with the coarse slot screen on top.
Suspend the frame in the water and scoop sand and gravel onto the top screen. After
rinsing, suitable material will be trapped between the two screens. Suitably sized,
strong window screen may not be readily available overseas, but can be easily
flattened and brought with you in your suitcase.

Volume of gravel pack required: Calculate the volume of filter material necessary
to fill the well annulus to 2 meters above the top of the well screen - this allows for
areas of borehole washout to be filled without exposing the upper screen to formation
stabilizer or borehole fines. Whenever possible, however, do not place gravel within
3-6 m of ground surface.

Example 4.1 Using the following data calculate the number of 50 kg bags of gravel
for gravel packing the whole of the annular space (i.e. from the bottom of the well to
ground surface)- No consideration should be made over wash away (b/s it is
necessitating additional filter pack)
 Borehole depth, L= 100m
 Borehole diameter, D= 450mm
 Well screen and plain pipes outside diameter, Ds=300mm
 Total length of screen and plain pipes in borehole=100.5m
 Grain size of gravel pack material=2 to 4 mm

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  Porosity of gravel pack material=36%
 Dry density of gravel pack material=2650kg/m3

Solution
Volume of gravel, V= Volume of annual space in borehole
V= 100(0.2252-0.152) = 8.836 m3
Mass of gravel= m = density x volume (1 –porosity in % /100 %/)
= 2650 x 8.83 x (1-0.36) = 14975.68kg
mass of gravel in kg
The number of 50 kg bags required will be = n =
50 kg
n= 1495.68/50=299.5
Say n = 300 bags for formation stabilizing and filter packing
It is good practice to have extra filter pack on the site, especially if the stability of the
borehole is in doubt.
After the filter pack is placed, there is still an irregularly shaped annular space
around the casing. In caving material such as sand or sand and gravel, the annular space
is often quickly filled by caving material. However, where the material overlying the
water-bearing formation is firm sand, clay, shale etc. and the borehole does not cave-in,
the annular space must be filled. A formation seal (cement grout) is placed into the
annular space to prevent the seepage of contaminated surface water down along the
outside of the casing into the well.

4.5 Well development, maintenance, well failures and rehabilitation

The well screen is the "heart of a well" and the filter pack acts as the "lungs"
passing water to the screen! However, after drilling a borehole and installing a
casing and filter pack, it is necessary to get the "heart pumping" and the "lungs
breathing" since the drilling fluid forms a thin layer of mud on the sand grains of
the borehole wall and is forced into the pore spaces and cracks in the aquifer. This
plugging effect decreases the flow of water into the well.

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The term Well Development refers to the process of removing the finer particles from
the aquifer immediately around the well screen in order to make the aquifer more
permeable and thus to decrease the resistance to flow of water into the well. This means
that the act of cleaning out the clay and silt introduced during the drilling process as
well as the finer part of the aquifer directly around the well screen prior to putting
the well into service. In order to develop a well, it is important that the openings in the
well screen be chosen of the proper size. This necessitates collecting material taken from
the aquifer during the process of drilling. One rule-of-thumb states that the openings
should be of such a size that the smallest 2/3 of the aquifer particles will pass through
them.

If an aquifer consists of fine particles without much variation in size, it may not be
possible to increase the permeability around the screen adequately by the development
techniques described above. In this case the capacity of the well can be increased by
gravel packing, i.e. by introducing material around the screen which has a particle size
greater than that found in the aquifer. Use of a gravel pack allows larger screen openings
to be used, and hence gives greater percentage of inflow area. It also surrounds the screen
with a layer of material of higher permeability than the aquifer itself.

One way to introduce the gravel is initially to sink a temporary casing of a diameter
greater than that of the final casing and screen. The final casing and screen are lowered
inside the temporary casing and are held concentric by guides while the gravel is
introduced into the annular space between the casings. The temporary casing can then be
jacked out of the hole. Another method is to drill the hole somewhat larger than the
casing down to the water table. The casing is then lowered and the annular space between
the casing and the hole is filled with gravel. As sinking of the casing into the aquifer
proceeds, some of the gravel descends with the casing. During development, more of the
gravel descends to occupy the volume left by the sand passing through the screen into the
well. Gravel may also be introduced around the screen through several small holes drilled
for this purpose around a. small circle concentric with the well.

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The size and gradation of the gravel used should be such that very little of the material of
the surrounding aquifer can flow into the voids between the gravel particles. If this
happens, the permeability of the gravel pack may be greatly reduced. The screen opening
size is selected as large as possible without allowing any of the gravel pack material to
enter the well.

4.5.1 Water Well Development

A tube well is not completely ready for use just after construction. The tube well can
function effectively only after proper development.

Water well development is a process where by the mud cake or compacted borehole
wall, resulting from drilling activity, is broken down; the mud cake liquefied and
drawn with other fines into the well. This material is then removed by bailing or
pumping. Well development, therefore, stabilizes the walls of a well adjacent to the
screen by a process which removes fine particle from the formation immediately
surrounding the well screen, leaving coarser particles to contact and surround the screen.

Tube wells are developed to increases their specific capacity, prevent sanding and obtain
maximum economic well life. Development work is necessary step in completing all
types of wells. Most wells will not perform at maximum efficiency if they are not
properly developed.

After the well has been developed it is usually desirable to fill in and seal the annular
space between the outside of the casing and the hole. This operation known as grouting is
carried out to prevent any dirty surface water from flowing directly into the well and to
give the upper end of the casing firm support. A mixture of Portland cement and water
mixed to a fairly liquid consistency is the most commonly used grouting material. Clay-
water slurry is sometimes also used at greater depths where changes in moisture will not
cause shrinking and swelling of the clay.

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 The main objectives of well development are:-
1. To correct any damage to or clogging of the water bearing formation; i.e.,
to remove mud or clay particles which may have blocked the water
movement from the aquifer into the well.
2. To increase the porosity and improve the permeability of the water bearing
formation in the vicinity of the well.
3. To stabilize the sand formation (gravel pack) around a screened well and
the formation immediately
4. To reduce drawdown in the well during production or pumping.

Development is necessary in all gravel packed wells and other screened wells except
when the screen is formed of fine wire mesh located in a highly permeable formation.
The benefits which result from well development are:
1. Sand pumping during well operation will be eliminated to a greater extent
2. The life of the well will be prolonged
3. Operation and maintenance costs will be reduced.
4. The specific capacity of the well will be improved (maximum yield at available
minimum drawdown)

4.5.2 Methods of well development

The methods commonly employed for well development are bailing, surge block,
over pumping, backwashing, use of compressed air, hydro fracturing, jetting and
use of dispersing agents (chemicals).

Bailing (a length of pipe with a one-way valve in the bottom) the well is probably the
simplest method of development. Each time the bailer is raised and dropped water surges
into and out of the well. Fine material entering the well is trapped inside the bailer and
removed from the well. The amount of fine material in the bailer indicates how far the
process of development has proceeded. A special type of bailer known as a sand pump
has a piston inside it. This piston is attached to the bailer line in such a way that it travels

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upward inside the bailer as the line goes from slack to taut. The motion of this piston has
a strong surging effect on the well and helps to draw sand into the bailer.

A surge block (closely fits the casing interior and is operated like a plunger beneath the
water level), which acts as a piston or plunger inside the casing, can be attached to a
string of pipe and made to travel up and down for the purpose of development. A surge
block may consist of two or more wooden disks fastened together with rubber between
them which makes contact with the inside of the casing.

Over pumping: - Wells may also be developed by pumping water out at a high rate to
create a large drawdown. Pumping is suddenly stopped and a large quantity of water
which has been accumulated is allowed to run down into the well to reverse the flow
through the aquifer around the screen. By this method, loose sand and fine materials are
removed by pumping the well at a higher rate than the well will experience in its service
period. Over pumping has the advantage that much of the fine material brought into the
borehole is pumped out immediately.

Backwashing: - Development is accomplished by causing the water to alternately flow

into and out of the well. During inflow some small particles will be carried into the well
through the screen, but other small particles will bridge between particles too large to
pass through the screen. The reversal of flow will dislodge such particles and give them
the opportunity to pass through the screen during the next period of inflow. The fine
material entering the well is ultimately removed with the water. Removal of the fine
material during development, in addition to increasing the capacity of the well, saves the
pump which is later installed from abrasion. Sand and fine materials are loosened by
reversing the direction of flow through the screen. By changing the flow respectively the
loose material will be moved through the screen into the well.

Air development: - Compressed air may also be used to surge a well during
development operations. Air lift technique can be used for surging and pumping. The
practice of alternatively surging and pumping with air has grown with the great increase
in the number of rotary drilling rigs equipped with large air compressors.

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Surging is used to loosen sand and fine material in the screen and filter zone. The surging
action is created by lifting the water near to the surface by injecting air into the well and
then shut off the air to allow the water to flow back through the well and formation.
Pumping water with air lift can be used for cleaning a well from sand and fine material.
Using the air lift means no water, as would be the case if a submersible or turbine pump
is used to clean the well

Water Jetting: - High velocity water jetting can be used to loosen sand and fine material
from the filter zone and the screen. Maximum development efficiency is achieved if
water jetting is combined with simultaneous pumping with air lift, as the loosened
material is not allowed to settle again.

Hydro fracturing: - High pressure pumps are used to overcome the pressure of
overlying rock and inject fluids into newly opened fractures. Pressure in the production
zone usually causes small, tight breaks in the rock to open up and spread radially. The
newly opened fractures provide effective interconnections between nearby water-bearing
fractures and the well bore.

Dispersing agents: - Sometimes it is necessary to add a chemical agent to disperse the

clay particles in the mud cake or in the formation to avoid their sticking to sand grains,
and to speed up the development process.

Well development work must be done in a manner that does not cause undue settlement
and disturbance of the strata above the water bearing formation, not disturb the seal effect
around the well casing and there by reduces the sanitary protection otherwise afforded by
such a seal.

Development of the well shall be continued until water pumped from the well at the
maximum test pumping rate is clear and free of sand. The water shall be considered sand-
free when samples, taken during test pumping, contain more than 2ppm of sand by

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weight. 2-3 ppm tolerable for municipal and industrial water supply, 1ppm may be
permissible limit in a system that has many values and small orifices 20ppm for
irrigation.
But it can be recognized that any kind of sand in the water can damage the pump.
Sand content testing-5 samples averages
- 15 minute after the start of the test
- after 1/4th of total planned test time
- after 1/2nd of total planned test time
- after 3/4th of total planned test time
- near the end of the pumping test
Excessive sand pumping may result in the formation of cavities around the screen and
subsidence of the soil.

4.5.3 Well Testing for performance

Following the development of a new well, the well should be tested to provide
information on the potential yield of the borehole and drawdown.
Purpose of conducting a pump test of water well: - water well may be pump tested for
either of two main purposes:
1. The usual objective is to obtain information about the performance and
efficiency of the well being pumped. The result in such a case is usually reported
in terms of the yield, the observed drawdown, and the calculated specific yield.
These data, taken under controlled conditions, give a measure of the productive
capacity of the completed well and provide information needed for selection of
the pumping equipment.
2. Another objective of well pumping test is to provide data for which the
principal factors of aquifer performance, transmissivity and storage
coefficient, can be calculated

In general, the data obtained from pumping test provide information necessary to
determine:-
a) Capacity of the well

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 b) Aquifer characteristics
c) Well efficiency
d) Pumping rates
e) Pump installation depth settings
f) Other factors which will be of value in the long term operation and maintenance
of the well
g) Well design and construction equipment.

4.6 Groundwater balance and groundwater management

4.6.1 Groundwater balance
In the management of groundwater resources, man intervenes in the hydrologic cycle in
order to achieve beneficial goals. This intervention takes the form of modifications
imposed on the various components of the water balance.

Water and pollutants carried with it may enter an aquifer, or a considered portion of one,
in the following ways:

1. Groundwater inflow through aquifer boundaries and leakage from overlying or

underlying aquifers.
2. Natural replenishment (infiltration) from precipitation over the area.
3. Return flow from irrigation and septic tanks (or similar structures, including
faulty water supply or sewage networks)
4. Artificial recharge.
5. Seepage from influent streams and lakes

Water and pollutants carried with it may leave an aquifer in the following ways

1. Groundwater outflow through boundaries and leakage out of the considered

aquifer into underlying or overlying strata.
2. Pumping and drainage
3. Seepage into effluent streams and lakes

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 4. Spring discharge
5. Evapotranspiration

The difference between total inflow and total outflow of water and of pollutants during
any period is stored in the aquifer, causing a rise/fall in water levels and in the
concentration of pollutants, respectively.

1. Inflow and outflow through Aquifer Boundaries, Qlsi and Qlso

When a boundary of an aquifer (or a portion of one) is pervious, groundwater may enter
the aquifer through it from the outside (another aquifer or the remaining part of the
aquifer. The leakage (volume of water per unit area and per unit time) through a semi
permeable layer from an overlying (or underlying) aquifer may take place.

2. Precipitation (Natural Replenishment) Qprec

Phreatic aquifers can be replenished from above by precipitation falling directly over the
ground surface overlying the aquifer, provided the ground surface is sufficiently
pervious.

Confined aquifers are replenished by groundwater inflow from an adjacent phreatic

aquifer, which in turn, is replenished from precipitation. Part of the area may be
completely impervious and does not contribute to the natural replenishment of the aquifer
beneath it.

3. Irrigation and sewage losses (Return Flow) Qirr

Even in efficient irrigation practices, a certain portion of the water applied to an area is
not used up as consumptive use, but infiltrates, eventually reaching the water table. We
shall refer to this contribution to an aquifer‟s replenishment as return flow from
irrigation.

The water used for irrigation may be that pumped from underlying aquifer (hence the

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term return flow), surface water or water imported from other regions.

4. Artificial Recharge ,Qart

It may be defined as man‟s planned operations of transferring water from the ground
surface into aquifers

This is in contradiction to natural replenishment (or natural recharge), considered above,

whereby water from precipitation and surface runoff reaches the aquifer with out man‟s
intervention. Whereas natural replenishment is an uncontrolled (by man) input to the
groundwater system, artificial recharge is a controlled input.

The quantity, quality, location, and time of artificial recharge are decision variables, the
values of which are determined as part of the management policy of a considered
groundwater system.

5. River-Aquifer Interrelationships Qsurfin and Qsurfout

Rivers passing through a region under-lain by a phreatic aquifer (and in special cases
even by a confined aquifer) may either contribute water to the aquifer or serve as its
drain.

When a stream cuts through an impervious layer, establishing a direct contact with and
underlying confined aquifer, the stream may be either an influent one or and effluent one,
depending on whether the piezometric heads in the aquifer are above or blow the water
level in the stream.

Much of the low water flow in streams (base flow) is derived from groundwater whose
water table elevations in the vicinity of a stream are higher than the stream; such streams
are called effluent streams. On the other hand, when the water level in a stream is higher
than the water level in an adjacent (or underlying) aquifer, water will flow from the river
to the aquifer. The river is called an influent river.

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The same stream can be an influent one along one stretch and an effluent one along
another or it can be both influent and effluent at the same point.

The volume of water contributed to an aquifer by stream flow (or drained into a stream
from an aquifer), is part of the regional water balance.

6. Springs Qspring
It is a point (sometimes a small area) through which groundwater emerges from and
aquifer to the ground surface. The discharge of some springs is small and of no
significance in the groundwater balance, however, some are very large and dominate the
flow pattern in their vicinity. There are several types of springs
a depression spring, contact spring, a perched spring.

7. Evapo-transpiration (ET)
This is another mechanism by means of which groundwater may leave an aquifer.
Evaporation is the net transfer of water from the liquid phase to the vapor one.

Transpiration is the process by means of which plants remove moisture from the soil
and release it to the atmosphere as vapor.

ET, a combination of the above two processes, is the term used to describe the total
water removal from an area partly covered by vegetation by transpiration, evaporation
from soil (actually from the water present in the void space of unsaturated soil),
from snow, from open water surface (lakes, streams, and reservoirs).

Unless the groundwater table is with in 1-1.5m from ground surfaces evaporation from
groundwater is practically zero. When the water table is near the ground surface, ET
may contribute a significant factor in the water balance.
We do have some evaporation from water in the unsaturated zone.

8. Pumping and Drainage, Qwell

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Water can be withdrawn from an aquifer for beneficial usage by means of shallow dug
wells, tube deep wells, horizontal wells, and galleries. A well can pump water as long
as the water table at its location is higher than the elevation of the pump installed in it.

For water to enter a gallery, the water table should be above its bottom.
In regional water balance, we are often interested only in the total withdrawal by
pumpage during the balance period.

A drainage system (open channels, or buried drains) is usually installed in order to

control the elevation of the (ground) water table say, to maintain water levels below
the root zone. Groundwater will then leave the aquifer through this system (say, to
a near by stream) whenever the water table is higher than the drains.

The volume of water drained out of an aquifer in this way should not be left out of the
Water-balance.

9. Change in Storage, Sbal

The difference between all inflows and outflows during a balance period accumulates in
the considered aquifer region. In a phreatic aquifer, water is stored in the void
space. In a confined aquifer, water is stored on account of water and solid matrix
compressibility. In the first case, increased storage is followed by a rise of the
phreatic surface. In the second case, increased storage is followed by a rise in the
piezometric head.

10. Regional Groundwater Balance

We can now summarize the regional groundwater balance by the following equation.
[Groundwater inflow] - [Groundwater outflow] + [Natural replenishment] + [Return
flow] + [Artificial recharge] + [Inflow from streams and lakes]-[spring discharge]-
[Evapo-transpiration]-[Pump age and drainage] = [Change in volume of water stored in
aquifer]

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Where all the terms are expressed as volume of water during the balance period it can be
rewritten as follows.

Figure 4.11: Water balance components

Potential inflows into the saturated part of the CCL are recharge from precipitation
(Qprec), losses from irrigation (Qirr), inflow from surface water (Qsurfin), lateral subsurface
inflow (Qlsi) and upward flow (Qup) which roughly equates to (positive) seepage. On the
other hand the outflow terms could include outflow to surface water (Qsurfout), capillary
flow from groundwater table (Qcap), abstractions from wells (Qwell), lateral subsurface
outflow (Qlso) and downward flow (Qdown) which correlates with (negative) seepage. The
total inflows minus total outflows should be equal to change in storage.
V
Q prec  Qirr  Qsurfin  Qart  Qlsi  Qup  Qspring  Qsurfout  Qwell  Qcap  Qlso  Qdown 
t

4.6.2 Groundwater Resources Management

Identifying the relevant issues is a crucial step in groundwater resources management
planning; omitting or misjudging one or more of them may lead to unbalanced, inefficient
or even ineffective plans.

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The issue of concern for groundwater resources management reflects the physical
conditions and the socio-economic development of the area considered. But in spite of
the uniqueness of each groundwater system in this respect, the problems observed world-
wide seem to boil down to a relatively small list of main issues. They can be grouped
roughly under three different headings: Groundwater quantity management,
groundwater quality management and groundwater-related environmental
protection. Table 8.1 lists and classifies the groundwater resources management issues
that will be commented in this chapter.

Table 4.1 Common groundwater resources management issues

Groundwater Groundwater Environmental

quantity quality protection
management management
Rate of aquifer exploitation X
Allocation of groundwater X (X)
Conjunctive management of
groundwater and surface water X (X) (X)

Groundwater salinity control X (X)

Groundwater pollution control X (X)

Conservation of water types (X) x

Groundwater level control (X) x
Control of land subsidence (X) x

Groundwater resources management is not new field of activity: some issues have been
recognized long ago in some countries and have given rise to the development of water
resources management approaches and activities. Such activities stared to be undertaken

150
one after another in response to observed needs, sometimes without people being aware
that they were dealing with groundwater resources management and with decision
problems. A wealth of professional creativity, however, has accumulated in the
numerous approaches to groundwater resources management developed over the years in
several parts of the world. Professionals engaged in groundwater resources management
may benefit greatly from the ideas developed and experiences gained elsewhere.

Therefore, a brief review of the mentioned issues and suggested or pioneered approaches
will follow.

1. The rate of aquifer exploitation

“How much groundwater to abstract from a certain aquifer?” is an old problem that has
puzzled many hydrogeologists and water resources engineers. Pumping at too low rate
means usually a loss of potential benefits from groundwater; and excessive pumping, on
the other hand, will produce groundwater depletion and other undesired effects.

The problem has frequently given rise to misconceptions and confusion. One of the
misconceptions is that it would be a technical problem only, to be solved merely by
technical means (which is suggested by the somewhat confusing term „safe yield‟).

However, a hydrologist can not provide a quantitative answer unless it is specified

whether the resources should be exploited under a „mining policy‟ or under a policy of
sustainable yield.

Mining depletes the storage and thus can only be practiced for a limited period of time. It
is often a dilemma to what extent it is wise and ethically justifiable to allow present-day
groundwater users to enjoy the benefits of groundwater mining and to leave the
associated problems for a future generation.

The sustainable-yield approach is based on the capture of recharge and thus will not
exhaust the aquifer. It avoids difficult decisions regarding intergenerational allocation of

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water. Optimal yield is not only a function of physical factors, but depends equally well
on a complex of economic, social and political factors.

A second misconception is that the optimal rate of aquifer exploitation often implicitly is
thought to be constant in time („stationary approach‟). As will be shown below, a more
dynamic approach-allowing discharge to be time-dependent-may be attractive.

 Sustainable-yield policy
Sustainable yield represents a groundwater abstraction rate that allows on a long term the
inputs and outputs of water to be balanced over the domain of the aquifer, thus leading to
a stable state of the aquifer. Many conventional groundwater assessment and
development studies implicitly associate maximum sustainable yield (MSY) with optimal
yield. In relation to sustainable yield, a few remarks can be made:

a) The maximum sustainable yield is not necessarily equal to the aquifer‟s recharge:
rather, sustainable yield is the „ groundwater capture‟, which is the difference
between recharge and „natural‟‟ discharge; consequently, maximum sustainable
yield (MSY) is the maximum capture attainable, which is sometimes
considerably less than the average recharge;
b) After all natural groundwater discharge has stopped due to abstraction, the
dynamic equilibrium between recharge and pumping at full MSY rate can be
maintained at different levels of groundwater storage so there is no typical value
of stationary groundwater stock in response to pumping at MSY rate;
c) Even under an sustainable-yield policy it is possible that economic or
environmental factors are limiting optimal yield to a level below „maximum
sustainable yield‟,
d) Sustainable exploitation regimes in principle may have abstraction rates that are
variable in time.

 Mining policy

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Although by tradition there is often preference for a sustainable-yield policy (because it
does not threaten continuity), such an approach may be excessively conservative under
certain circumstances. Frequently, it seems to be more profitable to adopt a mining policy
for some limited period, before in a later stage a sustainable-yield policy is followed. This
is because the exploitation of „mining resources‟ definitely produces a certain economic
profit and often also increases the „renewable resources‟ , either by decreasing the natural
outflow, or by increasing the recharge.

 Is there really need for control?

Trying to control groundwater abstraction is only worth to be considered if uncontrolled
competitive groundwater abstraction would diverge substantially from a planned, socially
„optimal‟ abstraction regime. What makes competitive abstraction rates in principle
diverge from socially optimal raters? At least the following factors are important:

Lack of knowledge; technology and /or money

These factors have caused for a long time „underdevelopment‟ of groundwater resources
in many aquifers of the world; people were not able to exploit them at rates that would be
indicated as optimal in planning studies.

The need for aquifer-wide groundwater storage management is especially large in areas
where the water resources are scarce and groundwater is highly profitable at the same
time. On the basis of several papers it can be concluded that the discrepancy between
competitive pumping and optimal control may be pronounced if any of the following
conditions are present: multi-pumper conditions, elastic demands for water, low social
rates of discount, high contrast between financial and social rates of discount, and limited
capacity of the groundwater reservoir.

1) Allocation problems

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Considering groundwater as a resource to be abstracted and used, two different types of
allocation problems will be discussed below: allocation among users and spatial
allocation.

 Allocation of abstracted groundwater among users

Under conditions of relative scarcity of water, groundwater demands of different users or
sectors may be competitive or even conflicting. Uncontrolled development then may
cause excessive interference or harmful aquifer depletion, both leading to economic
losses. The water resources management response to such circumstances is to allocate the
available resources among the users, either by licensing (granting water rights) or by
other measures such as taxation related to the type and intensity of water use.

Such an allocation needs a guiding principle; different approaches for such a guiding
principle are:
a) priority of the oldest rights („firs come, first served‟)
b) Priority differences between sectors (domestic supply, agriculture, industry);
c) Priority differences between zones (e.g. surface water priority for water are
available);
d) Economic optimization (e.g. by linear programming)

Which principle to choose depends very much on existing water resources management
policy and plans, or on water resources management objectives adopted, and of course
has to be consistent with prevailing water rights.

 Allocation in space
Given a certain demand to be satisfied from a specific aquifer, different spatial patterns of
wells may be chosen. Some of these patterns are more favorable than other ones; hence
the problem is to find an optimal distribution in space of abstraction well. Depending on
the details of the problem and on the management objectives chosen, the analysis will
focus either on optimization (if the of decision-process is complex) or on simulation (if

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the system‟s behaviors is complex). An elegant approach is to combine optimization and
simulation in a spatially discrete model.
It a number of distinct aquifers is present, basically a similar approach can be followed,
but complexity increases. In the case that local groundwater and surface water resources
are insufficient to satisfy crucial water demands under acceptable conditions, inter basin
transfer of water becomes unavoidable. This is often the case in rapidly expanding
metropolitan zones.

1. Conjunctive management of groundwater and surface water

Groundwater and surface water tend to be strongly interrelated, in the sense that
groundwater may feed surface water bodies, and vice versa. Variations of flow, storage or
quality of water in one of the subsystems may directly affect the state of the other one.
These variations may have a natural cause (e.g. Weather conditions), but they can also be
induced by water resources development or management activities. Artificial recharge,
base flow suppletion and surface water dams are typical examples of the latter category.
Furthermore, the availability of both surface water and groundwater in an area opens the
possibility of conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water.

 Artificial recharge
Artificial recharge consists of storing surface water in an aquifer. Usually the main
purpose is to utilize the storage facility offered by the aquifer, thus enabling certain
volumes of surface water to be kept for use at other times (and increasing the permissible
abstraction from the aquifer). Other objectives sometimes aimed at by artificial recharge
is the improvement of the quality of the infiltrated water (decay of pathogen bacteria,
mixing with other waters, filtering), the use of the aquifer as a means to convey water to
where it is needed, or the control of the interface between fresh and saline groundwater.

 Base flow Separation

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This is in fact the opposite of artificial recharge: groundwater is pumped from aquifers to
maintain a minimum base flow in streams during periods of drought. The activity is
usually related to the environment impacts of water

 Surface water storage dams

Although not always recognized, a surface water storage dam may have very important
consequences for the recharge of aquifers fed by the stream where the dam is constructed.
Water resources management officials should be aware of this interdependence, and
should care for an integrated analysis before any decision is taken on the physical works
or on the operation rules.
Storage dams and artificial recharge can be considered as alternatives: storage and use of
water via the recharge alternative is often more energy-consumptive, whereas surface
water reservoirs may be subject to higher losses of water due to evaporation.

 Conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water

Groundwater and surface water have different properties regarding flow variability,
storage, quality parameters, cost of exploitation and vulnerability for pollution.
Coordinated use of groundwater and surface water (conjunctive use) may take advantage
of the „stronger‟ properties of either source of water at proper time and location.
Especially under conditions of scarcity this approach may have distinct advantages over
the isolated exploitation of each of the resources.

Conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water is a component of almost all water
resources management plans for larger regions of high and conflicting demands for ware.

1. Salinity control
Many aquifers contain both fresh groundwater and saline or brackish groundwater. The
fresh zones usually are recharged by rain or by streams. The saline or brackish waters are
most frequently of marine origin and may be either connate waters („deposited‟
simultaneously with the aquifer rocks; sometimes migrated and/ or mixed with fresh
waters) or intruded saline waters.

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Although all kinds of configuration may occur, the situation that fresh water overlies
saline or brackish groundwater is very common; physically, this is a rather „stable‟
situation, in particular when the „interface‟ is approximately horizontal. Saline
groundwater on top of fresh groundwater, on the other hand, presents an unstable
situation, unless lithological conditions prevent downward migration of the heavier saline
water.

The purpose of groundwater salinity control is to prevent or minimize salination of the

fresh groundwater resources; in other words: to conserve the resource for future use. In
order to do so, it is important to analyze how the flow processes in the aquifer might
develop under different technical alternatives of groundwater development. Due to the
differences in density between fresh water and saline water, the interface between fresh
and saline groundwater is extremely sensitive for disturbances of the groundwater
regime. Salinization of a fresh part of an aquifer is partially irreversible (as a
consequence of dispersion processes), thus is difficult to cure. Hence, protective
measures are required, and such measures should be designed on the basis of simulation.

Usually, sophisticated models are available for the simulation of fresh-saline groundwater
problems.

 Salt water upcoming

It is a common phenomenon under wells that abstract fresh water, which overlies
brackish or saline groundwater. Declines of the fresh-water head under such wells
motivate an upward movement of the saline groundwater. It is a local phenomenon that
may reduce the useful life of wells. Hence, a time horizon of some tens of years is often
convenient for the analysis of local upcoming problems.

 Saline water intrusion

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Saline water intrusion may occur in coastal areas. Whereas upcoming often is little more
than a certain redistribution of fresh and saline groundwater within the aquifer, saline
intrusion always increases the volumes of saline water stored underground and may
finally lead to salinization of the entire aquifer.

 Soil salination
Soil salinity may be interrelated with aquifer management in different ways: evaporation
via capillary rise from shallow groundwater may cause soil salination, and soils-in turn
may contribute to aquifer salinity.

If the salts that are accumulating in soils are flushed down periodically by rain or by
irrigation water, then an influx of salt into the underlying aquifer will occur. The amounts
involved for irrigated lands in arid zones are of the order of 104kg per hectare.

2. Groundwater pollution control

 Well field protection

One of the most obvious options to protect a well field against pollution is to locate it at a
suitable site: in an aquifer zone of relatively low vulnerability regarding pollution (e.g.
covered by confining beds) and as far as possible or up gradient from sites that represent
a risk (e.g. a polluting industry).

Once in existence, well fields in many countries are protected against pollution by
establishing so-called groundwater protection zones. Inside these areas there is usually a
distinction between several zones: closer to the well field the control becomes more and
more strict. Table 4.3 shows characteristics of protection areas in a number of European
countries. The dimensions of the different more or less concentric protection zones are
based commonly on estimates of the time it would take for a contaminant to move from
the land surface or from the top of the aquifer to the wells.
Karstic aquifers pose a special problem: the size of protection zones based on the usual
travel time criteria would become easily too large to give it special protection.

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  Aquifer protection

Protection of the entire aquifer against pollution has become a major concern during
recent years, after more and cases of severe contamination have been discovered in many
different countries.

The trend in groundwater management is shifting from the „defensive‟ attitude (well field
protection) to wards control of the sources of contamination over the total exposed
surface of the aquifer. Intensive research is being carried out in many parts of the world
to develop a scientific base for this control. As far as the diffuse sources of pollution are
concerned, it becomes clear that control of land use and agricultural practices may
contribute highly to the conservation of groundwater quality. Strict regulations on the
disposal of industrial and hazardous domestic waste may greatly reduce point-source
pollution.

4. Conservation of chemical water types

Water quality management is not only concerned with salinity control and pollution
control. It may also focus on apparently „minor‟ changes in water quality, if these
changes have important practical implications.

Many of these changes in water quality are closely interlinked with water quantity
processes. Declines of shallow phreatic levels may enrich groundwater in nutrients
(because of mineralization processes) and in Sulphates (because of the oxidation of
poyrite). Intensive pumping from deep aquifers may cause a reduction of natural outflow
of deep groundwater, and „shallow‟ flow systems may replace largely the contribution of
the deeper flow systems to the seepage in groundwater exfiltration zone. Increases of
water levels in surface water bodies may cause or increase the mixing of shallow
groundwater with surface water which is often of a different chemical composition. And
irrigation will lead to subsurface accumulation of solutes which tend to change the
chemical characteristics of shallow groundwater.

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Important practical consequences of changing chemistry of groundwater have been
reported in relation to phreatophytic ecosystems. Such ecosystems occur preferently in
groundwater exfiltration zones and are extremely vulnerable. They do not only violently
react to relatively small declines of the groundwater level; they may also degenerate in
response to changes in shallow groundwater chemistry.

5. Groundwater level control

Control of shallow groundwater levels is traditionally the domain of drainage engineers.
Drainage activities are usually carried out independently of groundwater development
activities, but it is clear that both types of groundwater engineering may interfere
considerably. That is why groundwater management needs to ensure that such activities
are carried out in a co-ordinated way.

The level that should be considered as the optimum groundwater level varies according to
soil type, land use and climate conditions.

In agriculture, there is considerable empirical knowledge in the relation between yields of

groundwater-fed crops and the depth to groundwater.
Ecologists have similar information on the relation between depth to groundwater and the
survival or modification of ecosystems.

In the urban sector, in general, there are certain requirements on minimum depths
(sometimes also maximum depths) to groundwater to be maintained.

Thus, different sectors will come up with different requirements regarding the target
groundwater levels. This leads to spatial variation in drainage depth criteria, but
sometime also to incompatibilities.

The design of adequate drainage systems requires some kind of groundwater flow
analysis, which may range from the application of very simple to the use of numerical

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groundwater models. Common technical means of groundwater level control are ditches,
drains and well-point systems.

It is perceived that ecological issues such as wetland conservation are gaining importance
in the planned control of groundwater level.

3. Control of land subsidence

Significant land subsidence may occur as a consequence of groundwater abstraction or
groundwater level control. This may be expected in particular when important drops of
hydraulic head are produced in zones where water-saturated peat, clay or silty layers
occur at relatively shallow depths (within some tens of meters from land surface).

Limiting land subsidence is in such cases an important constraint to water resources

development. Under particularly unfavorable conditions this may become so critical that
prevention of any further land subsidence becomes the main groundwater management
objective; an example is the situation of Venice, where further subsidence would cause
the city to drown in the Adriatic Sea.

Predication by simulation is also in subsidence prone cases the key to good management
approaches.

Not only is it important to asses the total expected land subsidence, the rate of subsidence
is also a crucial factor

4.7 Artificial Recharge of Groundwater

4.7.1 Recharge in general
Groundwater is recharged either from surface water within the basin or groundwater
percolating from another basin. The recharge may be natural, incidental or artificial.

Natural Recharge
It is usually produced under one or more of the following conditions

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 i) Deep infiltration of precipitation
ii) Seepage from surface water (stream & lakes)
iii) Under flow from another basin (if hydraulically interrelated)

Incidental Recharge
Incidental or unplanned recharge occurs where water enters the ground as a result of a
human activity whose primary objective is unrelated to artificial recharge of groundwater.

In includes water from

Irrigation, cesspools, septic tanks, water mains, sewers, land fills, waste-disposal
facilities, canals, and reservoirs.

The quantity of incidental recharge normally for exceeds that deliberately accomplished
by artificial recharge projects.

Because several of these sources introduce polluted water into the underground
degradation of the quality of groundwater can occur.

Artificial Recharge
In order to increase the natural supply of groundwater, people artificially recharge
groundwater basins.

Artificial recharge may be defined as man‟s planned operations of transferring water

from the ground surface into aquifers, or

Artificial recharge may be defined as augmenting the natural movement of surface water
into underground formation by some method of construction, by spreading of water, or
by artificially changing natural conditions.

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 4.7.2 Objectives of Artificial Recharge
AR may be practiced in order to achieve various objectives. Among them, we may list
the following.

1) Control of regional hydrological regime.

By artificially recharging an aquifer, water level, or piezometric heads, is
raised. By manipulating these levels (obviously, taking also the effect of
pumping into account), we can control the rate and direction of flow in an
aquifer, control the movement of water bodies of inferior quality, (eg. Sea
water intrusion, control spring discharge, and control seepage to or out of
adjacent water bodies (rivers and lakes, etc.).
2) Storage of water
Water can be stored in an aquifer, to be pumped at a later time. Phreatic
aquifer may serve as very large storage reservoirs. Water is stored in the
void later time by pumping
Long term storage In years with excess surface runoff, water may be
diverted from streams& lakes to be stored in aquifers for use in dryer
years.
Short term storage may be used to make a more efficient use of the water
supply lines. Water may be delivered to a demand area at a constant rate
throughout the year, to be stored in the aquifer when supply exceeds
demand and pumped by local wells to supplement demand in excess of
direct supply.
3) Control of water quality
As water is introduced into an aquifer and the indigenous water of the
aquifer moves, they mix as a result of hydrodynamic dispersion.
Mixing is also achieved by wells which pump simultaneously from the
two kinds of water
We can control the quality (in terms of dissolved matter) of pumped water
by manipulating pumping and artificial recharge, thus controlling the
movement of the water bodies introduced into the aquifer and the mixing

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 that takes place in the aquifer and in the pumping wells.
The water used for artificial recharge ma be either water of a quality
higher than that of the indigenous water of the aquifer, or of an inferior
quality.
Due to the very slow movement of water in the aquifer, a period of year,
sometimes many years, may elapse between the time water is introduced
into an aquifer and the time it is pumped. During that time phenomena
such as chemical reactions among constituents present in the water,
interaction with the solid skeleton (adsorption and ion exchange), and
decay (eg. Radioactive), and filtering may take place. Thus the aquifer acts
to improve the quality of the injected water.
Suspended line material in surface water used for AR can be removed by
the filtering that takes place as the water percolates through the bottom of
a spreading basin and the soil underlying it on its downward way to the
aquifer.
Of special interest is the improvement of water quality (e.g. Removal and
destruction of micro organisms) as the recharge water percolates through
the unsaturated zone.

In addition to these major objectives, we may also mention the following additional ones.

1. Supplementing the difference between the demand for

groundwater and natural replenishment of an aquifer.
2. Disposal of liquid waste into deep formation where it will stay,
or move very slowly (some times for thousands of years) to
wards outlets.
3. Using the aquifer as a conduit or a water distribution system. By
recharging and pumping, water levels are raised and lowered,
respectively. It is therefore, possible to create a flow pattern
within the aquifer from the area of recharge to that of withdrawal
by pumping, with the aquifer serving as a conduit. Wells

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 distributed over an area may withdraw water for local use, thus
avoiding the need for a distribution system.
4. Maintenance of high water levels (or heads) to prevent land
subsidence or other undesirable phenomena which result from
lowered water levels (eg. Damage to foundations).
5. Conservation of water. For example, water used only for cooling
can be re-circulated by injecting the warm water back into the
aquifer from which it is pumped.

In most cases, artificial recharge is implemented to achieve a number of goals and in

conjunction with the utilization of surface water.

4.7.3 Artificial Recharge Methods

Artificial recharge can be implemented by several methods, the choice of method for
each particular case depends on the source of water, the quality of the water, the type of
aquifer, the topographical and geological conditions, type of soil, economic conditions,
etc.

The most widely practiced methods can be described as types of water spreading
releasing water over the ground surface in order to increase the quality of water
infiltration into the ground and then percolating to the water table.

Although field studies of spreading have shown that many factors govern the rate at
which water will enter the soil, from a quantitative stand point, area of recharge and
length of time water is in contact with soil are most important. Spreading efficiency is
measured in terms of the recharge rate, expressed as the velocity of downward water
movement over the wetted area.

Spreading methods may be classified as basin, stream channel, ditch and furrow,
flooding, irrigation, and methods enhancing infiltration.

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 a) Methods for enhancing infiltration
In these methods, the objective is to increase infiltration by various agro techniques
which affect ground surface roughness, slope, vegetation cover, etc.
The purpose is to extend the time and area over which infiltration from surface runoff
takes place.

Both the slopes of the water shed and the drainage channel net work can be treated to
achieve this purpose. For example, small check dams in natural channels will cause the
water to spread over a large area.

b) Basin Method
Here water is diverted to specially constructed ponds or basins, and allowed to infiltrate
through their pervious bottom.

(Sometimes ditches, dug along around surface contours, are used instead of basins.) Two
objectives are achieved by this method. Storage (say, if water in the river is available in
winter and is needed for irrigation in summer) and purification. The latter is related to the
filtering of fine materials, mainly in the settling basin, but also through the soil layer just
beneath the infiltration basins.

c) Stream Channel Method

Water spreading in a natural stream channel involves operations that will increase the
time and area over which water is recharged from a naturally losing channel.

This involves both u/s management of stream flow and channel modifications to enhance
infiltration u/s reservoirs enable erratic runoff to be regulated ideally to limit stream
flows to rates that do not exceed the absorptive capacity of d/s channels.

Improvement of stream channels may include widening, leveling, scarifying, or ditching

to increase infiltration.

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 d) Ditch and Furrow Method
In this method water is distributed to a series of ditches, or furrows, that are shallow, flat
bottomed, and closely spaced to obtain maximum water contact area.

e) Flooding Method
In relatively flat topography, water may be diverted to spread evenly over a large area. In
practice, canals and earth distributing gullies are usually needed to release the water at
intervals over the upper end of the flooding area. It is desirable to from a thin sheet of
water over the land, which moves at a minimum velocity to avoid disturbing the soil.

f) Irrigation Method
In irrigated areas water is sometimes deliberately spread by irrigating cropland with
excess water during dormant, winter, or non irrigating seasons. The method requires no
additional cost for land preparation because the distribution system is already installed.

g) Pit Method
A pit excavated into a permeable formation serves as ideal facilities for groundwater
recharge. In areas where shallow subsurface strata, such as hard pans and clay layers,
restrict the downward passage of water, pits can effectively reach materials with higher
infiltration rates.

h) Recharge well Method

Recharge well may be defined as a well that admits water from the surface to freshwater
aquifers.
Its flow is the reverse of a pumping well, but its construction may or may not be the
same. Well recharging is practical where deep, confined aquifers must be recharged, or
where economy of space, such as in urban areas, is an important consideration, where
extended impervious layers are present between the g/surface and an underlying phreatic
aquifer, and where existing pumping wells can be used for recharge, thus eliminating the
need for costly artificial recharge installation.

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 i) Induced Recharge
Direct methods of AR described above involve the conveyance of surface water to some
point where it enters the ground

Induced recharge is accomplished by withdrawing groundwater at a location adjacent to a

river or lake so that lowering of the groundwater level will induce water to eater the
ground form the surface source.

By induced recharge we can achieve two goals: recharge the aquifer by river water, to be
pumped for beneficial use, without constructing any recharge installations the aquifer it
self is used as a conduit, and filtration and purification of the river water as it travels
through the aquifer towards the abstraction installation.

Questions:
1. What are the different methods that are used for drilling shallow wells? And deep
wells?
2. What is well development and what are the methods that are used for well
development?
3. What do we mean by screened and gravel packed wells?
4. What is the advantage of groundwater management and how could it be
managed?
5. What is artificial recharge and what are the different types of artificial recharge
methods?

----End----

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