Soil Genesis, Composition, and Development

Reymart Jade B. Gavileño

INTRODUCTION
Soil is a complex and dynamic natural resource that plays a crucial role in supporting
plant growth and providing essential ecosystem services. Pertinent to this, understanding
the origin, characteristics, and fertility of soils depends heavily on knowledge of soil
genesis, composition, and development. Soil genesis, composition, and development
refer to the formation, properties, and changes that occur in soil over time. To learn more,
let's explore each of these aspects in more detail:
1. Soil Genesis (Formation): Soil genesis, also known as pedogenesis, refers to the
process of soil formation or the development of soil from parent material over time.
The process typically involves weathering of rocks, deposition of organic matter,
and the interaction of these materials with water, air, and organisms. The formation
of soil involves several interrelated factors, including:
- Parent Material: The mineral and organic material from which soil is derived.
- Climate: Temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns influence soil formation
rates and the types of soil that develop.
- Organisms: Bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals contribute to the decomposition of
organic matter, nutrient cycling, and soil structure development.
- Topography: The slope, aspect, and elevation of an area affect soil formation by
influencing water drainage, erosion rates, and deposition.
- Time: Soil formation is a gradual process that can take centuries or even millennia.
2. Soil Composition: Soil composition refers to the chemical and physical constituents
present in the soil. The composition of soil can vary widely depending on factors
such as parent material, climate, vegetation, and time. The major components of
soil composition include minerals, organic matter, water, air, and various
microorganisms.
• Minerals: Soil minerals are derived from the weathering and decomposition
of rocks and minerals in the parent material. They include various types of
clay, silt, and sand particles, which determine soil texture. Additionally,
minerals provide essential nutrients for plants and contribute to soil fertility.
• Organic Matter: Organic matter consists of plant and animal residues in
various stages of decomposition. It plays a crucial role in soil fertility by
 improving soil structure, water holding capacity, nutrient availability, and
microbial activity. Organic matter is a source of essential nutrients for plants
and acts as a reservoir for carbon in the soil.
• Water: Water is an essential component of soil and affects various soil
properties such as texture, structure, and nutrient availability. It fills the soil
pores, providing a medium for the movement of nutrients, microorganisms,
and plant roots.
• Air: Soil air occupies the spaces between soil particles and is crucial for the
survival of soil organisms and the respiration of plant roots. Adequate air
circulation in the soil is important for nutrient uptake and root growth.
• Microorganisms: Soil is teeming with microorganisms such as bacteria,
fungi, algae, protozoa, and viruses. These organisms play a vital role in
nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, disease suppression, and
soil structure formation.
3. Soil Development: Soil development refers to the changes that occur in soil
properties over time due to weathering, biological activity, and other processes.
These changes can include:
- Horizon Formation: Soil profiles are typically composed of distinct layers called
horizons. Each horizon has unique characteristics, including color, texture,
organic matter content, and mineral composition.
- Nutrient Cycling & Soil pH: Soil serves as a reservoir and cycling hub for essential
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Nutrient availability and
cycling are influenced by organic matter decomposition, microbial activity, and
plant uptake. Soil pH is a measure of soil acidity or alkalinity. It can change over
time due to factors such as rainfall, vegetation, and human activities.
- Soil Erosion and Degradation: Human activities, such as deforestation,
inappropriate land use, and poor agricultural practices, can accelerate soil erosion
and degradation. This can lead to the loss of topsoil, decreased fertility, and
reduced water-holding capacity.
Understanding soil genesis, composition, and development is essential for
sustainable land management, agriculture, and environmental planning. By studying these
aspects, scientists and land managers can assess soil fertility, determine suitable land
uses, identify soil conservation strategies, and make informed decisions regarding soil
management practices.
PRE-TEST
1. The two soil forming factors that normally show the greatest variation from one
geographic region to another are:
a. topography and parent material c. climate and vegetation
b. topography d. time and relief
2. A square meter of land dug to a depth that nearly touches the bedrock.
a. Horizon b. Pit c. Epipedon d. Pedon
3. A lowland paddy soil possesses.
a. ABC horizons b. oxidized and reduced layers c. AB horizons d. OABC
4. One side of a pedon.
a. Epipedon b. Horizon c. Profile d. All of the above
5. Basic properties described in a soil profile.
a. Texture, bulk density, consistency c. Color, texture, stoniness, structure
b. CEC, OM (%) content. %BS, BD d. Plasticity, structure
6. A soil horizon is defined as:
a. the depth of finely divided soil mineral matter over bed rock
b. a soil layer that differs in recognizable properties from other layer immediately
above or below
c. the slope of the soil surface relative to the horizontal
d. any of the above
7. The most detailed category of soil taxonomy.
a. Soil family b. Soil series c. Great group d. Suborder
8. The mineral supplying P is:
a. feldspar b. apatite c. talc d. pyrite
9. Tourmaline supplies the element.
a. Mn b. B c. Ca d. N
10. An organic material with most of the material decomposed sufficiently so that little
fiber remains. a. peat b. muck c. biotic d. bionic
11. It is made up of poorly sorted rock fragments detached from the heights above and
carried downslope mostly by gravity.
a. Colluvium b. Alluvium c. Residuum d. Lacustrine
12. The alluvial deposits that is part of a river valley that is inundated during floods is
called. a. floodplain b. alluvial c. deltas d. lacustrine
13. It is a metamorphic rock produced from granite
 a. Marble b. Gneiss c. Slate d. Gold
14. It is a metamorphic rock produced from shale.
a. Marble b. Gneiss c. Slate d. Gold
15. It means the true soil or the A, E & B horizons of the soil profile
a. Soil b. Solum c. Regolith d. Soil Profile
16. In certain situations one of the factors of soil formation has had the dominant influence
in determining differences among a set of soils. A set of soils where parent material is
the dominant influence on soil formation is referred to as
a. lithosequence b. climosequence c. biosequence d. topsequence
17. The subsoil usually refers to this horizon.
a. AB b. A c. B d. C
18. The order of soils with a mollic epipedon and a base saturation of > 50%
a. Gelisols b. Histosols c. Andisols d. Mollisols
19. The order of soils with organic soil materials extending down to an impermeable layer
or with an organic layer that is more than 40 cm thick
a. Gelisols b. Histosols c. Andisols d. Mollisols
20. The regolith is composed of these horizons:
a. AB b. BC c. ABC d. ABCR
21. It is an international soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for
soil maps.
a. World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) of IUSS
b. National Soil Survey Handbook of NRCS-USDA
c. Philippine National Soil Survey Handbook
d. none of the choices
 SOIL is a natural and dynamic body formed from the weathering of rocks and
minerals, composed of mineral matter, organic matter, air, and water, and possess distinct
properties which in turn influence the growth of plants.
Genesis (origin) of soils refers to the formation of the soil from rocks and minerals
and continue to evolve over time under the influence of soil-forming factors, in both natural
and anthropogenically altered ecosystems on Earth.

UNIT I: COMPOSITION
Rocks: aggregate of one or more minerals; most commonly, two or more.

The rock cycle is a continuous process that describes the transformation of rocks from
one type to another over geological time scales. It involves the interplay of various
geological processes, including weathering, erosion, deposition, heat, pressure, and
solidification. The rock cycle consists of three main stages:
 1. Formation of Rocks:
The cycle begins with the formation of rocks through various processes. Igneous rocks
are formed when molten magma or lava cools and solidifies. Sedimentary rocks are
created through the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of sediment particles or
the precipitation of minerals from water. Metamorphic rocks are formed when preexisting
rocks undergo changes in response to high temperature, pressure, or chemical activity
without fully melting.

2. Transformation of Rocks:
Once rocks are formed, they can be subjected to different geological forces and processes
that lead to their transformation into other rock types. These processes include:
a. Weathering: The breakdown and fragmentation of rocks at or near the Earth's surface
due to exposure to weather elements, such as rain, wind, temperature changes, and
biological activity. Weathering can be physical (mechanical) or chemical in nature.
b. Erosion and Transportation: The removal and transportation of weathered rock
materials by agents like water, wind, ice, or gravity. Erosion carries the fragmented
particles away from their original location.
c. Deposition: The settling or accumulation of eroded materials, such as sediments, in a
new location, such as riverbeds, lakes, or ocean basins.
d. Lithification: The processes of compaction and cementation that transform loose
sediments into solid sedimentary rocks.
e. Heat and Pressure: The application of heat and pressure on rocks during tectonic
activities, such as mountain-building or subduction, can lead to the formation of
metamorphic rocks. This process causes changes in the mineral composition and texture
of rocks.

3. Recycle and Reformation:

Rocks that have undergone transformation can re-enter the rock cycle by further changes.
For example:
a. Melting and Solidification: Igneous rocks can be formed through the melting of existing
rocks and subsequent solidification of the magma. This can occur through processes like
volcanic activity or in the Earth's mantle.
b. Metamorphism: Existing rocks, regardless of their type, can be subjected to additional
heat and pressure, leading to their transformation into new metamorphic rocks with
different mineral assemblages and textures.
c. Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition: Rocks on the Earth's surface can undergo further
weathering, erosion, and deposition, leading to the formation of new sedimentary rocks.

The rock cycle is a dynamic process, and rocks can go through multiple transformations
over millions of years. It highlights the interconnectedness of different rock types and the
continuous recycling and reformation of Earth's materials.

Classification of rock
Rocks can be classified into three main types based on their formation process and
composition: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Each of these
rock types has distinct characteristics and formation processes.

1. Igneous Rocks: originate from magma, a hot, fluid mass or rock melt
Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification and crystallization of molten rock material,
known as magma or lava. They can be further classified into two subcategories:
a. Intrusive Igneous Rocks: These rocks form when magma cools and solidifies beneath
the Earth's surface. The slow cooling process allows for larger mineral crystals to form.
Examples of intrusive igneous rocks include granite and diorite.
b. Extrusive Igneous Rocks: These rocks form when lava erupts onto the Earth's surface
and cools quickly. The rapid cooling doesn't allow much time for crystal growth, resulting
in fine-grained textures. Examples of extrusive igneous rocks include basalt and obsidian.
2. Sedimentary Rocks: consolidated fragments of igneous and/or metamorphic rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed through the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of
sediment particles derived from preexisting rocks, organic materials, or chemical
precipitation. They are often layered or stratified. Sedimentary rocks can be further
classified into three subcategories:
a. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are formed from the deposition and
lithification (compaction and cementation) of fragmented pieces of preexisting rocks.
Examples of clastic sedimentary rocks include sandstone, shale, and conglomerate.
b. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks form when dissolved minerals precipitate
from water through processes like evaporation or chemical reactions. Examples of
chemical sedimentary rocks include limestone, gypsum, and rock salt.
c. Organic Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are formed from the accumulation and
compaction of organic material, such as plant remains or shells. Examples of organic
sedimentary rocks include coal and some types of limestone.

3. Metamorphic Rocks: chemically and/or physically transformed (metamorphism)

igneous or sedimentary rock by means of heat and/or pressure.
Metamorphic rocks are formed through the alteration of preexisting rocks due to high
temperature, pressure, or the influence of chemically active fluids. This process occurs
without the rock fully melting. Metamorphic rocks can be further classified into two
subcategories:
a. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: These rocks possess a layered or banded appearance
due to the alignment of mineral grains under high pressure. Examples of foliated
metamorphic rocks include slate, schist, and gneiss.
b. Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks: These rocks do not exhibit a layered or banded
structure. Their mineral grains are typically equidimensional and randomly oriented.
Examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble and quartzite.
Examples of metamorphic rocks:

Pre-existing rock Metamorphic

Rock Equivalent
Granite Gneiss
Basalt Schists
Sandstone Quartzite
Limestone Marble
Shale Slate
Conglomerate Meta-conglomerate
It's worth noting that within each category, there are numerous rock types with varying
compositions, textures, and characteristics. The classification of rocks is a complex field
of study, and geologists use various techniques and criteria to differentiate between
different rock types.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances with a defined chemical
composition and a characteristic crystal structure. They are the building blocks of rocks
and are the result of geological processes that occur over long periods of time. Here are
some key characteristics and properties of minerals:

1. Natural Occurrence: Minerals are found naturally in the Earth's crust and are not
synthetic or man-made materials. They are formed through various geological processes,
such as crystallization from magma or lava, precipitation from aqueous solutions, or
deposition from biological processes.
2. Inorganic Composition: Minerals are composed of inorganic elements or compounds.
They do not contain organic matter derived from living organisms.
3. Chemical Composition: Each mineral has a specific chemical composition, meaning it
consists of a particular combination of elements. Minerals are classified based on their
chemical composition and are grouped into mineral classes and families. For example,
quartz is composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2), while calcite is primarily composed of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3).
4. Crystal Structure: Minerals have an ordered arrangement of atoms in a regular,
repeating pattern called a crystal lattice. This arrangement gives minerals their
characteristic geometric shapes and internal symmetry. The crystal structure of a mineral
determines its physical properties, such as cleavage, hardness, and transparency.
5. Physical Properties: Minerals exhibit various physical properties that can be used for
identification. Some important physical properties of minerals include:
- Cleavage and Fracture: Cleavage refers to the tendency of a mineral to break along
specific planes of weakness, producing flat, smooth surfaces. Fracture describes the way
a mineral break when it does not exhibit cleavage.
- Hardness: Hardness measures a mineral's resistance to scratching. The Mohs scale
is commonly used to rank minerals on a scale from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest), with
diamond being the hardest mineral.
- Luster: Luster refers to the appearance of a mineral's surface in reflected light. Minerals
can exhibit metallic (shiny like metal) or non-metallic (such as vitreous, pearly, silky, or
dull) luster.
- Color and Streak: The color of a mineral when observed in bulk can vary, but the streak
is the color of its powdered form. It is determined by rubbing the mineral against a
porcelain plate.
 - Density: Density is the mass per unit volume of a mineral and provides information
about its internal composition.
- Optical Properties: Some minerals exhibit unique optical properties, such as double
refraction (birefringence) or the ability to display different colors when viewed from different
angles (pleochroism).

It's important to note that while minerals have characteristic properties, they can show
variation due to impurities or different environmental conditions during their formation.
Mineralogy is the scientific study of minerals, their properties, and their occurrences, and
it plays a crucial role in fields such as geology, materials science, and mineral exploration..

Two groups of minerals -

1. Primary minerals: formed at temperatures and/or pressure higher than that
normally encountered at the earth’s surface (one atmosphere and <100C). e.g.
quartz, feldspar,mica, amphibole, apatite, olivine
2. Secondary minerals: form under conditions of temperature and pressure found
at the earth’s surface by the weathering of preexisting minerals. e.g. clay
minerals,limonite, gibbsite,calcite,dolomite, gypsum,rock phosphate

Various minerals and rocks contribute to soil formation and influence the properties of the
resulting soil. Here are some common soil-forming minerals and rocks:

Quartz: Quartz is a mineral commonly found in many types of rocks, including granite,
sandstone, and quartzite. It is highly resistant to weathering and forms durable, sandy soil
particles.
Feldspar: Feldspar is a group of minerals that make up a significant portion of the Earth's
crust. It is commonly found in igneous rocks such as granite. Weathering of feldspar
minerals contributes to the release of essential plant nutrients, such as potassium, into the
soil.
Clay Minerals: Clay minerals, including kaolinite, illite, and smectite, are formed through
the weathering of various rocks, particularly those rich in feldspar and mica. Clay minerals
have small particle sizes and high surface areas, which give soils their cohesive and
plastic properties. They also contribute to the retention and exchange of nutrients and
water in the soil.
Calcium Carbonate: Calcium carbonate is a mineral commonly found in limestone and
other carbonate-rich rocks. When these rocks weather, calcium carbonate can be leached
and reprecipitated in the soil, leading to the formation of calcareous soils. Calcareous soils
are typically alkaline and have high calcium content.
Iron Oxides: Iron oxides, such as hematite and goethite, are common minerals formed
through the weathering of iron-bearing rocks like basalt or shale. These minerals
contribute to the reddish or yellowish color often observed in well-drained soils. Iron oxides
also play a role in soil fertility and nutrient retention.
Shale: Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of clay minerals, quartz, and
other minerals. Weathering of shale can result in the formation of clay-rich soils. Shale-
derived soils often have good water-holding capacity but may be prone to compaction.
Sandstone: Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized grains of
mineral, rock, or organic material. Weathering of sandstone contributes to the formation
of sandy soils, which have larger particle sizes and lower water-holding capacity compared
to clay soils.
Granite: Granite is an intrusive igneous rock composed of minerals such as quartz,
feldspar, and mica. Weathering of granite can give rise to granitic soils, which are typically
coarse-textured and well-drained.

UNIT II. SOIL GENESIS (FORMATION)

MAJOR PROCESS OF SOIL FORMATION

Soil formation begins with the physical and chemical breakdown of the earth's rocks,
caused by atmospheric agents, or referred to as weathering. Weathering is the process
by which rocks and minerals are broken down and altered due to exposure to physical
and chemical forces. Weathering can be classified into two main types: physical
weathering (mechanical weathering) and chemical weathering. Here's an overview of
these processes:
Physical Weathering (Mechanical Weathering): Physical weathering involves the
physical breakdown of rocks and minerals without changing their chemical composition. It
occurs through various mechanical processes that break larger rocks into smaller
fragments. Some common forms of physical weathering include:
1. Frost Action (Freeze-Thaw Weathering): Water seeps into cracks and joints in rocks.
When the temperature drops below freezing, the water expands as it freezes, exerting
 pressure on the surrounding rock and causing it to fracture. Repeat freezing and
thawing cycles can gradually break apart the rock.
2. Thermal Expansion and Contraction: Daily and seasonal temperature variations cause
rocks to expand when heated and contract when cooled. The repeated expansion and
contraction can create stress within the rocks, leading to the formation of cracks and
fractures.
3. Exfoliation: Exfoliation occurs when layers of rock are stripped away due to the release
of pressure as overlying rocks are eroded. This process often takes place in large,
rounded rock formations, such as granite domes.
4. Abrasion: Abrasion involves the mechanical wearing down of rocks by friction caused
by the movement of wind, water, ice, or other particles. For example, sand-carrying
winds can polish and smooth exposed rock surfaces over time.

Chemical Weathering: Chemical weathering involves the chemical alteration and

decomposition of rocks and minerals. It occurs when minerals react with water, gases, or
other substances, leading to changes in their chemical composition. Some common forms
of chemical weathering include:
1. Hydrolysis: Hydrolysis is the reaction of minerals with water molecules, resulting
in the breakdown of minerals into new compounds. For example, feldspar minerals
in granite can undergo hydrolysis, converting them into clay minerals and releasing
dissolved ions into the soil solution.

2. Hydration: Hydration is an association of water molecules or of hydroxyl groups

with minerals, often without actual decomposition or modification of the mineral
itself.

3. Oxidation: Oxidation occurs when minerals react with oxygen in the presence of
water, leading to the formation of new compounds. An example of oxidation is the
weathering of iron-rich minerals, such as the conversion of iron-bearing minerals
in basalt to iron oxides (rust).
 4. Dissolution: Dissolution involves the dissolving of minerals in water. Soluble
minerals, such as halite (rock salt) and gypsum, can easily dissolve when in
contact with water, leading to their removal from the rock matrix.

5. Carbonation: Carbonation is the reaction of minerals with carbon dioxide (CO2)

dissolved in water, forming carbonic acid. Carbonic acid can dissolve calcium
carbonate minerals, such as those found in limestone, leading to the formation of
solution cavities and karst landscapes.

Both physical and chemical weathering processes can occur simultaneously and often
work in tandem to break down rocks and minerals. The extent and rate of weathering
depend on factors such as climate, rock composition, and the presence of water, as well
as the surface area exposed to weathering agents. Over time, weathering processes
contribute to the breakdown of rocks, the release of minerals, and the formation of soil.

FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT (Hans Jenny)

Soil profile development refers to the process by which soils form and evolve over time.
One of the prominent scientists who contributed significantly to the understanding of soil
profile development is Hans Jenny. He formulated the widely accepted model known as
the "Jenny's soil formation factors." Hans Jenny's soil formation factors, also known as the
"CLORPT" factors, represent five key elements that influence soil development:

1. Climate: Climate plays a significant role in soil formation. Temperature and

precipitation patterns affect the rate of weathering, erosion, and organic matter
decomposition. Moisture influences the leaching of minerals and the transportation of
weathered materials. Freeze-thaw cycles can physically break down rocks, contributing to
soil formation. The intensity and frequency of rainfall can also impact soil erosion. Climate
is a critical factor in soil formation as it directly influences the rate and type of weathering,
organic matter decomposition, and the movement of water through the soil. The two key
elements of climate that significantly impact soil formation are temperature and
precipitation. Here's how climate influences soil formation:
 i. Temperature: Temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions and biological
activity in the soil. High temperatures can accelerate chemical weathering
processes, leading to the faster breakdown of minerals in rocks. Warmer climates
also promote faster decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms. In colder
regions, temperature fluctuations, including freeze-thaw cycles, can contribute to
physical weathering by causing rocks to expand and contract, leading to their
mechanical breakdown. Note: For every 10 0C rise in temperature, the rate of
biological reactions more than doubles; if warm temp and abundant water are
present at the same time, the processes of weathering, leaching and plant growth
will be maximized.
ii. Precipitation: Precipitation, in the form of rain or snow, influences soil formation in
several ways. It affects the amount of water available for weathering, the leaching
and translocation of minerals within the soil profile, and the availability of moisture
for plant growth. High rainfall can intensify chemical weathering by providing water
to react with minerals and transport dissolved substances through the soil.
Excessive rainfall, however, can lead to leaching, where nutrients are washed
away from the soil profile, potentially resulting in nutrient-poor soils. In arid regions,
limited precipitation can slow down weathering and leaching processes, resulting
in soils with higher mineral content and potential salt accumulation.
iii. Seasonal Variations: The seasonal distribution of temperature and precipitation
also impacts soil formation. Alternating wet and dry periods can lead to the
expansion and contraction of rocks, promoting physical weathering. Seasonal
variations in temperature and moisture can affect the activity of soil organisms and
the rate of organic matter decomposition. These variations can result in the
development of distinct soil horizons or soil properties, such as the accumulation
of organic matter in surface horizons during wet periods or the formation of
hardpans during dry periods.
iv. Evapotranspiration: Evapotranspiration, the combined loss of water through
evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration by plants, is influenced by
climate. The rate of evapotranspiration affects soil moisture content and influences
the movement of water within the soil. High evapotranspiration rates in arid regions
can lead to the concentration of salts near the soil surface, resulting in the
formation of saline soils.
 v. It's important to note that climate interacts with other soil-forming factors, such as
parent material, topography, and vegetation, to shape soil development. Different
combinations of temperature and precipitation regimes, along with other
environmental factors, give rise to diverse soil types and properties worldwide.

2. Organisms: Living organisms play a crucial role in soil formation and contribute to
the development of healthy and productive soils. They contribute organic matter through
the decomposition of plant and animal remains, enhancing soil fertility. They interact with
the physical and chemical aspects of soil, influencing various soil-forming processes. The
activities of organisms, such as burrowing by earthworms, help mix and aerate the soil,
influencing its structure and nutrient cycling. Here are some key living organisms involved
in soil formation:
i. Plants: Plants are primary contributors to soil formation. They influence soil
development through several mechanisms:
• Root Penetration: Plant roots physically break up rocks and minerals,
creating pore spaces and increasing the surface area for weathering
processes. As roots grow and expand, they can cause mechanical
disintegration of rocks and contribute to soil aggregation.
• Organic Matter Input: Plants contribute to the accumulation of organic
matter in the soil through the deposition of leaves, stems, roots, and other
plant residues. This organic matter, once decomposed by microorganisms,
forms humus, which improves soil structure, nutrient retention, water-
holding capacity, and overall fertility.
• Nutrient Cycling: Plants absorb nutrients from the soil, utilize them for
growth, and then return them to the soil through leaf litter, root exudates,
and decomposition. This cycling of nutrients by plants helps replenish and
redistribute essential elements within the soil profile.
ii. Microorganisms: Soil microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and
algae, are essential for soil formation. They perform various functions that
contribute to soil development:
• Organic Matter Decomposition: Microorganisms break down organic
matter, such as dead plants and animals, into simpler compounds through
the process of decomposition. This decomposition releases nutrients and
transforms organic material into stable forms like humus.
 • Nutrient Transformation: Microorganisms participate in nutrient cycling by
converting complex organic compounds into plant-available forms. They
can mineralize organic nitrogen, convert organic phosphorus into plant-
accessible forms, and carry out other transformations of essential
elements.
• Soil Aggregation: Certain types of microorganisms, such as fungi, produce
hyphae that bind soil particles together, forming aggregates. These
aggregates enhance soil structure, porosity, and water infiltration capacity.
iii. Animals: Soil fauna, including earthworms, insects, mites, nematodes, and larger
organisms like moles and rodents, contribute to soil formation through their
activities:
• Soil Mixing and Aeration: Burrowing animals create tunnels and burrows in
the soil, promoting the mixing of soil horizons, enhancing water infiltration,
and facilitating the movement of air within the soil. These activities improve
soil structure and nutrient distribution.
• Organic Matter Incorporation: Soil-dwelling animals, such as earthworms,
consume organic matter and mix it with soil as they move through their
burrows. This process, known as bioturbation, helps incorporate organic
material into the soil, enhancing nutrient availability and soil aggregation.
• Nutrient Cycling: Animals contribute to nutrient cycling through their feeding
habits. For example, earthworms consume organic matter, digest it, and
excrete nutrient-rich castings, which enrich the soil with essential elements.
iv. Soil Bacteria and Fungi: Soil bacteria and fungi have a profound impact on soil
fertility and structure. They participate in various processes:
• Nutrient Cycling: Some soil bacteria and fungi have symbiotic relationships
with plants, forming mycorrhizal associations. These associations enhance
nutrient uptake by plants, particularly phosphorus and some
micronutrients.
• Soil Structure Formation: Certain fungi, known as mycorrhizal fungi, form
networks of hyphae that improve soil aggregation and nutrient transport.
They also aid in the development of soil structure by binding particles
together.
 • Disease Suppression: Some bacteria and fungi in the soil act as natural
antagonists to plant pathogens, helping suppress soil-borne diseases and
promoting plant health.
These living organisms interact with each other and with the physical and chemical
components.

3. Topography/Relief: The shape, slope, and aspect of the land, known as

topography, affect soil formation. Steep slopes may lead to increased erosion, while flat
areas may accumulate sediments. The direction and angle of the slope influence water
drainage patterns and the accumulation or loss of nutrients. Differences in elevation can
create variations in soil depth and moisture levels. Here are some ways in which
topography affects soil formation:
(1) Summit and (2) shoulder
-develop horizons the fastest;
Backslope -soil develop slower because:
rainfall will run off this slope position faster,
there will be more
soil erosion,
and there will be
less leaching
Footslope -soils
will collect
sediment from
upslope that can
bury the horizons
and slow down
their development

i. Erosion and Deposition: Topography influences the movement of water across the
land surface. Steep slopes can enhance the flow of water, increasing erosion and
the removal of soil materials. The erosive forces of water can transport soil
particles downslope, resulting in soil loss and the exposure of underlying parent
material. Conversely, in lower-lying areas or depressions, sediments and soil
materials may accumulate through the process of deposition. The distribution of
eroded and deposited materials across a landscape contributes to the formation
of different soil types and horizons.
ii. Drainage and Water Movement: Topography affects the drainage patterns of a
landscape, determining how water moves through the soil. On slopes, water tends
to move more quickly, potentially causing soil erosion and leaching of nutrients. In
contrast, flat or poorly drained areas may experience waterlogging, leading to the
development of wetland or poorly drained soils. The direction and rate of water
movement influence the leaching and translocation of minerals within the soil
profile, affecting the nutrient content and soil properties.
 iii. Soil Depth and Horizon Development: Topography influences the depth of the soil
profile. Steep slopes or rocky areas may have shallow soils due to the limited
accumulation of weathered material. On gentle slopes or in valley bottoms, deeper
soils can develop as sediments and organic matter accumulate over time. The
variations in soil depth across a landscape contribute to the formation of different
soil horizons and their distinct characteristics.
iv. Microclimate: Topography affects local microclimatic conditions, including
temperature and moisture patterns. Slope orientation influences solar radiation
exposure, leading to variations in temperature and soil moisture content. South-
facing slopes typically receive more sunlight and warmth, resulting in faster soil
drying and higher evaporation rates. North-facing slopes may be cooler and
moister, resulting in slower soil drying and increased soil moisture availability.
These microclimate variations influence the rate of weathering, organic matter
decomposition, and overall soil development.
v. Soil Stability: The stability of soils is influenced by topography. Steep slopes are
prone to erosion, which can lead to the removal of topsoil and the exposure of less-
developed or underlying parent material. Soil erosion can result in the loss of
nutrients and organic matter, compromising soil fertility. In contrast, flat or gently
sloping areas provide more stability, allowing for the accumulation of organic
matter, nutrients, and fine soil particles.
Overall, topography interacts with climate, parent material, and biological factors to shape
soil formation. The combination of slope steepness, aspect, and landscape position
contributes to the development of different soil types, horizons, and soil properties within
a given area.

4. Parent Material: The parent material refers to the underlying rock or

unconsolidated material from which the soil forms. Different types of rocks and minerals
have varying chemical compositions and physical properties, which influence the properties
of the resulting soil. It plays a crucial role in determining the initial composition and
characteristics of the soil. The types of parent materials can vary widely based on the
geological processes that formed them. Here are some common types of parent materials
in soil formation:
i. Residual Parent Material: Residual parent material is formed by the weathering
and decomposition of the underlying bedrock in the same location where the
 soil develops. Over time, the rock is broken down into smaller particles, and
minerals are released, contributing to soil formation. Residual parent material
often retains some of the properties of the original bedrock and can result in
soils with similar mineral composition.
ii. Transported Parent Material: Transported parent material refers to materials
that have been moved and deposited by external forces, such as water, wind,
ice, or gravity. These materials can be derived from a wide range of sources
and can vary in composition and characteristics. Common types of transported
parent material include:
• Alluvium: Alluvium is sediment deposited by rivers and streams. It often
consists of a mixture of sand, silt, and clay, as well as organic matter and
minerals carried by water. Alluvial soils are typically well-drained and fertile.
• Glacial Till: Glacial till is a mixture of unsorted and unstratified sediments
deposited by glaciers. It contains a wide range of particle sizes, including
clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders. Glacial till can result in soils with high
variability in texture and fertility.
• Aeolian Deposits: Aeolian deposits are materials transported and
deposited by wind. They are typically composed of fine particles such as
sand, silt, and loess (wind-blown silt). Aeolian deposits often form soils with
good drainage but can be prone to erosion.
• Colluvium: Colluvium is material that has accumulated at the base of slopes
due to gravitational processes, such as landslides or gradual slope erosion.
Colluvial soils are often characterized by a mixture of rock fragments, sand,
silt, and clay.
iii. Organic Deposits: Organic deposits, also known as organic parent material,
are derived from the accumulation of organic matter in specific environments.
This includes materials like peat, which forms in wetland areas with high rates
of plant growth and low rates of decomposition. Organic deposits can lead to
the formation of organic-rich soils with unique characteristics and fertility.
iv. Volcanic Deposits: Volcanic deposits are materials that originate from volcanic
eruptions. They include materials such as volcanic ash, cinders, and lava flows.
Volcanic soils can be highly fertile due to the presence of minerals and nutrients
released during volcanic activity.
It's important to note that these parent materials can mix and interact over time, leading to
the formation of soils with varying characteristics. Additionally, the influence of climate,
topography, and biological activity further shapes the development of soils from different
parent materials.
.
5. Time: Soil formation is a slow process that occurs over geological time scales. The
length of time that soil-forming processes have been acting in a particular area affects the
level of soil development. Older soils tend to be more weathered, deeper, and have more
distinct soil horizons (layers) than younger soils. The age of a soil is not considered in
years but how much development the soil has undergone. The following are the
classification of the soil formation with the interconnected dominant influence factor with
time:
ii. Catena: Catena refers to when soils are developed on the same parent
material and the soils only differ on the basis of drainage due to variations in
relief.
iii. Chronosequence: Chronosequence refers to a sequence of related soils that
differ in certain properties primarily as a result of time as a soil-forming process.
iv. Lithosequence: Lithosequence refers to a group of related soils that differ as a
result of parent material.
v. Climosequence: Climosequence refers to a sequence of soils that differ as a
result of changes in climatic regimes (temperature and precipitation)
vi. Biosequence: Biosequence refers to a group of related soils that differ primarily
due to variation in kinds and numbers of plants and soil organisms.
- OM will accumulate to form a dark-colored A-horizon in a decade or two
- formation of B-horizon would likely take centuries
- accumulation of silicate clays usually become noticeable after thousands of years.
- mature, highly weathered deep soils would take hundreds of thousands of years
Young soil vs mature soils - not referring to the age of soils in years but by the degree
of weathering and profile development
Young soil: A-Bw-C and/or R
slightly to moderately weathered
Mature soil: A-Bt-C
moderately to highly weathered
Senile soil: A-Bo--C
high to extremely weathered

Time Zero- point in time at which pedologically catastrophic event is completed, initiating
a new cycle of soil development.

6. Human Activities: Human activities can significantly influence soil formation. Agriculture,
deforestation, construction, and improper land management practices can accelerate
erosion, deplete nutrients, and degrade soil quality. Conversely, sustainable land
management practices, such as crop rotation, contour plowing, and organic farming, can
help maintain or improve soil health.

These factors are interconnected and influence one another in complex ways.
Understanding these influences is important for land management, agriculture, and
conservation efforts to ensure sustainable soil use and protection.

UNIT III. SOIL PROFILE FORMATION & DEVELOPMENT

There are four fundamental soil-forming processes, often referred to as the "Four Soil
Forming Processes" or "Master Soil Horizons," which describe the key mechanisms
involved in soil development. These processes interact over time to shape the
characteristics of a soil profile. The four soil forming processes are:

1. Weathering: Weathering is the breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller particles
by physical, chemical, and biological processes. Physical weathering involves the
mechanical disintegration of rocks through actions such as freeze-thaw cycles, abrasion,
and root penetration. Chemical weathering occurs when minerals react with water, gases,
and acids, leading to their decomposition and transformation. Weathering contributes to
the formation of the parent material from which soils develop.

2. Translocation: Translocation refers to the movement of dissolved or suspended

materials within the soil profile. Water, along with dissolved substances, can percolate
through the soil, carrying minerals, organic matter, and nutrients from one horizon to
another. This process can lead to the accumulation or depletion of specific substances in
different soil layers, resulting in the development of distinct horizons.

3. Eluviation and Illuviation: Eluviation is the process of removing fine particles, such as
clay, silt, and dissolved substances, from one soil horizon and transporting them to another
horizon. This movement is usually facilitated by water percolation. The layer from which
the materials are removed is called the eluviation horizon. Illuviation, on the other hand,
is the deposition and accumulation of the materials that were eluviated. This accumulation
forms a distinct horizon called the illuviation horizon. The movement and deposition of
materials through eluviation and illuviation contribute to the development of soil horizons
with varying properties.

4. Organic Matter Accumulation: The accumulation of organic matter is a vital soil-forming

process, particularly in the surface horizons. Organic matter includes plant residues,
decaying organisms, and their byproducts. It provides nutrients, improves soil structure,
enhances water-holding capacity, and influences other chemical and physical properties
of the soil. The input and decomposition of organic matter contribute to the development
of dark, organic-rich horizons, such as the O horizon (organic layer) and the A horizon
(topsoil).

Soil Horizon Differentiation (Simonson, 1959)

Soils form through the following set of processes:
• Addition: Materials added to the soil, such as decomposing vegetation and
organisms ( organic matter--OM), or new mineral materials deposited by wind or
water.
o Organic matter accumulation: Things die on the surface (plants, animals)
and below the surface (plant roots, burrowing animals)
o Inorganic matter accumulation
▪ Dust
▪ Regolith production
 ▪ Sediment deposition
• Loss (Removal): Through the movement of wind or water, or uptake by plants,
soil particles (sand, silt, clay, and OM) or chemical compounds can be eroded,
leached, or harvested from the soil, altering the chemical and physical makeup of
the soil.
o Erosion – stripping of organic and mineral content from the surface (e.g.,
by wind, water, ice)
o Dissolution – removal of minerals within the soil in solution
• Transformation & Translocation: Transformation refers to the chemical
weathering of sand and formation of clay minerals, transformation of coarse OM
into decay resistant organic compounds (humus). Translocation refers to the
movement of soil constituents (organic or mineral) within the profile and/or
between horizons. Over time, this process is one of the more visibly noticeable as
alterations in color, texture, and structure become apparent.
o Decomposition of primary minerals into secondary minerals
o Translocation (movement of material within soils)
• Leaching = movement of dissolved matter via groundwater in a soil. May move it
within the soil or carry dissolved matter out of the soil completely.
o Leaching from upper soil units into deeper soil units (can carry materials
down via water that changes pH, gas content, and redox as the water
evaporates).
o Leaching from parent material or organic matter.

THE SOIL PROFILE

The soil profile refers to the vertical arrangement of different layers or horizons that make
up a soil. Each soil horizon has unique characteristics, including composition, color,
texture, structure, and organic matter content. These horizons form as a result of the soil-
forming processes acting over time.

A typical soil profile consists of the following horizons, although not all soils will have each
horizon, and some soils may have additional horizons:
1. O Horizon (Organic
Layer): This horizon
consists of organic
materials, such as
decomposed plant
residues and leaf litter. It
is typically found in
forested or highly
vegetated areas and is
characterized by its high
organic matter content.

2. A Horizon (Topsoil):
The A horizon is the
uppermost mineral
horizon and is rich in
organic matter. It is often
darker in color
compared to the
underlying horizons and has a crumbly texture. This horizon is important for plant growth
and nutrient cycling.

3. E Horizon (Eluviation Horizon): The E horizon is characterized by the leaching or

removal of minerals, clay, and organic matter through the process of eluviation. It is
commonly found in soils that have undergone significant weathering and leaching.

4. B Horizon (Subsoil): The B horizon is often referred to as the subsoil. It is a zone of

accumulation, where minerals, clay, and other materials that have been translocated from
the upper horizons accumulate. The B horizon can have distinct color, texture, or structure
compared to the overlying horizons.

5. C Horizon (Parent Material): The C horizon is composed of partially weathered or

unweathered parent material. It serves as the source of mineral particles and nutrients for
the upper horizons. The C horizon is generally less affected by soil-forming processes and
is closer to the original geological material.

6. R Horizon (Bedrock): The R horizon represents the unweathered bedrock, which is

the solid, underlying rock material. It may or may not be visible, as it can be located at
various depths depending on the soil profile.

It is important to note that not all soils will have a distinct expression of each horizon, and
the arrangement and characteristics of the horizons can vary greatly depending on factors
such as climate, parent material, vegetation, and time. Soil scientists’ study and analyze
the different horizons within a soil profile to understand soil properties, fertility, and
potential land uses.

UNIT IV. SOIL CLASSIFICATION (Key learnings ONLY)

Soil classification is the process of categorizing soils into groups based on their properties,
characteristics, and formation processes. It involves organizing soils into hierarchical
systems or taxonomies that provide a standardized framework for understanding and
communicating information about soils. Soil classification systems are used in various
fields, including agriculture, engineering, land use planning, and environmental science.

In soil science, several terms are used to describe specific aspects of soil characteristics
and classification. Here are the definitions of the terms you mentioned:

1. Solum: The solum refers to the upper and most biologically active part of the soil profile.
It includes the A, E, and B horizons, where most of the soil-forming processes occur. The
solum is the zone of soil that is most directly influenced by biological activity, weathering,
and leaching.

2. Regolith: Regolith refers to the unconsolidated material, composed of rock fragments,

minerals, and organic matter, that covers the solid bedrock. It includes the soil as well as
any other loose, fragmented material present on the Earth's surface. Regolith can vary in
thickness and composition and plays a crucial role in soil formation.
3. Monolith: A monolith is a large, intact block or column of soil that is extracted from the
field, typically for research or study purposes. It is carefully collected to preserve the
vertical arrangement of the soil horizons and their characteristics. Monoliths are useful for
detailed analysis of soil properties and for creating soil profile descriptions.

4. Pedon: A pedon is the basic unit of soil study and classification. It is a three-dimensional
soil sample that represents a specific soil body or area. A pedon typically extends from the
surface to the parent material or bedrock and includes all the horizons present in the soil
profile. Pedons are used to study and describe the properties, composition, and variability
of soils within a specific location.

5. Polypedon: A polypedon refers to a group of similar pedons that share certain

characteristics and occur within a defined area or landscape. Polypedons are used to
identify patterns and variations in soil properties across larger land areas and to make
broader soil classification interpretations.

6. Epipedon: An epipedon is a surface horizon that is distinctive in terms of its physical,

chemical, or biological properties. It is usually the uppermost horizon in a soil profile and
plays a critical role in soil classification. Epipedons are used to identify and differentiate
soil series and soil orders.

These terms are important in soil science as they help in describing, classifying, and
understanding the characteristics and variations of soils in different locations.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

There are several soil classification systems used worldwide, but the two most commonly
recognized and widely used systems are the Soil Taxonomy and the World Reference
Base for Soil Resources (WRB).

1. Soil Taxonomy (United States Department of Agriculture - USDA): The Soil Taxonomy
system is primarily used in the United States. It classifies soils based on diagnostic
features, including soil horizons, soil properties, and soil-forming processes. It organizes
soils into six hierarchical categories: Order, Suborder, Great Group, Subgroup, Family,
and Series. Soil orders are the broadest category, while soil series represents the finest
level of classification.

2. World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB): The WRB system, developed by the
International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), provides a global soil classification
framework. It focuses on the soil's diagnostic properties, such as composition, texture,
and mineralogy, and emphasizes the soil-forming processes. The WRB system consists
of three main levels: Reference Soil Groups, Reference Soil Subgroups, and Reference
Soil Units. The WRB system aims to be applicable to soils worldwide and provides a
common language for soil classification and communication across different countries and
regions.

Both Soil Taxonomy and WRB systems consider various soil properties, including color,
texture, structure, mineralogy, pH, organic matter content, and horizon characteristics.
These systems allow for the identification and classification of different soil types and help
in understanding soil behavior, fertility, and potential land uses. Soil classification provides
valuable information for land management, agriculture, engineering projects,
environmental assessments, and soil conservation efforts.

Soil orders are the highest level of classification in the Soil Taxonomy system developed
by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The Soil Taxonomy system
categorizes soils based on various properties, formation processes, and diagnostic
features. There are 12 soil orders recognized in the Soil Taxonomy system. Here are brief
descriptions of each soil order:

1. Alfisols: Alfisols are soils characterized by a significant accumulation of clay in the

subsoil. They typically have moderate to high fertility and are found in temperate and
tropical regions. Alfisols often support agriculture and are associated with deciduous
forests.
2. Andisols: Andisols are soils that have formed from volcanic ash and have unique
properties. They are typically young soils with high nutrient retention, fertility, and water-
holding capacity. Andisols are commonly found in volcanic regions.
3. Aridisols: Aridisols are soils that occur in dry, arid regions with limited moisture. They
often have low organic matter content, limited leaching, and can contain accumulations of
salts. Aridisols are commonly found in desert areas.
4. Entisols: Entisols are young soils that lack significant development of soil horizons. They
often have a shallow or nonexistent A horizon and are found in areas with recent geological
deposits, floodplains, or sandy dunes.
5. Gelisols: Gelisols are soils that are associated with cold, frozen environments. They
contain permafrost within a few meters of the soil surface and often have cryoturbation
(frost-induced soil mixing) processes. Gelisols are typically found in polar regions and
high-altitude areas.
6. Histosols: Histosols are organic soils that have a high content of partially decomposed
plant material, also known as peat. They are typically found in wetland environments, such
as bogs or marshes, and have a high water-holding capacity.
7. Inceptisols: Inceptisols are soils that are in the early stages of development. They have
a weakly developed soil profile, with some horizonation but without distinct diagnostic
features. Inceptisols occur in a wide range of climates and parent materials.
8. Mollisols: Mollisols are soils that are characterized by a thick, dark, and fertile surface
horizon known as the mollic epipedon. They have a high content of organic matter and
are typically associated with grassland ecosystems. Mollisols are highly productive soils
for agriculture.
9. Oxisols: Oxisols are highly weathered soils that occur in tropical and subtropical
regions. They are characterized by a significant accumulation of iron and aluminum oxides
and have a low natural fertility. Oxisols are typically found in areas with intense weathering
and leaching.
10. Spodosols: Spodosols are soils that have a distinctive subsurface horizon called the
spodic horizon, which is characterized by the accumulation of organic matter, iron, and
aluminum compounds. Spodosols are commonly associated with coniferous forests in
cool, humid regions.
11. Ultisols: Ultisols are weathered soils that have a subsurface horizon enriched in clay
and iron oxides. They have a lower natural fertility compared to Alfisols and are typically
associated with forests in humid or subhumid regions.
12. Vertisols: Vertisols are clay-rich soils that exhibit significant volume changes with
moisture content. They have a high clay content that swells when wet and cracks when
dry. Vertisols are commonly found in areas with seasonally dry climates.
These soil orders represent broad categories of soils based on their dominant
characteristics, formation processes, and environmental associations. Understanding soil
orders helps in identifying and classifying soils, assessing their potential uses, and making
informed land management decisions.
POST-TEST
22. The two soil forming factors that normally show the greatest variation from one
geographic region to another are:
a. topography and parent material c. climate and vegetation
b. topography d. time and relief
23. A square meter of land dug to a depth that nearly touches the bedrock.
a. Horizon b. Pit c. Epipedon d. Pedon
24. A lowland paddy soil possesses.
a. ABC horizons b. oxidized and reduced layers c. AB horizons d. OABC
25. One side of a pedon.
a. Epipedon b. Horizon c. Profile d. All of the above
26. Basic properties described in a soil profile.
a. Texture, bulk density, consistency c. Color, texture, stoniness, structure
b. CEC, OM (%) content. %BS, BD d. Plasticity, structure
27. A soil horizon is defined as:
a. the depth of finely divided soil mineral matter over bed rock
b. a soil layer that differs in recognizable properties from other layer immediately
above or below
c. the slope of the soil surface relative to the horizontal
d. any of the above
28. The most detailed category of soil taxonomy.
a. Soil family b. Soil series c. Great group d. Suborder
29. The mineral supplying P is:
a. feldspar b. apatite c. talc d. pyrite
30. Tourmaline supplies the element.
a. Mn b. B c. Ca d. N
31. An organic material with most of the material decomposed sufficiently so that little
fiber remains. a. peat b. muck c. biotic d. bionic
32. It is made up of poorly sorted rock fragments detached from the heights above and
carried downslope mostly by gravity.
a. Colluvium b. Alluvium c. Residuum d. Lacustrine
33. The alluvial deposits that is part of a river valley that is inundated during floods is
called. a. floodplain b. alluvial c. deltas d. lacustrine
34. It is a metamorphic rock produced from granite
 a. Marble b. Gneiss c. Slate d. Gold
35. It is a metamorphic rock produced from shale.
a. Marble b. Gneiss c. Slate d. Gold
36. It means the true soil or the A, E & B horizons of the soil profile
a. Soil b. Solum c. Regolith d. Soil Profile
37. In certain situations one of the factors of soil formation has had the dominant influence
in determining differences among a set of soils. A set of soils where parent material is
the dominant influence on soil formation is referred to as
a. lithosequence b. climosequence c. biosequence d. topsequence
38. The subsoil usually refers to this horizon.
a. AB b. A c. B d. C
39. The order of soils with a mollic epipedon and a base saturation of > 50%
a. Gelisols b. Histosols c. Andisols d. Mollisols
40. The order of soils with organic soil materials extending down to an impermeable layer
or with an organic layer that is more than 40 cm thick
a. Gelisols b. Histosols c. Andisols d. Mollisols
41. The regolith is composed of these horizons:
a. AB b. BC c. ABC d. ABCR
42. It is an international soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for
soil maps.
a. World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) of IUSS
b. National Soil Survey Handbook of NRCS-USDA
c. Philippine National Soil Survey Handbook
d. none of the choices
REFERENCES:

Weil, Raymond & Brady, Nyle. (2017). The Nature and Properties of Soils. 15th edition.

Simonson, Roy W. (1959). Outline of a Generalized Theory of Soil Genesis1. Soil Science
Society of America Journal, 23(2), 152–156.
doi:10.2136/sssaj1959.03615995002300020021x

Amundson, Ronald. (2021). Factors of soil formation in the 21st century. Geoderma. 391.
114960. 10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.114960.

Jenny, H. (1994). Factors of soil formation: a system of quantitative pedology. Courier

Corporation.

Buol, S. W., Southard, R. J., Graham, R. C., & McDaniel, P. A. (2011). Soil genesis and
classification. John Wiley & Sons.

Wilding, L. P., Smeck, N. E., & Hall, G. F. (1983). Pedogenesis and soil taxonomy: the soil
orders. Elsevier.