Soil and Food

Security!
PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION
ABT-320
Outline
1. Introduction to Soil
2. Elements of soil formation
3. Important physical, biological and chemical properties
4. Some key soil quality testing methods
5. Pressures faced by our global soil stocks
 Engineer
Definition of soil - An unconsolidated material
upon which infrastructure is
Agriculture and gardeners built.
- A dynamic natural body at the
surface of the earth in which plants Diplomat
grow. - A nation’s territory.

Soil scientist
Geologist
- The surface and/or mineral layer of
- Fragmented mineral
the earth that has been modified over
material near the surface of
time as a result of physical, biological
the earth.
and chemical weathering.
Soil composition Atmosphere

1. Where does it comes from?

Biosphere Soil Hydrosphere

2. Which components are involved?

Lithosphere
Factors involved in soil formation
Climate

Time Biological

Soil

Parent
Topography
material
Soil composition
1. Minerals: rock particles from the bedrock and
weathered rock (sand, silt, and clay).
2. Organic material
◦ Humus – a carbon-rich organic material produced
from decomposed plant and animal matter.
◦ Living organisms – earthworms, beetles, fungi,
bacteria.
3. Air: found in the pore spaces between rock grains.
4. Water: also found in pore spaces.
 Why are soils
important?
1. Medium for plant
growth
2. Recycling system for
nutrients and organic
wastes
3. Habitat for soil
organisms
4. Water supply and
purification
5. Engineering medium
 Soil formation
1. Mechanical
weathering of rocks.

5. This repeats until 2. Further chemical

soils reach their peak weathering begins to
fertility potential. form soil.

4. Micro-organisms
3. Seeds grow into
decompose plant
plants that enrich the
remains to form
soil when they die.
humus.
Soil formation
Factors responsible for soil development:
1. Climate Active soil forming factors
2. Organisms – plant and animal activity – energy involved
3. Parent material
Passive soil forming factors
4. Topography - variation in the earth’s surface – no energy involved
5. Time
Soil Classification
◦ The most basic classification system
has 12 major soil types.

◦ Soils with similar properties (biological,

chemical and physical) are grouped
into units that can be geo-referenced
and mapped.
Soil profile and horizons
A soil profile is a vertical section of soil from the surface down to the rock.

Soil profiles are comprised of distinct horizons. The main ones are:

O horizon
◦ An organic rich layer on the ground surface.

A horizon
◦ Topsoil layer.
◦ Rich in organic matter. Typically dark in colour.

E horizon
◦ Eluviated horizon – the leached horizon.
◦ Clays and minerals (Fe, Al) have been leached out of this horizon.

B horizon
◦ Subsoil layer.
◦ Lower organic content and higher mineral content than the A horizon.

C horizon
◦ Weathered bedrock.
Soil Texture
The texture of a soil is determined by relative
proportion of particles from which a soil is composed.
Soil particles are categorised into three groups by size:
sand, silt and clay (plus gravel).
Soil Structure
Soil particles bind together to form
clumps, known as aggregates.
Aggregates take on various shapes and
sizes depending on their composition,
environment and management.

Soil structure is impacted by:

◦ Climate,
◦ Organic matter,
◦ Tillage,
◦ Plant roots and residues
◦ Exchangeable ions
Soil Colour
Soil colour indicates the mineral
content and can indicate how a soil will
behave.
To determine soil colour we use a
Munsell colour chart.
 Soil Testing in the Field
Soils can be tested in the field:
Texture and structure:
- By feel

Colour:
- Using the Munsell colour chart
Soil Testing in the Field
Soil Bulk density
Density of a soil is expressed as weight (mass)
per unit volume. Where:
Bulk density accounts for the mixture of air, Db = Bulk density
water, minerals and organic matter within a Ms = Mass of solids
soil. Vt = total volume
Particle density accounts for only the solid
components of a soil.
Volume Pore
of air, space
Bulk water,
density minerals
and Particle
organic density Solids
matter
Soil Porosity
Pores are the spaces between individual soil
particles or aggregates.
The pore spaces of a soil are occupied by air,
water and microorganisms.
Plant roots growth into and make pore spaces.

Pore space is generally low in sandy soils and high in

clay soils.
Compacted soil have a low pore space.
Soil Porosity
Macropores (large pores)
◦ Drain quickly after rain or irrigation
◦ Allow rapid infiltration of rainfall and replenishment of oxygen in the root zone

Mesopore (medium pores)

◦ Storage pores
◦ Hold water in a form most plants can use

Micropores (small pores)

◦ Water is held too tightly to be of use to most plants
◦ Where soil microbes reside when a soil is dry
Organic matter
Importance in soil:
◦ Stores nutrients
◦ Holds water

Gives soil a black or dark brown colour.

Components are abiotic and biotic (both

living and dead).
Organic matter: Humus
◦ Stable end product of residue decomposition.
◦ Makes up the majority of organic matter.
◦ Resists further decomposition (1% per year).
◦ Not a good energy or nutrient source for soil
creatures.
Organic matter: Humus
◦ High surface area
◦ Very small particle size
◦ Many charged sites on its particle surfaces.
◦ Effective at holding water and nutrients.
Organic matter: Biomass
This is the living component of a soil.
It consists of a range of creatures:
◦ Microscopic viruses and bacteria
◦ Worms and other creatures visible to the naked eye
◦ Everything in between
They participate in nutrient cycling
◦ Digests plant and animal materials (residues), using what
they need and leaving behind what they don’t.
Larger organisms create biopores as they move
through the soil:
◦ These promote water infiltration and aeration.
Organic matter: Residues and by-
products
Dead materials – crop residues, dead roots and
bodies of soil creatures.
By-products – materials that plant roots and
soil creatures release of exude into the soil.

These act as:

◦ an energy or nutrient source for soil creatures, or,
◦ Assist in the formation of soil aggregates by
holding soil particles together.

Pepper et al. (2019), Environmental and Pollution Science (3 rd Ed).

Plant need soils to provide:
A. Mechanical support
B. Water
C. Oxygen
D. Heat
E. Carbon dioxide
F. Nutrients
Soil nutrients
A nutrient is:
◦ An element that have a direct effect on growth or
metabolism
◦ Is required by plants to complete their vegetative and
reproductive stages of life
◦ Must be specifically required and cannot be replaced by
another element
 Plant nutrient supply
Nutrients that plants obtain from soil Nutrients that plants obtain from air
Macronutrients: Micronutrients: Non-mineral nutrients
(needed in larger quantities) (needed in small quantities)
Nitrogen, N Boron Oxygen, O
Phosphorus, P Chlorine, Cl Carbon, C
Potassium, K Copper, Cu Hydrogen
Calcium, Ca Iron, Fe
Magnesium, Mg Manganese, Mn
Sulphur, S Molybdenum, Mo
Zinc, Zn
Nutrients
Liebig’s law of the minimum.
The nutrient in least supply will limit plant
growth and determine the yield.
Increasing plentiful nutrients has little effect
on plant growth.
Plants are only limited by one nutrient at a
time.
Soil pH
The measure H+ in the soil solution (soil water).
It indicates soil health
Effects:
◦ Crop yields
◦ Crop suitability
◦ Plant nutrient availability
◦ Survival of microorganisms

Can be managed by:

◦ Applying nitrogen and lime
◦ Using cropping practices that increase soil organic
matter and overall soil health.
Soil pH
Soil pH impacts on plant growth
and nutrient availability.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
This is ability of a soil to hold and release cations
(positively charged ions) on charged sites.
Measure of the net negative charge of a soil.
CEC is typically higher is soils with high organic matter
or clay content.

It is calculated as the sum of cations:

Base cations + acid cations
(Ca + Mg + K + Na) + (H + Al)
Further reading
M.R. Ashman and Puri (2008)

Contact: Dr. Kate

https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/staff/kate-schofield