ST.

MARY’S MAZINDE JUU SECONDARY SCHOOL

FORM THREE (2016) GEOGRAPHY HOLIDAY PACKAGE
DECEMBER 2015
Instructions:
 Write these notes in your Geography exercise book.
 The responses to the questions given at the end of these notes must appear as
a part of your work.
 The work must be submitted on the reporting day.

TOPIC: SOIL

A. FORMATION OF SOIL.
INTRODUCTION.
Pedology is the science of soil. An understanding of the fundamental principles of this
science of soil is something indispensable to a geographer. This is because soils
constitute the major environmental factor, which is an important aspect in geography.

MEANING OF SOIL.
Soil is the loose materials of the outer part of the earth’s crust which supports the growth
of plants. This is made by the combination of organic and inorganic weathered materials
on the surface of the earth. This supports the plants’ growth as it contains minerals, water,
air and most soil living organism(bacteria) both macro and micro organism that are
important for the growth of plants.
THE FORMATION OF SOIL.
Soil formation is largely influenced by the following processes; namely
1. The chemical processes of weathering; this act by decomposing the rock and
so breaks down.
2. Mechanical processes of weathering; which acts by disintegrating the rock into
smaller fragments.
3. Biological processes which involves the activities of bacteria, ants and
animals.
These processes above lead into soil formation by influencing the factor of soil
formation.

FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION.

The processes of soil formation work upon the factors or variables thereby accelerating
the formation of the particular type of soil. These factors or variables of soil formation
include the following below;

1. Parent rock
2. climate
3. relief ( topography)
4. vegetation and Organism(biological factors)
5. Time.

SOIL 1 BUNKU VICTOR JK

These are summarized as SOIL = F (PCROT), where F stands for function of, P = Parent
rock or material, C = Climate, R = Relief or Topography, O = Organism (Biota) and T =
time.

PARENT ROCK OR PARENT MATERIALS.

Parent rock refers to the original rock. This factor counts a lot in the formation of soil.
The parent rock can be weathered through chemical processes to produce parent materials
known as regolith. It is the further weathering of these materials ( regolith), giving rise to
increasingly smaller and fine soil particles, which ultimately results in the creation of
soil.
The type of parent rock determines the type of soil so formed, soil texture and the soil
maturity. For example, sand stones can be weathered to produce sandy soil. It may also
influence soil maturity such that if the parent rock is hard, it may take so long for the soil
to be formed while the rate of soil formation is faster if the parent rock is soft.

CLIMATE.
Climate affects the rate of weathering of the parent rock, with the most rapid break down
in hot and humid environments.
The climatic elements which are involved in soil development are precipitation,
temperature and wind.
Precipitation provides the soil water. This soil water is necessary for the chemical and
biological activities. Decomposition of most soil materials and the growing of plants are
the respective activities of chemical and biological processes which both depend on water
(precipitation).

Temperature affects the supply of humus through accelerating the rate of decomposition
of the organic matter, which are so important in the development of soil. It influences the
activities and number of soil organisms which in turns affect the rate of decay. Thus, for
example the speed of decay is faster in warm areas than it is in cool conditions, thereby
making soil development processes to be also fast.
Wind can remove (erode) the soil in arid regions leading to soil degradation. The blown
materials may be deposited at the edge of desert to form soil called loess.

RELIEF (TOPOGRAPHY)
Relief influences the processes of soil development by affecting the rate of erosion and
deposition. This occurs in high areas which has steep slope and low lands with flat areas.

Thus, for example, on areas with steep slopes, there are high erosion activities. These
areas therefore produce shallow soils since the products of erosion are removed by the
surface erosion.

On the other hand, gentle slopes and flat low lands there is deep soils. This occurs
because on these areas the deposition or accumulation of the materials that have been
eroded from steep slope is done.

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES / LIVING ORGANISM (BIOTA)

SOIL 2 BUNKU VICTOR JK

These include the influence of plants, animals as well as the human beings.
When vegetation dies and decay, they supply most of organic materials (humus) and
minerals necessary for soil development. Their roots too cause rock disintegration when
they penetrate into rocks at the time when trees are growing. At the same time plant roots
help to modify the soil by increasing soil porosity, improving the soil depth and aeration.
Living organisms in the soil includes bacteria, ants and worms. Soil bacteria assist soil
development through helping the decomposition process of dead plants and animals. This
adds humus to soil which in turn increases water retention capacity of the soil.

Earth worms, termites, ants and human beings mix up the soil by carrying it from below
to the surface.

TIME.
This factor affects soil development process by affecting the rate of soil maturity. This
mans that the amount of soil particles present in the soil profile depends on the time upon
which the parent materials has been exposed the weathering process. Thus as a rule, the
longer a rock is exposed to agents of weathering, the more mature soil it becomes.
B. SOIL COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES
Soils are made up of the number of components. These include the following:

Mineral Particles (inorganic matter)

Mineral particles are products of inorganic matter weathered from the parent rocks. They
form about 45% of total volume of soil constitutes. Good examples of these mineral
particles are silicon, potassium, magnesium, calcium iron and aluminium. Some of these
minerals are needed in plants as nutrients necessary for building cell walls and fruit
production.

Organic Matter/ humus (Biota)

Organic materials constitute another essential component of soil. They form about 5% of
the total volume of soil components. Organic matter comes from the remains of plants
and animals. When these remains decompose they form humus which is an important
nutrient in the soil needed by plants.
Importance of Humus in the Soil.
1. When organic materials decompose, they directly supply food for plants.
This may include Nitrogen, calcium, Magnesium and Phosphorus.

2. Humus improves the structure of the soil by improving soil porosity. This
in turn improves the capacity of the soil to retain water, reduces the
leaching process of most of dissolved minerals.

3. When organic materials decompose, they yield more complex organic

acids. These acids in turn accelerate the further weathering of the mineral
matters hence adding to the soil particles.

SOIL 3 BUNKU VICTOR JK

Soil Water
This component forms 25% of total volume of soil constituents. Soil water is derived
from rainfall through infiltration. It is one of the most important constituents for it
controls most of the chemical as well as mechanical processes of weathering and also
regulates the soil temperature.
Soil Air.
This forms about 25% of soil constituents, and it forms the soil atmosphere from which
plants and soil organism obtain their oxygen.
Living Organism
These are formed mostly by bacteria in the soil.

SOIL PROPERTIES. (Characteristics)

Most soils are characterized by having the following distinctive properties/characteristics.

1. Physical properties
2. Chemical properties
3. Biological properties.
Physical Properties.
These include those properties that distinguish soils by their physical appearance. These
include the following properties:

a) Soil colour.
This is the most obvious property to notice. This can be determined by looking the
composition of the minerals from which the soil is derived and also the content of the
organic matter present in the soil. Colours can be brown, red, orange, yellow, gray
and even blue or green.
The soil color can be used for classification and description of the soil especially its
content and fertility. For example, dark soil color signifies fertile soil.

b) Soil Texture.
This refers to the size of individual particle that make up the soil. These soil particles
are classified according to their decreasing size. Thus according to texture, soils are
classified as

1. Course Sand 2 to 0.2mm diameter.

2. Fine Sand 0.2 to 0.02mm diameter
3. Silt 0.02 to 0.002 mm diameter.
4. Clay less than 0.002 mm
5. Loam mixture of sand, clay and silt.
NB: Soil texture can be measured by finger testing. This involves rubbing soil
particles between finger tips.

c) Soil Porosity.
This refers to the total volume of pores or empty spaces between particles of soil
materials. This is best determined in soils which are still undisturbed.
Porosity can also be expressed in terms of the volume of or polarity of water.

SOIL 4 BUNKU VICTOR JK

 d) Soil Temperature.
Soils have certain degrees of temperature and this tends to vary from place to place
due to variation in the climatic conditions. It is this temperature which controls
chemical and biochemical processes like the decomposition of organic matter and
plants growth.

Chemical Properties.
These include Soil properties like.
- Soil reaction
- Cation exchange
- leaching

Soil Reaction. (pH)

This sis the term which is used to describe the degree of acidity or alkalinity in the soil.
The reactions are determined by using the pH scale which is expressed in the pH value.
The pH value is the measure of the concentrations of Hydrogen Ion which is held in the
soil colloid in solution. A grater concentration of hydrogen ion results in a lower pH
scale, meaning greater acidity.
The pH value runs fro 1 – 14. But soils with the pH value of 7 are said to be Neutral soils,
a good example being water. Any condition below 7 is acidic while those reactions above
7 entail alkalinity in the soil.

Ion content or Cation exchange.

Soils also have key chemical characteristics. The surfaces of certain soil particles,
particularly the clays, hold groupings of atoms known as ions. These ions carry a
negative charge. Like magnets, these negative ions (called anions) attract positive ions
(called cations). Cations, including those from calcium, magnesium, and potassium, then
become attached to the soil particles, in a process known as cation exchange. The
chemical reactions in cation exchange make it possible for calcium and the other
elements to be changed into water-soluble forms that plants can use for food. Therefore, a
soil's cation exchange capacity is an important measure of its fertility.

Leaching
This refers to the process in which the soil nutrients are washed down in solution from
the top soil layer. This is known as eluviation.This process is effective mostly in wet
conditions like equatorial areas and it is less effective in dry areas.

SOIL 5 BUNKU VICTOR JK

Biological properties.
Most soils contain variety and concentrations of living organisms. This may include such
organisms like earth worms and soil bacteria.

C. SOIL PROFILE.
This refers the vertical section of soil from the surface (top soil) to the parent rock
(bedrock). This section is characterized by having distinct layers called horizons usually
made of different textures, materials and colours at different depth.

These horizons are divided in three layers A, B, C and D horizons. Horizon A represents
top soil, B stands for Sub-Soil, C stands for weathered materials and D represents the
parent rock (bedrock).

Basic parts of a soil profile.

A – HORIZON.
This belongs to the topmost soil layer. This horizon can include Organic matters and may
sometimes vary in color from place to place.
The A- Horizon is called the zone of eluviation from which materials are washed
downward. Thus it is this zone where leaching is effective.

B – HORIZON.
This is the accumulation or the illuviation zone. It is a zone where materials washed from
the A- Horizon are deposited or accumulated. This zone is usually dark in colour than the
A-Horizon. In all the A and B horizons make up the true soil.

C- HORIZON.
This zone consists of recently weathered materials or regolith (parent materials) resting
on the bed rock (parent rock).

D – HORIZON.
This is the solid under lying parent or bed rock.

SOIL 6 BUNKU VICTOR JK

FACTORS IFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOIL PROFILE.
Soil profile varies from place to place depending on the environmental conditions as
below.

Climate.
Climate influences the development of soil profiles. Weathering, for example, involves
the disintegration and decomposition of rocks under the influence of rainfall and
temperature. Thus around the equator, the high rainfall received throughout the year and
high temperatures leads to high weathering rates and the formation of deep and mature
soil profiles as in the lake Victoria basin.
In arid and semi-arid regions, rainfall is low and unreliable, temperatures are very high
and there is scarcity of vegetation. The weathering processes are therefore very slow
leading to the formation of incomplete soil profile.

Nature of vegetation.
The nature of vegetation influences the development of soil profiles. Areas with a thick
vegetation cover like the equatorial areas with tropical rainforests like on the shores of
lake Victoria have soils with a significant organic matter and the A Horizon is thus
stained dark brown or black. The thick vegetation also helps to hold the soils together in
the same position for soil profile development.
The areas with scanty vegetation have limited humus and their A Horizons tend to be in
light color. Their soils are also washed away by erosion. This prevents the development
of complete soil profiles.

Human activities.
Such activities like mining, quarrying, road construction and agriculture interfere with the
development of soil profile.

Time.
Time is required for the development of soil profiles. The longer the process of
weathering the well developed the profile is and vice – versa.

SOIL CATENA.
Catena is Latin word meaning chain. A soil catena therefore means a sequence of soils on
mountains or hill slope from top to bottom formed under similar climatic conditions
differ due to variations in topography and drainage. A soil catena thus shows different
characteristics in terms of color, depth, texture and water content of soils as progress
from hill top to the valley bottom.
On the upper slopes where the gradient is very steep, the movement of weathered rock
materials is rapid. This results in the formation of thin or shallow soils with little
moisture. Soils on the steep slope are thus generally thin, stony, immature and contain
little moisture and organic matter because of erosion and mass movement..

Soils on lower slopes tend to be deeper due to the reduced gradient and accumulation of
weathered materials. These are also wetter than those of upper slopes as they retain more
water. Further more they tend to be more fertile due to being enriched more by a range of

SOIL 7 BUNKU VICTOR JK

leached materials. These may include such soil nutrients like soluble salts, clay, humus
and minerals.

On the valley bottoms, there is deposition of weathered materials of mainly fine

materials. Water- logging may result in the formation of clay and peat soils of gleyed or
acidic form.

The soil catena

SOIL FERTILITY
Soil fertility refers to the ability of the soil to support plant growth. Fertility of the soil
tends to vary from one place to another. Some areas have fertile soils while other areas
have infertile soils. Fertility variation affects agricultural production such that where soils
are fertile there is effective crop production but where soils are infertile there is poor
production.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL FERTILITY.
1. Availability of mineral plant nutrients. These are chemical elements used in the
synthesis of organic molecules in the plant structure. They include macro-elements like
potassium, nitrogen, phosphorous, magnesium, calcium, iron and sulphur as well as
micro elements like iodine, sodium, zinc, silicon, boron and copper. All these are
essential for plant growth.
2. Presence of water (soil moisture). These transport elements to the cells and removes
waste products of the life processes. Water requirements vary in plants, some need a lot
of water (hydrophytes) while some need little amount of water (xerophytes).
3. Presence of air. This supports living organisms, decomposition and root respiration.
4. Soil pH (degree of alkalinity or acidity) influences plant growth.
5. Presence of soil colloids. These are the extremely minute, clay like (organic or
inorganic) particles of soil which have been formed as the product of physical and
chemical weathering of primary minerals. Colloids help in retaining some nutrients and
water that can be released gradually into the soil solution for plant use.
6. Presence of soil organism (biota).
7. Other factors include soil texture, temperature, structure, porosity, soil permeability,
relief and human techniques.

SOIL 8 BUNKU VICTOR JK

SOIL EROSION.

Soil erosion refers to the removal or wearing away of the top soil by such agents like
wind, running water and glaciers. Soil erosion can be noticed in areas where the rate of
soil removal is greater than that of deposition or soil formation. It mainly occurs in areas
where there is little or no vegetation cover. This can involve those areas like arid or in
semi- arid regions. In those areas the weathering processes are present but since there is
no vegetation cover to protect the developing soils, it is then removed as they are exposed
to wind, glaciers or rain.
In East Africa, water is by far the most important, widespread and destructive of the
three.

Types of soil Erosion.

There are several types of soil erosion. They include the following.
1. Sheet erosion.
This type of erosion results in the uniform removal of a uniform depth of soil by surface
run-off on a large area. It occurs when rain falls on a gentle slope which is bare of
vegetation.
2. Rill erosion.
This is an erosional process into which numerous small channels of only few centimeters
are formed by water that moves slowly in small streams. This result in the formation of
small channels called rills. Water is the main agent of rill erosion and it is the first stage
of gully erosion.
3. Gully Erosion.
This is the advanced stage of rill erosion. It is an erosional process in which water usually
after heavy rainstorms accumulates in narrow channels and over a period of time. In this
process rills are expanded due to the increase in the volume of water to form gully
erosion.
Gully erosion is serious in areas where rainfall is heavy and where the slopes are steep
like in Uluguru Mountains and Dodoma regions in Tanzania.
4. Wind erosion.
Wind is another active agent of erosion. Thus wind erosion is caused by the strong wind
especially in arid and semi arid regions. These are areas with rainfall less than 750mm
and which experience a very marked dry season. The low rainfall results in little or no
vegetation cover. Thus when winds blow across such bare land they lift particles of sand
and silt leaving behind the larger pebbles and particles.
Places affected by wind erosion include Dodoma, Singida and Shinyanga in Tanzania.
5. Splash erosion.
This is the detachment of small soil particles caused by the impact of raindrops on the
unconsolidated soils. It is called splash erosion because the soil particles are splashed
away by the force of the falling raindrops. This may lead to formation of holes in the
ground. This type of erosion is effective in arid and semi- arid regions like central part of
Tanzania.
6. Marine/wave/ seashore erosion.
This is erosion due to wave actions that affect areas alongside the lake and seashore.

SOIL 9 BUNKU VICTOR JK

7. Slip erosion.
This is erosion due to mass wasting. It involves such processes like land slides, soil creep
and rock falls.

CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION.

These fall under two major categories. They are Natural and human causes.

Natural causes of soil erosion.

a) Climate.
i) Heavy rainfall.
This is the most important type of climatic factor which contribute a lot to soil erosion. In
east Africa it is the leading. This provides the surface run off after the heavy rainstorms.
When moving on the bare land, the surface run off removes the upper soil particles and
this result in soil erosion. A number of areas in East Africa which receive high rainfall
experience erosion by surface run-off and vertical erosion by leaching like in Lake
Victoria basin.
ii) Wind erosion.
Wind erosion is concentrated in arid and semi arid regions. This acts by blowing away
the top soils in areas of bare land. As these areas lack vegetation the top soil is taken
away by the strong blowing wind resulting in the soil erosion.
In East Africa wind erosion is effective in such areas like Masailand, turkanaland, and
Moroto in Uganda.
iv) Drought.
Drought affects vegetation cover and this causes them to die. Once vegetation is removed
the soil becomes exposed to agents of soil erosion like wind and water. These then
removes the upper soils and this is soil erosion.
v) Glacial and ice movement.
In east Africa glacial erosion is confined to height of above 4000m above sea level. To
these areas temperature can fall to below freezing point. The moving of ice on major
highlands downwards erodes soil materials with them thus causing soil erosion in those
areas. A good example of this erosion occurs on Mount Kenya, Kilimanjaro and
Ruwenzori.

b) Relief.
The rate of soil erosion is determined by the nature of the slope in terms of its length and
steepness. The steeper the slope and the longer the length, the more the soil erosion. In
East Africa areas which experience soil erosion due to steep slopes include Kadam region
in Karamoja Kabale , kisoro and Kabarole in Uganda, Uluguru, Kondoa and Dodoma
Areas in Tanzania, and Machakosi, Kisii, and Baringo in Kenya.

c) Vegetation.
Thick vegetation reduces the soil erosion. This is because the tree roots helps to bind the
soil particles together while at the same time the leaves reduces the force of falling
raindrops. Vegetation further reduces the speed of the surface run-off and thus hindering
soil transportation by agents. Thus the absence of vegetation cover makes the soil
particles to be loose. This accelerates their removal by surface run-off.

SOIL 10 BUNKU VICTOR JK

A good case of this erosion occurs in central part of Tanzania since the natural vegetation
consists of dry bush savannah. This vegetation consists of scattered grasses with bare
sand between them. This offers little protection to the soils.

d) Nature of soil.
The nature of soil texture in terms of finess or courseness influences the rate of soil
erosion. The loose soils are always unstable. These are easily detached and transported by
agents and hence vulnerable to erosion. Such soils include the sandy soils which are
common in the drier areas like in Northern Kenya, central Tanzania and North Eastern
Uganda. On the other hand, structurally stable soils do not easily detach and eroded by
agents.

Human influences on soil erosion.

a) The practice of over grazing.

Some societies are still keeping animals for prestige. This usually leads to the rearing of
animals fur beyond the carrying capacity of the land. Thus as a result the land becomes
overgrazed, the vegetation is removed making the soil to be exposed to agents of erosion
especially water and wind. Animals also form intermeshing paths, and this turns into rills
and gullies during rain season.
Soil erosion due to overgrazing in all pastoral societies like Karamajong, Turkana and the
Masai people.

b) Bush burning.
This is a practice of burning off old grasses by cultivators at the end of the dry season
when they are preparing their fields for the next rain season. The pastoralists too, practice
it in anticipation of the growth of fresh pastures on the on set of the wet season. In all this
habit destroys the ground cover. This leaves the land bare to agents of erosion. When the
rain season begins, it finds the land bare thus carrying away large quantities of top soil,
hence erosion.
This practice is experienced in parts of Mbarara, Turkanaland and the Maasailand in East
Africa.

c) Deforestation / Clearing of vegetation.

Vegetation reduces the rate of soil erosion as their roots bind the soil particles together
while at the same time reduces the speed of surface run off and wind on bare lads. Thus
any continued unplanned cutting of tree without replacement loosens the soil particles
and expose it to agents of erosion. This accelerates soil erosion as agents will act easily
on the bare land and loose soils carrying it away. This occurs mainly in the Uluguru
Mountains in Tanzania in which the lower altitude has been cleared and replaced by
farmland and villages.

d) Poor cultivation methods.

These include flat cultivation, monoculture and the shifting cultivation. The flat
cultivation loosens the soil particles. This accelerates soil erosion as agents of erosion
acts easily on loose soil particles by removing the top soil leading to erosion.

SOIL 11 BUNKU VICTOR JK

Monoculture on the other hand involves the growing of a single type of crop in a field
over a long period of time. This practice exhausts the soil nutrients leaving behind the
soil which is unfertile. Unfertile soils have their structures and pores which are not
cohesive, thereby making it easy to the process of erosion by agents like water and wind.
In shifting cultivation, a piece of forest is destroyed by fire to get a patch for growing
crops. After 2-3 years of cultivation, the patch is abandoned and a new clearing is made.
The abandoned exposed part soon starts to experience soil erosion by rainfall.

e) Dense Population.
The rapid increase in the number of people in given area exerts pressure on the available
land for various human activities like farming. This causes people to continue farming on
a small piece of land for a long time without giving it ample time to regain fertility. This
exhausts the soil thereby accelerating it to soil erosion. Dense population also may make
people move to do clearing of bush for getting new patches of land for cultivation. This
exposes the soil to erosion.

f) Mining and quarrying.

Mining involve the removal of vegetation and this affects the stability of the soil. On the
other hand the open cast nature of mining and quarrying disrupt the soil structure
exposing it to erosion.

EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION.

The consequences of soil erosion include the following.

1. Loss of soil productivity and the low crop yields in the eroded land. This is
because the finer and more fertile particles are transported longer distances.
2. Deterioration of underground water supplies may result. This may lead up to the
drying up of the boreholes and wells because the high portion of rain water at the
surface instead of being absorbed by the soil.
3. Erosion may lead up to the silting of reservoirs and harbors. This can reduce the
water storage capacity of these reservoirs as a result of deposition of large
quantities of silt.
4. Erosion may affect the transport system particularly the roads.
5. Erosion leads to the loss of top soils. This results in the decrease in the soil depth.

SOIL CONSERVATION.
This refers to the process of conserving the soil for proper and sustainable use. On the
other hand Soil management refers to the skillful use and control of the quality of soil
resource. Both management and conservation involve the use of important methods
which help to check the soil. These methods include the following.

a) Afforestation.
This practice involves the planting of tree in areas that initially had no tree. This can be
done on sloping hillsides or flat bare lands to bind soil particles together and cover the
land in order to reduce the effects of agents of erosion.

SOIL 12 BUNKU VICTOR JK

b) Re-afforestation
This include re-planting of forests in areas where they have been cut with the intention of
stabilizing soil particles and reducing the surface run off and also they act as wind
breaker thus reducing soil erosion. Many of such programes have been started by mass
media and they include such slogans like “cut one, plant two”. A good example of areas
with re-forestation programs are like Kondoa and Njombe in Tanzania.
c) Agro forestry.
This activity involves the growing of trees on the crop farms so as to protect the
environment especially the soil from soil erosion. The trees reduce soil erosion by
holding the nutrient rich soil in place and also reducing the rate of surface run off. Apart
from controlling soil erosion, trees on farms also provide farmers with high value
products like food, fruits, medicines, fodder, timber, fuels, poles and manure.
d) Terracing.
This refers to the cutting of series of wide steps or benches 2-3 meters wide on a hill
slope on which crops are grown. Steps provide the level ground called terrace which
breaks the flow of water down slope, thus making most of water sink into the soil.
e) Contour farming or ploughing.
The practice of tilling sloped land along lines of consistent elevation in order to conserve
rainwater and to reduce soil losses from surface erosion. These objectives are achieved by
means of furrows, crop rows, and wheel tracks across slopes, all of which act as
reservoirs to catch and retain rainwater, thus permitting increased infiltration and more
uniform distribution. OR
Contour ploughing or contour farming is the farming practice of plowing across a slope
following its elevation contour lines so as to minimize the run off hence soil erosion.
f) Mulching.
This is the farming system which involves the covering of the soils with banana leaves,
grasses or any other vegetation matter. This practice prevents loss of moisture from the
soil, improves soil fertility by adding organic matter to the soil protects soil from the
impact of direct rain drops and protect the soil from against wind and water erosion.
g) Strip cultivation.
This is a method of cultivation which involves alternating strips of crops and uncultivated
land between crops to minimize erosion and run off. This method is used where crops are
grown in rows and thus offer little protection against soil erosion. Where such crops are
grown, they should be grown in strips. This means that one strip has crops while the
adjacent strip is under grass or any other vegetation. If wind blows or water erodes soil of
cultivated strip, it will be caught by the vegetate strip.
h) Crop rotation.
This method opposes the monoculture system in which the single or same type of crop
can be grown in the farm for a period f time thus exhausting the land. This crop rotation
then is the growing of varied types of crops in sequence on the same piece of land.

Questions;
1. Describe the effects of soil erosion to social and economic activities.
2. Relate population growth and rate of soil erosion on the quality of life.

END

SOIL 13 BUNKU VICTOR JK