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Chapter One-Introduction to Soil

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Mohamed Osman Abdulkadir--B.Sc., in Agriculture
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL
Introduction
Functions of soil
Importance of Soil
Soil phases
Components of Soil
Weathering
Parent material formation of the soil
The Soil Profile
Soil Horizons or Layers
Soil Formation
Soil forming process
The Soil-Forming Factors
 Introduction

I n general, the term “soil”, derived from L. solum, & has many
definitions.
Soil is defined as a mixture of f mineral and organic particles of
varying size and composition in regard to plant growth.

Soil is also unconsolidated material on the surface of the earth

that has been subjected to and influenced by the genetic and
environmental factors of parent material, climate, organisms, and
topography, all acting over a period of time.
For a farmer, soil refers to the cultivated top layer (surface soil)
only, that is, up to 15–18 cm of the plough depth. It is the medium
from which most plants derive mineral nutrients and water.
Soil also provides physical support for both plants and animals
including humans and the structures they build.
The study of different soil types and their properties is called soil
science.

Pedology – is the study of the origin of the soil, its classification

and its description are involved in pedology. Pedologist considers
soil as a natural body and does not focus primarily on the soil’s
immediate practical utilization. Pedologist studies, examines and
classifies soil as they occur in their natural environment.
Edaphology - It is the study of soils from the standpoint of higher
plants.
It considers various properties of soil as they relate to plant
production. The edaphologist is practical, having the production
of food and fiber as an ultimate goal.
Simultaneously, the edaphologist must be a scientist to determine
the reasons for variations in the soil productivity, and to find
means of conserving and improving soil productivity.
Soil science uses an integrated multidisciplinary approach in the
sense that it borrows concepts, techniques and processes from
other sciences, but with a focus on soils.
 Soil science relies on 7 major supporting sciences or sub-
disciplines;
 Climatology
 Geology/Mineralogy
 Geomorphology
 Chemistry
 Soil microbiology
 Physics
 Hydrology

Geology/mineralogy

Climatology
Physics
Soil microbiology

Chemistry Hydrology

Soil science
Soil microbiology
Geomorphology
Geology/mineralogy

Fig 1: Supporting basic sciences and current sub-disciplines of soil science

Functions of soil

1. Medium for plant growth:

Soil supports the growth of higher plants, by providing a medium

for plant roots and supplying nutrient elements that are essential
to the entire plant.

Soil is a source of:

a) Physical support – anchoring to roots.

b) Air –Ventilation.
c) Water – Absorb rainwater and hold it where it can be used
by plant roots.
d) Temperature moderation – Insulates roots from extreme hot
and cold.
e) Protection from toxins –Vent toxic gases and decomposing
or absorbing organic toxins.
f) Nutrient elements – Supply plants with dissolved inorganic
ions or mineral nutrients.

2. Regulate water supply:

Soil plays a vital role in cycling freshwater. Nearly every drop of
water in our lakes, rivers, estuaries and aquifers has either
traveled through the soil or over its surface.
Soil filters and regulates the water supply by storing water after a
precipitation event.
The nature and management of soils in a watershed will have a
major influence on the purity and amount of water that finds its
way to aquatic systems.
3. Habitat for Organisms:
A handful of soil may be home to billions of organisms, belonging
to thousands of species. In this small quantity there are likely to
exist predators, prey, producers, consumers, and parasites.
Soil combines a range of niches and habitats:
 Water-filled pores – Habitat for swim organisms like
roundworms.
 Air-filled pores – Habitat for insects and mites.
 Areas enriched with organic matter.
 Highly acidic areas.
 Highly basic areas.
 Areas with varied temperature regimes.

4. Recycle wastes:
The soil system plays a vital role in nutrient cycling processes.
Soils have the ability to:
a) Incorporate great quantities of organic waste, turning it into
beneficial humus.
b) Convert the mineral nutrients in the wastes into forms that
can be utilized by plants and animals.
c) Return the carbon into the atmosphere in the form of CO2.
Plant residues and manure can be added to soil which will enrich
nutrient concentrations and may improve soil properties.
5. Support for structures:
Soil is used for structures such as roads, causeways and as the
foundation for buildings and bridges. Soil is also used for the
establishment of forestry and agriculture crops.
Importance of Soil:
 Organic matter is a storehouse of nutrients in soil. It is
responsible to get the most desirable soil structure.
 It promotes greater proportion of large pore sizes, improves
water holding capacity and aeration status of soil.
 It is a main source of N, 5-6% of P, and 80% of S. It also
supplies different trace elements like boron, molybdenum
etc.
 It acts as a chelate, due to chelate formation between organic
matter and various metals; the availability of these metallic
elements will be increased.
 It contributes to cation exchange capacity in soils.
 It reduces soil erosion; shades the soil and keeps the soil
cooler.
 Fig 2: soil phases
Soil phases:
Soil is a complex system, made of solid, liquid and gaseous
materials. Soil is a three phase or polyphasic system comprising
of (a) solid phase, (b) liquid phase, and (c) gaseous phase in some
proportions.

Normally the proportion is 50:25:25, but this may vary from soil
to soil. In some occasions, liquid or gaseous phase may be absent.
For e.g., in water logged soil, air is not present; similarly in desert
dry sandy soils, water is not present.
Solid Phase:
The solid phase is made of minerals, organic matter and various
chemical compounds.
 Mineral - The mineral particles are the chief
components of most soils. They consist of remains of
parent rock and particles developed by weathering or
deposited in bulk by wind or water force. The
proportion and sizes of these particles determines the
soil texture.
 Organic matter - The organic fraction consists of both
plant and animal matter in two phases either alive or in
different stages of decomposition.
It varies from 1-5% by weight in different soils.
Normally in tropics, red soil contains less than 1% and heavy
soil up to 2%.
 Chemical compounds - The chemical components
of soils are made of silica and silicates.

It varies from profile to profile; generally the larger particles

contain more silica content and finer particles contain more of
potassium, calcium and phosphorus.
The dominant minerals are quartz in sand, quartz and feldspars
in fine sand and silt, vermiculite, montmorillonite.
Liquid Phase:
The liquid phase of soil consists of water, dissolved minerals and
soluble organic matter. This is known as soil water, which is
stored in the space between soil particles known as pore space.
This pore space is the most important physical structure and plays
a vital role in irrigation studies. Plants absorb water from the pore
spaces and hence this water must be replenished by rain or
irrigation water for the successful growth of crops. Hence, the soil
serves as a reservoir for moisture.

Gaseous Phase:
The spaces in between soil particles are not only filled with water,
but some spaces are occupied with air. The soil air differs from
atmospheric air in its composition. Soil air contains less O2
content and more CO2 than atmospheric air, because of the
respiration of soil microorganisms and plant roots in which
oxygen is consumed and carbon dioxide is released. So, the pore
spaces enclosed by soil matrix are shared by soil-air and soil-
water. As the amount of one increases, that of the other decreases.

Table.1 Composition of Soil and Atmospheric Air

Air O2 CO2 N2
Soil air 20.05 0.25 79.20
Atmospheric 20.97 0.03 78.03
air
Roots at plant maturity comprise about 10 percent of the entire
mass of cereal plants, such as corn, wheat, and oats.
For trees, there is a relatively greater mass of roots as compared
with tops, commonly in the range of 15 to 25 percent of the entire
tree.
First, there is a random distribution of pore spaces that are large
enough for root extension, because of soil cracks, channels
formed by earthworms, or channels left from previous root
growth.
Second, as roots elongate through soil, they remove water and
nutrients, which makes soil adjacent to roots a less favorable
environment for future root growth. Then, roots grow
preferentially in areas of the soil devoid of roots and where the
supply of water and nutrients is more favorable for root growth.
This results in a fairly uniform distribution of roots throughout
the root zone unless there is some barrier to root extension or roots
encounter an unfavorable environment.
Most plant roots do not invade soil that is dry, nutrient deficient,
extremely acid, or water saturated and lacking oxygen.
The preferential development of yellow birch roots in loam soil,
compared with sand soil, because of a more favorable.
Components of Soil:
Soil consists of four major components. They are: (i) Mineral
matter, (ii) Organic matter, (iii) water, and (iv) air.
Physically, soil consists of stones, large pebbles, dead plant twigs,
roots, leaves and other parts of the plant, fine sand, silt, clay and
humus derived from the decomposition of organic matter. In the
organic matter portion of the soil, about half of the organic matter
comprised of the dead remains of the soil life in all stages of
decomposition and the remaining half of the organic matter in the
soil is alive.
The living part of the organic matter consists of plant roots,
bacteria, earthworms, algae, fungi, nematodes, actinomycetes and
many other living organisms.

Fig: 3 components of soil

Soil contains about 50% solid space and 50% pore space. Mineral
matter and organic matter occupy the total solid space of the soil
by about 45% and 5% respectively. The total pore space of the
soil is occupied and shared by air and water on roughly equal
basis.

The proportion of air and water will vary depending upon the
weather and environmental factors.

(a) Soil mineral matter (SMM) - Size and composition of mineral

matter in soils are variable due to nature of parent rock from
which it has been derived. The rock fragments are disintegrated
and broken portion of the massive rocks, from which regolith
through weathering, the soil has been formed.
These materials are usually very coarse and the minerals are
extremely variable in size.
The primary minerals viz., quartz, biotite, muscovite (dominates
coarse fractions of the soil) and the secondary minerals viz.,
silicate clays and hydrous oxides clays of iron and aluminium
(as very fine fraction) are present.

(b) Soil organic matter (SOM) - Soil organic matter exists as

partly decayed and partially resynthesized plant and animal
residues. These are continuously being broken down as a result of
microbial activity in soil. Due to constant change, it must be
replenished to maintain soil productivity.
The organic matter content in a soil is very small and varies from
only about 3–5% by weight in topsoil.
In addition to partly decayed plant and animal residues, soil
organic matter contains living and dead microbial cells,
microbiologically synthesized compounds and derivatives.
(c) Soil water - Soil water plays a very significant role in soil-
plant growth relationship. Water is held within the soil pores with
varying degree of forces depending upon the amount of water
present.
With the increasing amount of water in soil, the forces of retention
of water by the soil will be low and vice-versa. The movement
and retention of water in the soil is primarily influenced by the
characteristics of the soil viz., texture, nature of inorganic and
organic colloids, type and amount of exchangeable cations, size
and total amount of pore spaces etc.

(d) Soil air - Pore spaces in soil consist of that portion of the soil
volume not occupied by soil solids, either mineral or organic.
Under field condition, pore spaces are occupied by air and water.
The relative amounts of air and water in the pore space fluctuate
continuously. During rainy season, water replaces air from the
soil pore spaces, but as soon as water leaves by downward
movement, surface evaporation, and transpiration etc.
Air gradually replaces the water, as it is lost form the pore spaces.
Soil air contains various gases like CO2, very small amounts of
O2 and N etc. Generally, soil air contains much more CO2 and
small amount of O2 than that of atmospheric air due to microbial
respiration when large amounts of CO2 releases into the air and
O2 is taken up by soil microorganisms.
Weathering:
Weathering is basically a combination of destruction and
synthesis. It breaks up rocks, modifies or destroys their physical
and chemical characteristics, and carries away the soluble
products and some of the solids.
These changes are accompanied by a continuous decrease in
particle size and by the release of soluble constituents, which are
subject to loss in drainage waters or recombination into new
(secondary) minerals.
There are three major forms of weathering:
 Physical,
 Chemical
 And biological weathering.
Physical or mechanical weathering takes places under conditions
where water is no active agent to enhance chemical reactions. It
is particularly active in deserts or in polar areas where
temperature changes create internal pressures in the rock and
produce cracks.
Chemical weathering is mainly related to the concerted action of
water, oxygen and organic chemicals released by higher plants
and microorganisms.
While physical weathering results generally in a broad breakdown
of soil and rock components, chemical weathering affects much
more intensively the composition of soil material.
The three major weathering processes related to water are
hydrolysis (the dissociation from H+ and OH− ions from 2 H O),
hydration (addition of a water molecule to the mineral) and
dissolution (the solubility of a compound and its elimination from
the environment).
Biological weathering processes are activated by living agents
(animals, higher plants, microorganisms) and are mainly
responsible for both the decomposition and disintegration of
rocks and minerals. The processes related to these weathering
forms are mainly discussed at large in: Dry Lands and
Desertification.
The Regolith (parent material) formation of the soil.
Soil formation, or the development of soils that are natural bodies,
includes two broad processes; first is the formation of a parent
material from which the soil evolves and, second is the evolution
of soil layers.
Approximately 99 percent of the world's soils develop in mineral
parent material that was or is derived from the weathering of
bedrock, and the rest develop in organic materials derived from
plant growth and consisting of muck or peat.
Consolidated Rock as a Source of Parent Material:
Consolidated rocks are not parent material but serve as a source
of soil parent material. Soil formation may begin immediately
after the deposition of volcanic ash but must await the physical
disintegration of hard rocks when granite, basalt, or sandstone are
exposed to weathering. During the early stages of rock weathering
and soil formation, the formation of parent material and soil may
occur simultaneously as two overlapping processes
Parent material formation from most hard rocks is by the physical
disintegration and chemical decomposition of the mineral
particles in the rock. A parent material derived from sandstone is,
essentially, composed of the sand particles that were cemented
together in the sandstone. In the case of limestone, the soil
develops in the insoluble impurities that remain after the calcium
and magnesium carbonate have been dissolved and leached from
the weathering environment. Clay is a common impurity in
limestone, giving rise to the fine texture of soils derived from
limestone weathering.
Chert is a compact, siliceous material that occurs in some
limestones. The Chert resists dissolution, and soils formed from
the weathering of cherty limestone are stony.
Many centimeters of limestone are required to form a centimeter
of soil, because the impurities (residues) typically comprise only
a small percentage of the limestone and some of the residues are
carried away. Estimates indicate that it takes 100,000 years to
form a foot of residue from the weathering of limestone in a
humid region.
Sediments as a Source of Parent Material:
Most soils have developed from sediments that were transported
by water, wind, ice, or gravity. Colluvial sediments occur at the
base of steep slopes where gravity is the dominant force, causing
movement and sedimentation. Colluvial sediments are common
and are an important parent material in mountainous areas.
Alluvial sediments are ubiquitous because of the widespread
existence of streams and rivers. Colluvial and alluvial sediments
occur as inclusions in areas dominated by hard rocks or other
kinds of sediments. Very thick alluvial sediments occur in the
valley. Very thick glacial deposits occur on the tree-covered
lateral moraine that is adjacent to the valley floor along the left
side. An intermediate thickness of parent material occurs where
trees are growing below the bare mountaintops and above the
thick alluvial and moraine sediments. Most of the world's soils
have formed in sediments consisting of material that was
produced by the weathering of bedrock at one place and was
transported and deposited at another location. In thick sediments
 or parent materials, the formation of soil layers is not limited by
the rate of rock weathering, and several soil layers may form
simultaneously.
The Soil Profile:
The soil profile is comprised of two or more soil layers called
horizons, one below the other, each parallel to the surface of the
land.
Important characteristics of the various horizons are:
 Soil horizons differ in color, texture, structure, consistence,
porosity and soil reaction.
 Soil horizons may be several feet thick or as thin as a fraction
of an inch.
 Generally, the horizons merge with one another and may or
may not show sharp boundaries. Horizons in a soil profile
are like the parts of a layer cake without the clear bonds of
frosting between them.

Fig: 4 Horizons
Soil layers or horizons:
O horizons or layers: Surface layers of organic material
accumulated on top of the surface of either mineral or organic
soil. O horizons may consist of undecomposed or partially
decomposed litter, such as leaves, needles, twigs, fruit, moss, and
lichens. Other O layers, called peat, muck, or mucky peat, are
organic material that was deposited underwater and that has
decomposed to varying stages. The mineral fraction of such
material is only a small percentage of the volume of the material
and generally is much less than half of the weight. Some soils
consist entirely of material designated as O horizons or layers.
A horizons: Mineral horizons that formed at the surface or below
an O horizon and (1) are characterized by an accumulation of
humified organic matter well mixed with the mineral fraction and
not dominated by properties characteristic of E or B horizons
(defined below) or (2) have properties resulting from cultivation,
pasturing, or similar kinds of disturbance. If a surface horizon has
properties of both A and E horizons but the feature emphasized is
an accumulation of humified organic matter, it is designated an A
horizon
E horizons: Mineral horizons in which the main feature is loss of
silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or some combination of these,
leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles of quartz or
other resistant minerals. An E horizon is usually, but not
necessarily, lighter in color than an underlying B horizon. In
some soils the color is that of the sand and silt particles, but in
many soils coats of iron or other compounds mask the color of the
primary particles.
An E horizon is differentiated from an overlying A horizon by
lighter color and lesser amount of organic matter. An E horizon is
differentiated from an underlying B horizon by color of higher
value or lower Chroma, by coarser texture, or by a combination
of these properties. An E horizon is commonly near the surface
below an O or A horizon and above a B horizon.
B horizons: Mineral horizons that have formed below an A, E, or
O horizon and are dominated by one or any combination of the
following:
 Illuvial accumulation of silicate clay, iron, aluminum,
humus, etc. alone or in combination;
 Coatings of sesquioxides that make the horizon
conspicuously lower in value, higher in chroma, or redder in
hue than overlying and underlying horizons;
 Alteration that forms silicate clay or liberates oxides or both
and that forms granular, blocky, or prismatic structure if
volume changes accompany changes in moisture content;
 Evidence of removal of carbonates.
C horizons: Horizons, excluding hard bedrock, that are little
affected by pedogenic processes and lack properties of O, A, E,
or B horizons. Most are mineral layers, but limnic layers, whether
organic or inorganic, are included. The material of C layers may
be either like or unlike that from which the solum presumably
formed. A C horizon may have been modified even if there is no
evidence of pedogenesis.
Some soils form in material that is already highly weathered, and
such material that does not meet the requirements of A, E, or B
horizons is designated C. Changes not considered pedogenic are
those not related to overlying horizons.
R Layers: Hard Bedrock. Granite, basalt, quartzite, and indurated
limestone or sandstone are examples of bedrock that are
designated R. The bedrock of an R layer is sufficiently coherent
when moist to make hand digging with a spade impractical,
although it may be chipped or scraped with a spade.
Fig: 5 soil formation
Soil Formation:
Soil layers are approximately parallel to the land surface and
several layers may evolve simultaneously over a period of time.
The layers in a soil are genetically related; however, the layers
differ from each other in their physical, chemical, and biological
properties. In soil terminology, the layers are called horizons.
Because soils as natural bodies are characterized by genetically
developed horizons, soil formation consists of the evolution of
soil horizons.
A vertical exposure of a soil consisting of the horizons is a soil
profile.
Soil-Forming Processes:
Horizonation (the formation of soil horizons) results from the
differential gains, losses, transformations, and translocations
that occur over time within various parts of a vertical section of
the parent material. Examples of the major kinds of changes that
occur to produce horizons are:
1. Addition of organic matter from plant growth, mainly to the
topsoil;
2. Transformation represented by the weathering of rocks and
minerals and the decomposition of organic matter;
3. Loss of soluble components by water moving downward
through soil carrying out soluble salts; and,
4. Translocation represented by the movement of suspended
mineral and organic particles from the topsoil to the subsoil.
The Soil-Forming Factors:
Five soil-forming factors are generally recognized as: parent
material, climate, organisms, relief (topography), and time. And
they are as follows;
Parent Material: This is the material from which the soil has
developed and can vary from solid rock to deposits like alluvium
and boulder clay.
It has been defined as ‘the initial state of the soil system’.
The parent material can influence the soil in a number of ways:
• Color
• Texture
• Structure
• Mineral composition
• Permeability/drainage
This soil has developed on Old Red Sandstone and so has derived
its distinctive colour from its parent material.
Climate: This is probably the most important factor (soils
produced from the same parent material under different climates
contrast). Climate governs the rate and type of soil formation and
is also the main determinant of vegetation distribution.
Soil climate has two major components; moisture (precipitation)
and temperature, influencing evaporation. When precipitation
exceeds evaporation, leaching of the soil will occur.
Temperature determines the rate of reactions; chemical and
biological decay and so has an influence on weathering and
humification.
Organisms: Organisms influencing soil development range from
microscopic bacteria to large animals including man.
Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi assist in the
decomposition of plant litter.
This litter is mixed into the soil by macro organisms (Soil
animals) such as worms and beetles.
Soil horizons are less distinct when there is much soil organism
activity. Higher plants influence the soil in many ways.
The nature of the soil humus is determined by the vegetation
cover and resultant litter inputs. Roots contribute dead roots to the
 soil, bind soil particles together and can redistribute and compress
soil.
Relief (topography).
Relief is not static; it is a dynamic system (its study is called
geomorphology).
Relief influences soil formation in several ways:
• It influences soil profile thickness i.e. as angle of slope increases
so does the erosion hazard
• It has an effect on climate which is also a soil forming factor
• Gradient affects run-off, percolation and mass movement
• It influences aspect which creates microclimatic conditions.
Time.
Soils develop very slowly. In Britain it takes about 400 years for
10mm of soil to develop.
Young soils retain many of the characteristics of the parent
material. Over time they acquire other features resulting from the
addition of organic matter and the activity of organisms.
The soils of Britain are relatively young because they are largely
post-glacial.
An important feature of soils is that they pass through a number
of stages as they develop, resulting in a deep profile with many
well differentiated horizons.

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