Soil Chemistry

CHM 001 Chemistry For Engineers

Engr. JEAN RAYNELL S. BELLO, MSc.

Technological Institute of the Philippines
Soil
• The organic and inorganic materials
on the surface of the earth that
provide the medium for plant
growth.

Soil Chemistry – a scientific discipline

dealing with chemical properties of
soils and studies on the influence of
fertilizers, pesticides, and other
chemical substances applied on or
into the soil on its behavior and
fertility.
Soil Composition
Generally, the overall makeup of soil is:
1. Inorganic mineral matter (defined as soil material made up mostly of oxygen,
silicon, and aluminum-many other metals in small quantities may be included)
2. Organic mineral matter (defined as soil material having derived mostly from
plant residues and made up mostly of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen)
These soil minerals control adsorption, transformation, and release behavior
of chemical constituents to water or soil solution.
3. Solutes (refers to the portion of soil composed of water and mostly dissolved
salts (plant nutrients)
4. Air (refers to the gaseous portion of soil composed of the same gases found in
the atmosphere (oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide) but in different
proportions)
Weathering
Soil is formed by the
process of weathering of
rocks.

Weathering occurs
because rocks and
minerals become
exposed to physical and
chemical conditions that
differ from conditions
under which they
formed. It can be
separated into two types:
physical and chemical.
Physical weathering – changes
in the degree of consolidation
with little or no chemical and
mineralogical changes of rocks
and minerals.
Chemical weathering –
involves changes in chemical
and mineralogical composition
that generally act on the
surfaces of rocks or minerals.
Soil Horizons
Soil consists of different layers
parallel to the soil surface called
horizons, whose physical, chemical
and biological characteristics differ
from the layers above and beneath.
Horizons are defined in many cases
by obvious physical features, mainly
color and texture.
On the right is a vertical cross-section
of the soil showing all of its
constituent horizons. Different soils
will have different soil profiles.
Soil Horizons
O: This is a layer of organic matter
that is about 2 inches thick and is
made up of dead plant material
such as leaves and twigs

A: This upper soil horizon is also

called Topsoil. It is only between 5
to 10 inches thick and consists of
organic matter and minerals. This
is the soil layer where plants and
organisms primarily live.
Soil Horizons
B: This layer is also called Subsoil.
It is mostly made of clay, iron
minerals as well as organic matter,
which has been washed down to
this horizon by rainwater.

C: The C horizon is the parent

material from which the upper soil
layers developed. It consists
primarily of large rocks.
Soil Horizons

R: This is the bedrock and is

located several feet under the
surface. The bedrock is made up of
a solid mass of rock.
Soil Formation
Soil Orders
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides an
elaborate classification of soil based on the origin, composition, and
other features.
• To identify, manage, and use soil effectively, scientists have developed
a soil taxonomy system that contains several details about the soil
ranging from general to specific details.
• The general level of soil classification in the US system is the soil order
of which the soil is placed in 12 categories.
• The soil order is based on one or a few key chemical, physical, or
biological feature that distinguish one soil order from the other
orders.
 Soil
Orders

Soil regions of the

United States, showing
areas covered by soil
orders of the U.S. Soil
Taxonomy
Soil Orders
Ultisols
Ultisols are strongly leached and acidic forest
soils with relatively low fertility. They are
found primarily in humid temperate and
tropical areas of the world, typically on older,
stable landscapes. Ultisols have a subsurface
horizon in which clays have accumulated,
often with strong yellowish or reddish colors
resulting from the presence of iron (Fe)
oxides.
Soil Orders
Alfisols
Alfisols are moderately leached
soils that have relatively high
native fertility. These soils have
formed primarily under forest and
have a subsurface horizon in which
clays have accumulated. They are
inherently more fertile compared
to Ultisols with high-to-medium
saturation. Alfisols are found
mostly in temperate humid and
subhumid regions of the world.
Soil Orders
Andisols
Andisols are formed from the weathering of
volcanic material in minerals in the soil
characterized. They differ from those of other
soil orders in that they typically are dominated
by glass and short-range-order colloidal
weathering products. As a result, andisols have
andic properties - unique chemical and physical
properties that include high water-holding
capacity and the ability to "fix" large quantities
of phosphorus. They are also easily erodible,
especially on the slopes of the mountains.
Soil Orders
Aridisols
Aridisols are soils that occur in dry areas that
cannot support plants which are adapted to
regions that are extremely dry or too wet. They
are calcium carbonate-containing soils of arid
regions that exhibit at least some subsurface
horizon development. The dry climate under
which the soils are found restrict weathering
processes. Materials such as soluble salts,
gypsum, and calcium carbonate tend to be
leached from soils of moister climates.
Soil Orders
Histosols
Histosols are soils that are composed mainly
of organic materials in the upper portion and
contain soil commonly called bogs, peat land,
and fens. They contain at least 20 to 30%
organic matter by weight and are more than
40 cm thick. Histosols are only productive
when well drained but are not suitable for
the construction of roads or foundation for
buildings.
Soil Orders
Gelisols
Gelisols are soils of very cold climates that
contain permafrost within 2 meters of the
surface. The soils are found in the Arctic and
Antarctic regions as well as places of high
elevation. Because of the extreme
environment in which they are found,
Gelisols support only about 0.4% of the
world's population — the lowest percentage
of any of the soil orders.
Soil Orders
Entisols
Entisols is the last order in the soil taxonomy
that inhibits little or no soil development
other than the availability of the identifiable
topsoil horizon. It is a most common soil
order by surface area and occurs in areas
where there are recently deposited
sediments where deposition of the
sediments is faster than the rate of soil
development. All soils that do not fit into one
of the other 11 orders are entisols.
Soil Orders
Inceptisols
Inceptisols are soils that exhibit minimal
horizon development. They are more
developed than Entisols but the soil lacks
much of clay and nutrient accumulation
in the subsoil and occurs within a broad
range of parent material and different
weather conditions. They are often found
on fairly steep slopes, young geomorphic
surfaces, and resistant parent materials.
Soil Orders
Mollisols
Mollisols are the dark-colored soils of
grassland ecosystems and are highly
fertile and rich in chemicals such as
calcium and magnesium. They are
characterized by a thick, dark surface
horizon. This fertile surface horizon,
known as a mollic epipedon, results from
the long-term addition of organic
materials derived from plant roots.
Soil Orders
Oxisols
Oxisols are dominated by iron oxide
and very highly weathered soils that are
found primarily in the intertropical
regions of the world. Oxisols are
featureless without clearly marked
layers or horizons. The soils are of low
nutrient content and fertility because of
the high weathering but can be made
more productive by use of fertilizers.
Soil Orders
Spodosols
Spodosols are acid soils characterized by a
subsurface accumulation of humus that is
complexed with Al and Fe. These photogenic
soils typically form in coarse-textured parent
material and have a light-colored E horizon
overlying a reddish-brown spodic horizon.
The process that forms these horizons is
known as podzolization.
Soil Orders
Vertisols
Vertisols are clay-rich soils that shrink and
swell with changes in moisture content.
During dry periods, the soil volume shrinks
and deep wide cracks form. The soil volume
then expands as it wets up. This shrink/swell
action creates serious engineering problems
and generally prevents formation of distinct,
well-developed horizons in these soils
Physicochemical Reactions of Soil
I. Physical Properties of Soil
Texture
Texture refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes such as
sand, silt and clay in the soil.
Structure
The term texture is used in reference to the size of individual soil particles but
when the arrangement of the particles is considered the term structure is used
Consistence
is the resistance of a soil to deformation or rupture and is determined by the
cohesive and adhesive properties of the soil mass.
Physicochemical Reactions of Soil
I. Physical Properties of Soil
Particle density
mass per unit volume of soil particles expressed in g/cc. Most soils have particle
density of about 2.6 g/cc. Presence of organic matter decrease the density and iron
compounds increase the density.
Bulk density
mass of soil per unit volume of soil (volume includes both soil and pores) - expressed in
g/cc.
Pore space
is defined by porosity of a material possessing free space between the mineral grains
and depends on size and sorting of the particles as a cubic or hexagonic package.
Physicochemical Reactions of Soil
I. Physical Properties of Soil
Soil color
Soil colour gives an indication of the various processes going-on in the soil
as well as the type of minerals in the soil.
Atterberg limits
Consistence of soils changes with the amount of moisture in the soil.
Atterberg limits correspond to the moisture content at which a soil sample
changes it's consistence from one state to the other.
Soil permeability
This is the ability of the soil to transmit water and air.
Physicochemical Reactions of Soil
II. Chemical Properties of Soil
Soil Reaction (pH)
Soils may have either an acid or an alkaline reaction, or may be neutral. The
measure of the chemical reaction of the soil is expressed by its pH value.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
The “cation exchange capacity”, or “CEC”, of a soil is a measurement of the
magnitude of the negative charge per unit weight of soil, or the amount of
cations a particular sample of soil can hold in an exchangeable form.
Cations leaving the exchange sites enter the soil solution, where they can be taken up
by plants, react with other soil constituents, or be carried away with drainage water.
Soil Pollution
The contamination of soils with various
inorganic and organic contaminants led
to the degradation of large expenses of
urban and arable lands throughout the
world. The presence of toxic
contaminants poses a significant health
risk to humans and other ecological
systems.
Soil pollution is defined as the presence
of toxic chemicals in soil, in high enough
concentrations to pose a risk to human
health and/or the ecosystem.
Sources of Soil Pollution
There are two main causes through which soil pollution is generated:
Natural Pollutants
Naturally, contaminants are
added into the soils through
volcanic eruptions and
weathering of soil parent
material, such as the
accumulation of higher levels of
perchlorate in soil from the
Atacama Desert in Chile, a type
of accumulation which is purely
due to natural processes in arid
environments.
Sources of Soil Pollution
There are two main causes through which soil pollution is generated:

Anthropogenic Pollutants
or Man-made pollutants are the
main causes of soil pollution. They
can pollute the soil either alone or
combined with several natural soil
contaminants. Man-made soil
pollution is usually caused by the
improper disposal of waste coming
from industrial or urban sources,
industrial activities, and agricultural
pesticides.
Point and Non-Point Sources
Each of the sources mentioned previously can be further divided into two
categories:
1. Point Sources – is a single, identifiable source of pollution from which
pollutants are discharged such as a pipe or a drain. Examples are:
• discharges from wastewater treatment plants;
• operational wastes from industries; and
• combined sewer outfalls.
2. Non-Point Sources – pollutants does not come from a specific source.
Examples are: Excess fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides from agricultural
lands and residential areas
• Oil, grease and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production
• Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines
• Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes and faulty septic systems
Classification of Soil Pollutants
1. Biological Pollutants - Biological agents work inside the soil to
introduce manures and digested sludge (coming from the human,
bird and animal excreta) into the soil. This includes bacteria, viruses,
fungi, protozoa, insects (fleas and cockroaches), and arachnids (dust
mites).
2. Organic Pollutants – The major group of chemicals includes
halogenated aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons including
benzenes and petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear hydrocarbons
(PAHs), organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyles
(PCBs), phthalate esters, oil, and grease which are contributed from
a number of point and nonpoint sources.
Classification of Soil Pollutants
3. Inorganic Contaminants –
The major inorganic
contaminants are heavy metals
and metalloids (e.g., Cu, Zn,
Cd, Pb, Ni, Cr, As) which mainly
originate from discharges from
industry and from domestic
grey water, including leaching
from Cu and Pb pipes and Zn
from domestic products (skin
creams, deodorants, etc.).
Effects of Soil Pollution

• Effect on Human Health -

Long term exposure to
such soil can affect the
genetic make-up of the
body, causing congenital
illnesses and chronic
health problems that
cannot be cured easily.
Effects of Soil Pollution
• Effect on Plant Growth - The
fertility slowly diminishes,
making land unsuitable for
agriculture and any local
vegetation to survive.
• Inferior Crop Quality -
The toxic chemicals present in
the soil can decrease soil
fertility and therefore decrease
in the soil yield. The
contaminated soil is then used
to produce fruits and
vegetables which lacks quality
nutrients and may contain
some poisonous substance to
cause serious health problems
in people consuming them
Effects of Soil Pollution
• Water Sources
Contamination - the
surface run-off after
raining will carry the
polluted soil and
enter into different
water resource. Thus,
it can cause
underground water
contamination
thereby causing
water pollution.
Effects of Soil Pollution
• Negative Impact on Ecosystem
and Biodiversity - soil pollution
can cause an imbalance of the
ecosystem by creating negative
impacts on the lives of the living
organisms which can result in the
gradual death of many organisms.
It can cause health threats to
animals grazing in the
contaminated soil or
microorganisms residing in the soil.
Technologies for Remediation of Heavy
Metal/Metalloid Contaminated Soils

Chemical Remediation Phytoremediation

Immobilization Phytoextraction
Phytostabilization
Solidification
Phytovolatilization
Vitrification
Phytostimulation
Chemical Oxidation
Phytotransformation
Soil Flushing Rhizofiltration