Geologi Bawah Permukaan

Physical properties of Rock

Maulana Rizki Aditama, S.Si., M.Sc

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Jurrassic sandstone
(Bridgeport, UK).

Ledges – harder
layers – grains
cemented with
lime (calcium
carbonate)

Heterogenous

Figure from R. Stoneley (1995)

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 Temperature

Average !

From Rider (2000), The geological interpretation of Well Logs 4

 Pressure

• Normal Presure - Weight of

fluid
• Hydrostatic – 10 MPa/km
• Lithostatic – 23-27 MPa/km
• Horizontal stress?

WHY?

From Rider (2000), The geological interpretation of Well Logs 5

 We first need to know something about
rocks (and fluids)

Rock types (lithology)

Rock at depth (pressure, temperature)
Rock Physics (Petrophysics)
§ Composition (Solid components)
§ Microstructure (volume and arrangement of pore space)
§ Fluid properties – salinity, viscosity, density, pressure,
flow
§ Rock-fluid properties (permeability; wettability)
Electrical properties of rocks

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Pore spaces in the rock
POROSITY, SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA
Nature of the fluids filling the pore spaces
HYDROCARBON SATURATION
Fluid-rock properties
PERMEABILITY; RELATIVE PERMEABILITY;
WETTABILITY
Fluid Properties - Pressure and Fluid Flow
DRIVE; CAPILLARY PRESSURE
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Rock Composition
SOLID components
Mineralogy and proportions of the solid
components

PORE SPACE and FLUID components

Proportion and nature of “interstitial” fluids
(porosity & saturation)

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 Solid components of rock

Chief (first order) classification is to separate shale from

other solid constituents

MATRIX - All non-shale solid components

§ GRAINS,
§ SUB-GRAINS
§ CEMENT
“SHALE” – CLAY and Silt

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 Matrix

SIMPLE MATRIX
Single mineralogical constituent
e.g., quartz sand
COMPLEX MATRIX
Multiple mineralogy
e.g., quartz sand with calcite cement
Both are CLEAN FORMATIONS
100% solid component is MATRIX
i.e. There is NO clay or shale
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 Shale, silt and clay

SHALE is a fine-grained sedimentary rock formed by

the consolidation of silt and clay

Typical shale composition

§ SILT (50%) - very fine grained rock fragments
0.005 – 0.05 mm
§ CLAY (35%) - extra fine grained clay minerals
< 0.005 mm (5 mm)
§ MINERALS (15%) - chemical or authigenic minerals

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 Microstructure
Arrangements of grains leaves spaces:
pores, fractures and/or channels
Pores filled with:
AIR WATER GAS OIL
Connectivity of pores affects
rock properties:
Permeability
Electrical conductivity
Vp and Vs velocities
Seismic attenuation
Heat flow

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Porosity

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 Porosity

The fraction of the total volume of a rock that

is not occupied by solid constituents

Porosity, f = Volume of pore space

Total volume of rock

Units: fractional (0.30), percentage (30%)

ALWAYS use the fractional form in calculations
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Classification of Porosity

Total Porosity (ft)

Primary Porosity (f1)
Secondary Porosity (f2)
Interconnected Porosity (fconnect)
Potential Porosity (fpot)
Effective Porosity (feff)

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 Total Porosity, ft

ALL void spaces in the rock

Includes all PORES, CHANNELS, FRACTURES and VUGS

Reservoir rocks ft ~ 10 - 30%

ft = f1 + f2
(i.e., Primary + Secondary Porosity)

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 Primary Porosity

The intergranular or inter-crystalline porosity of

‘primary’ deposition of the sediment

Depends on:
(i) arrangement of grains
(ii) grain shape, and
(iii) size distribution

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 Arrangement of spherical grains

Stacked spheres
47.6% porosity

Close stacked spheres

25.9% porosity

Porosity independent of size of sphere (if equal size)

 Arrangement of spherical grains

Max porosity – cubic packing of spheres

- Side length 2r
- Vtotal = 8r3
- Vmatrix = 4/3 p r3
- f = (Vtotal – Vmatrix) / Vtotal = 0.476 (47.6%)

If Spheres fill in cusps – 26%

If a Size distribution -
- gets smaller and smaller ... until zero?

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 Porosity calculation (from Tiab & Donaldson)
A clean, dry and cylindrical core sample weighing 425 g was 100%
saturated with a 1.07 specific gravity (g) brine. The new weight
is 453g. The core is 12 cm long and 4 cm in diameter.
Calculate the porosity of the rock sample.

Bulk volume, Vb = p (2)2 (12) = 150.80 cm3

Pore volume, Vp = (Wwet – Wdry)/g = (453-425)/1.07 = 26.17

(weight = volume × density)

Porosity = Vb = 26.17 = 17.3%

Vp 150.8
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 Shape of
grains
Actual grains are
not spherical
usually leads to
decrease in porosity

Shape Porosity
(fractionnaire)
Sphere ³0.399
Cube 0.425
Cylinder 0.429
Disc 0.453
 Secondary Porosity

Secondary porosity caused by:

§ Dissolution of the matrix - VUGS
§ Mechanical Forces - FRACTURES

Common in carbonates

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 Potential Porosity, fpot
That part of the interconnected porosity in which the
diameter of the connecting channels is large enough to
permit fluid flow
§ > 50 µm for OIL;
§ > 5 µm for GAS

In some cases fpot << fconnect

For CLAYS fconnect ~ 40-50%
but fpot , <1%
due to small pores & molecular attraction

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 Effective Porosity, fe

• Pore volume that has potential to store hydrocarbon

• i.e. Porosity that is accessible to free fluids
• EXCLUDES non-connected porosity and volume of
water bound on clay

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Saturation

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 Fluid content

Hydrocarbon Saturation Shc = Vhc/Vpores

Water saturation Sw = Vw/Vpores = 1 –Shc

Sw + So + Sg (+ Sother gases) = 1

åSi = 1
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 Importance of Water Conductivity
Water conducts electricity by virtue of
DISSOLVED SALTS

If we know the resistivity of the rock and the porosity

as well as the resistivity of the water we may:
determine the fraction of water in the rock,
determine the fraction of hydrocarbon in the rock

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Permeability

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 Permeability

Defines the degree to which

the pores are interconnected
and allow fluid flow
Permeability is measured in
darcys in the industry
The SI unit is m2
Symbol k or K

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 Permeability
• One darcy is the permeability
which will allow a flow of 1 cm3
per second of fluid of 1
centipoise viscosity through
a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2
under a pressure gradient of 1
atmosphere per cm.
• One darcy is expressed as 1 D
or 1 d.
• In words it is never capitalised.

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 Permeability
• Occasionally there are higher values, but most often
values much lower than 1 D.

1000 millidarcies (1 mD) = 1 D

106 microdarcies (106 µD) = 1 D
109 nanodarcies (109 nD) = 1 D

1 D = 9.869233´10-13 m2

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 Darcy’s Law: flow rate (laminar)

Q = kaA(DP/L)/µ
[m3]/[s]=
[?][m2]([Pa]/[m])/([Pa][s])

SI unit of permeability [m2]

1 m2 = 1.01325 . 1012 darcys
1 darcy = 9.8692 . 10-13 m2

Absolute permeability (ka) – in ideal case, a property

of the rock only, not the fluid.
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 Permeability

Traditional reservoir permeabilities

a few milli-darcys to a few tens of darcys
Unconventional reservoir permeabilities
10 µD to a few tens of milli-darcys
Note that in our model of sandstone, reducing the
size of the spheres by a half. The porosity remains the
same but permeability is reduced by about 25 times!

Hence fining and coarsening of the reservoir

are very important
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 Relative Permeability

• Permeability to one fluid –absolute (ka)

• Single “phase”, two-phase, multi-phase fluid flow
• Permeability to a particular phase reduced when a 2nd or
3rd phasepresent!!
• Permeability of one fluid will depend on how
much of the other fluid there is

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 Relative permeability

kri = kei/kref
krw = kew/kref
kro = keo/kref
krg = keg/kref
Irreducible water
saturation, Swi
Residual oil
saturation

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 Flow and effective permeability (ke)
What if there is more than one fluid present?
Extension of Darcy’s law to more than one fluid in the porous media

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Wettability

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 Wettability
Irreducible Water and Residual Oil are related to
pore throat size,
capillary forces, and
wettability
2 fluids – if immiscible; one is the “wetting”
the other the “non-wetting”fluid
Wettability is measure of capacity of a fluid to coat a
surface
In general, wetting fluids tend to occupy small pore
throats; non-wetting fluids occupy large pore throats
Most reservoirs – wetting fluid is formation water
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 Wettability
Mineral • Generally:
§ < 75o water wet
Water
Oil Contact § 75o - 105o intermediate
angle § > 105o oil wet

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Poroperm

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 Porosity vs Permeability
Scatter depends on
the connectivity of
the pores.

P o r o p e r m diagr am s
MUST be
c o n s t r u c t e d ONLY
w i t h samples f r o m
t h e SAME r o c k
facies

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 Porosity vs Permeability
Scatter depends on
the connectivity of
the pores.
That depends on
other factors such as
pore size.

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