Heriot -Watt University

Heriot-Watt
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Fundamental Properties
of
Reservoir Rocks

Adrian C Todd
Introduction

z Properties of rocks with respect to the fluids

contained and injected are important
characterisation parameters.
z Influence reserves and mobility.
z Reservoir engineer concerned with:
‹ The quantities of fluids contained
‹ The transmissivity of fluids through the rocks
and related properties
Chartacteristics of Reservoir Rocks

z Factors which effect capacity and flow of

fluids are:
‹ porosity
‹ permeability
‹ capillary pressure
‹ compressibility
‹ fluid saturation
Chartacteristics of Reservoir Rocks

z For economic viability for oil & gas production

reservoir rock must exceed a:
‹ minimum porosity
‹ minimum thickness
‹ minimum permeability
‹ minimum area
Chartacteristics of Reservoir Rocks
z For fluid production the rock must be
permeable.
z Sufficient large and interconnecting pores.
z A permeable rock is porous.
z Porous does not necessarily imply permeable.
z Volcanic rocks, porous BUT pores not
interconnecting.
z Shale, porous BUT pores very small.
Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks

z A typical reservoir rock - sandstone.

z The shape and size and size distribution
reflect:
‹ source
‹ physical and chemical processes exposed
to:
ˆ crushing & grinding
ˆ tumbling action in streams or on dunes.
Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks
z Pore spaces in the reservoir rock provide the
container for accumulation of fluids.
z Most commercial reservoirs occur in :
‹ sandstones
‹ limestone
‹ dolomite.
‹ Some occur in fractured shale
‹ basement rocks.

Porosity is one of the most important rock properties.

Measure of the space available for accumulation of fluids
Porosity

z Complex
z Space between grains or limestone caves
z sometimes good estimates from laboratory
studies
z sometimes such measurement irrelevant
 Porosity
z Complicated nature illustrated by metal cast of
pores
Porosity
z One classification based on pore space.
z whether original or formed subsequently
Porosity

Isolated
pores cannot
contribute to
recoverable
reserves
Porosity Pore volume
Porosity = x 100%
Bulk volume

Bulk volume − Grain volume

Porosity = x 100%
Bulk volume

Pore volume
Porosity = x 100%
Pore volume+Grain volume
Void volume
Porosity = x 100%
Bulk volume
Porosity
z Total Porosity
‹ is the ratio of volumes
of ALL pores to the
bulk material
‹ regardless of pore
interconnectivity
z Effective Porosity
™ is the ratio of
interconnected pore
volume to bulk material
volume
Porosity-Range of values
Consider a assembly of mono size spheres

Minimum packing
gives porosity of
47.6%

Maximum packing
gives porosity of
26%
Porosity-Range of values
z Packing & size of grains
‹ Absolute size does not have a large impact.

z Particle size distribution

‹ Wide size distribution leads to low porosity

z Particle shape
‹ Strong impact in sedimentary process

z Cementing material
‹ Clays and minerals
Porosity-Range of values

z Size distribution of grains effects porosity

 Porosity-Range of values
z Reservoir Porosity can range from 50% to
1.5%
z Typical values are:
35 - 45% Unconsolidated (young) Sands
20 - 35% Consolidated Sandstone
15 - 20% Strong (low permeability) Sandstone
5 - 20% Limestone
10 - 30% Dolomites
5 - 40% Chalk
Subsurface Measurement
z Surface measurements made on recovered
core.
z Down hole measurements very sophisticated.
z Downhole porosity related to acoustic and
radioactive properties of the rock.
Density Log
z Density log attributed to the porosity of the
rock.
z Needs good description of the mineralology.

ρL = ρM (1 − φ ) + ρ Fφ
ρL − ρM
φ=
ρF − ρM

ρ - Quartz = 2.65 g/cm3

ρ Limestone = 2.71 g/cm3
Sonic Log
z Measures response to acoustic energy through sonic
transducers
z Time of travel related to acoustic properties of the
formation.
z If mineralogy is not changing then travel time related
density and hence porosity.
z Formation fluids will effect response.

∆TL = ∆TM (1 − φ ) + ∆TFφ ∆TL − ∆TM

φ=
∆TF − ∆TM
∆Τ - Quartz = 55µs ft-1
∆Τ Limestone = 47 µs ft-1
∆Τ Water =190 µs ft-1
Neutron Log
z Another radioactive logging technique
z Measures response of the hydrogen atoms in
the formation
z Neutrons of specific energy fired into
formation.
z The radiated energy is detected by the tool.
z This is related to the hydrogen in the
hydrocarbon and water phase.
z The porosity determined by calibration
Average Porosity
z Porosity normally distributed
z An arithmetic mean can be used for
averaging.
n

∑φ i
φa = i −1
n
φa is the mean porosity
φi is the porosity of the
i th core measurement
n the number of measurements
Permeability
z The permeability of a rock is the description
of the ease with which fluid can pass through
the pore structure
z Can be so low to be considered
impermeable.
z Such rocks may constitute a cap rock above
permeable reservoir.
z Also include some clays,shales, chalk,
anhydrite and some highly cemented
sandstones.
 Permeability
z Term is used to link flowrate and pressure difference across
a section of porous rock.
z In a rock the pore space , size and interconnection is very
complex.
z The application of energy equations developed for flow in
pipes is difficult.
z The parameter used for this flow behaviour is termed
‘permeability”
z The unit of permeability is the Darcy, named after a French
scientist investigating flow through filter beds.
Permeability
kA∆P
z Darcy’s Law
Q=
µL
Q = flowrate in cm3 /sec
A = cross sectional area of flow in cm 2
∆P = pressure difference across ther sample, atmos.
µ = viscosity in centipoise
L = length of sample in cm.
k = permeability in Darcy
Permeability
z Darcy’s Law
‹ The rate of flow of fluid through a given rock
varies directly with the pressure applied, the
area open to flow and varies inversely with
the viscosity of the fluid flowing and the length
of the porous rock.
‹ The constant of proportionality is termed
‹ Permeability
Permeability
z Unit of permeability - Darcy
z Permeability which will permit flow of one centipoise
fluid to flow at linear velocity of one cm per second
under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per
centimetre.
Permeability
z Darcy’s Experiment
z A sandpack through which water flowed

1 A ( h1 − h 2 )
Q ∝ A, ∆h, Q=k
L L
 Permeability
Taking viscosity as a variable A ( h1 − h 2 )
Q=k
µL
Poiseuille equation for laminar pipe flow
πr 4 ∆P
r = radius of pipe of length L Q=
8µL
Carmen Kozeny equation
for flow in packed beds ⎛ −d 2 φ3 ⎞ 1 dP
u =⎜ ' ⎟
k’ = shape factor ⎜ k (1 − φ ) ⎟ µ dL
2

d = particle size ⎝ ⎠

There is a very strong relationship between porosity and

permeability
 Permeability
z Comparing equations.
Q ∆P
Darcy =k
A µL

Q ⎛ −d 2 φ3 ⎞ 1 dP
Carmen Kozeny =u =⎜ ' ⎟
⎜ ⎟ µ dL
⎝ k (1 − φ ) ⎠
2
A

It is not surprising therefore that there is a strong

relationship between permeability and porosity

d 2 φ3
k=
k (1 − φ )
' 2
Permeability
z Practical unit-millidarcy, mD, 10-3 Darcy
z Formations vary from a fraction of a millidarcy
to more than 10,000 millidarcy.
z Clays and shales have permeabilities of 10-2
to 10-6 mD.
z These very low permeabilities make them act
as seals between layers.
Factors Affecting Permeability

z Permeability is anisotropic
z Horizontal permeabilities in a reservoir are
generally higher than vertical permeabilities.
z Due to reservoir stresses
z Particle shape as influenced by depositional
process.
Anisotropic permeability

Impact of ordered deposition

Anisotropic permeability

Horizontal
permeabilities
can be affected
by the
deposition
process
Anisotropic permeability

Porosity is a
non directional
property
It is isotropic
 Dimensions of Permeability
Darcy’s Equation V = − k ⎛ dP − ρg dz ⎞
s ⎜ ⎟
µ ⎝ ds 1.0133 × 106 ds ⎠

L M M
Dimensions Vs = µ= ρ= 3
T LT L
M L dP M
P= 2 g = 2 = 2 2
LT T dS L T

L kLT ⎛ M M ⎞ L k
= ⎜ 2 2 − 3 2⎟ =
T M ⎝LT LT ⎠ T LT

k=L 2
Assumptions in Darcy’s Law
z Darcy’s Law assumes
‹ Steady State Flow
‹ Laminar Flow
‹ Single phase only occupying 100% of
porosity
‹ No reaction between fluid & rock
‹ Homogenous rock
Steady State Flow

z No transient flow regimes

z Unrealistic in reservoir flow
z OK for laboratory tests
z Cores are small enough for transients to only
last for a few minutes.
 Laminar Flow
z i.e. no turbulent
flow
z pressure drop due
to viscous forces
z Valid for most
reservoirs
 Turbulent Flow

z Non Darcy Flow

z Attributed to higher velocities
z Pressure drop due to kinetic
energy losses
z For example near well bore
flow in gas production
z Essentially appears as an
extra pressure loss term in the
flow system
Single phase only

z Achieved in the laboratory through cleaning

cores
z In the reservoir except for aquifer water flow
there is more than one phase present.
z Concept of relative permeability used to
describe more complex flow regime.
 No reaction between fluid & rock

z Some cases when this will not happen

z Hydraulic fracturing
z Acidising.
z Water flooding sometimes generates fines
from clays etc.
Applications of Darcy’s Law -
Horizontal Linear Incompressible System
Basic Darcy Equation
k ⎛ dP ρg dz ⎞
Vs = − ⎜ − ⎟
µ ⎝ ds 1.0133 × 10−6 ds ⎠

Q kA dP
Vs = Vx = QV== V− = Q
A s x
µ
A dx

L
kA
P2
kA
Q ∫ dx = − ∫ dP Q ( L − 0) = − ( P2 − P1 )
o
µ P1 µ

kA ( P1 − P2 )
Q=
µL
Applications of Darcy’s Law -
Horizontal Linear Compressible Ideal Gas
System
The laboratory set up for this would be:

Flow rate, Qb, measured at ambient pressure, Pb

Q in the core at P,
For ideal gas: QP
QP = Q b Pb Q= b b
P
Horizontal Linear Compressible Ideal Gas
System
kA ∆P
Q=−
µ dx

Q b Pb kA ∆P L
kA
P2

=− Q b Pb ∫ dx = − ∫ PdP
P µ dx o
µ P1

Q b Pb ( L − 0 ) = −
( 2
kA P2 − P 1
2
) Qb =
( 2
kA P1 − P2
2
)
µ 2 2µLPb

2µQ b Pb L
k=
(
A P − P2 1
2 2
)
Comparing Equations

Gas Liquid

Qb =
( 2
kA P1 − P2
2
) Q=
kA ( P1 − P2 )
2µLPb µL

In some circumstances the mean flow

rate is measured at a mean pressure.
For a core this is the mean of the
upstream and downstream pressure.

P1 + P2
P= and Q = volume flow rate at P
2

QP = Q b Pb
Comparing Equations

Pb Q b = PQ =
( 2
kA P − P2
1
2
)
2µL

1 kA ( P1 − P2 )( P1 + P2 )
( P1 + P2 ) Q =
2 2µL

kA ( P1 − P2 )
Q=
µL

The ideal gas permeability can be calculated from the

liquid equation using the mean flow measured at
mean pressure.
 Radial Linear Incompressible Liquid System

k ⎛ dP ρg dz ⎞ Q
Vs = − ⎜ − Vs = Vr =
⎟ A
µ ⎝ ds 1.0133 × 106 ds ⎠
ds = -dr
since the direction of flow is opposite to the co-ordinate system

For radial geometry the area A is radius dependent

A=2πrh
 Radial Linear Incompressible Liquid System
Q k ∆P
Darcy’s law =−
2πrh µ −dr

re Pe
Q dr k
∫ = ∫ dP
2πh rw r µ Pw

Q k
( ln re − ln rw ) = ( Pe − Pw )
2πh µ

2πkh ( Pe − Pw )
Radial Darcy Equation Q=
Incompressible flow ln re
µ
ln rw
Horizontal-Radial Linear Compressible Gas System
k ⎛ dP ρg dz ⎞ Q k ∆P
Vs = − ⎜ − ⎟ =−
µ ⎝ ds 1.0133 × 10−6 ds ⎠ 2πrh µ −dr

Q b Pb Q b Pb k ∆P
QP = Q b Pb Q= = 2πrh
P P µ dr
re Pe
dr 2πkh
Q b Pb ∫ = ∫ dP
rw
r µ Pw

⎡ re ⎤ 2πkh ⎡ Pe 2 − Pw 2 ⎤
Q b Pb ⎢ln ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ rw ⎦ µ ⎣ 2 ⎦
πkh
Qb =
re ( 2
Pe − Pw
2
)
µPb ln
rw
 Field Units
z Measurements in the field often quoted in field units.
A conversion is required for compatibility with Darcy
equation.
‹ Flow rate, Q - bbl/day or ft3/day or m3/day
Permeability, k - darcy
kA ( P1 − P2 )
‹

‹ Thickness, h - feet or metre Q=

µL
‹ Pressure, P - psia
to oil field units
‹ Viscosity, µ- centipoise
gives
‹ Radius. R - feet or metre
bbl kA ( P1 − P2 )
‹ Length, L - feet or metre Q = 1.1271
day µL
Klinkenberg Effect
z Darcy’s law should be the same irrespective
of transmitted fluids.
z Since viscosity is in the equation
z Measurements on gas compared to liquid give
higher values than the liquid for some
conditions.
z The phenomena is attributed to Klinkenberg.
 Klinkenberg Effect
z Considered due to the effect of slippage of gas
molecules along grain surfaces.
z Occurs when the diameter of the pore throat
approaches mean free path of the gas.
z Darcy’s law assumes laminar flow and viscous theory
specifies zero velocity at the boundary.
z Not valid when mean free path approaches diameter
of pore.
z Result there is insufficient gas molecules to form a
zero velocity.
 Klinkenberg Effect
z Mean free path function
of size of molecule.
z Smaller the molecule ,
the larger the effect
z Gas permeabilty is
plotted versus reciprocal
mean pressure
 Klinkenberg Effect
Measurements made in gas permeability set
up

Liquid permeabilty
0 reciprocal mean pressure
mean pressure infinity
Klinkenberg equation

kG b =Slope of line
kL =
b
1+
Pm Effect greatest for low permeabilty rock at low mean
pressures.
 Reactive Fluids
z Darcy’s law assumes no reaction with the
formation.
z Many formation with clays react with water to
give lower permeability.
z Lower permeability in formation than gas
based measurements in the laboratory.
z Water injected into the formation may
severely reduce permeability due to clay
swelling.
Average Permeability

z Permeability is not normally distributed but

has an exponential function.
z Geometric mean is used to obtain average
reservoir permeability.

k avg = n
( k1 x k 2 x...k n )