ALIRAN AIR TANAH

DARCY’S LAW
DARCY’S EXPERIMENT

Darcy showed that;

■ Q is in direction of decreasing head
■ q is proportional to h2-h1 = Dh, given Dl fixed, q ∞ (-Dh)
■ q is inversely proportional to Dl, given Dh fixed, q ∞ (1/Dl)
■ The proportionality constant is K, and flow is from higher to lower
hydraulic head.
Darcy’s Law
KEY AQUIFER
PARAMETER
■ Porosity : is a measure of the void spaces in a material
■ Permeability: a measure of the ability of a material (such as rocks) to
transmit fluids
■ Porosity and permeability are related properties of any rock or loose
sediment. Both are related to the number, size, and connections of
openings in the rock. More specifically, porosity of a rock is a
measure of its ability to hold a fluid. Mathematically, it is the open
space in a rock divided by the total rock volume (solid and space).
■ Permeability is a measure of the ease of flow of a fluid through a
porous solid. A rock may be extremely porous, but if the pores are
not connected, it will have no permeability. Likewise, a rock may have
a few continuous cracks which allow ease of fluid flow, but when
porosity is calculated, the rock doesn't seem very porous.
Porosity
Permeability

Permeability : measures the transmission property of the media

and the interconnection of the pores. Related to hydraulic
conductivity and transmissivity (more later)
■ GOOD AQUIFER – High porosity + High permeability
– Sand and gravel, sandstone, limestone, fractured rock,
basalt
■ AQUICLUDE, Confining bed, Aquitard – “impermeable” unit
forming a barrier to groundwater flow
– Granite, shale, clay
PERMEABILITY
Hydraulic conductivity

■  = specific weight,
■  = dynamic viscosity
Example Problem
■ The intrinsic permeability of a consolidated rock is 2.7 x
10-3 darcy. What is the hydraulic conductivity for water at
150C.

■ At 150C;
■  = 0.999099 g/cm3,
■  = 0.011404 g/s.cm
Aquifer Characteristics
Aquifer characteristics

w = the density of the water (ML-3),

g = the acceleration of gravity (LT-2),
 = the compressibility of the aquifer skeleton (1/(M/LT2)),
 = the compressibility of the water (1/(M/LT2)),
n = the porosity (L3/L3)
Example Problem
■ An unconfined aquifer with a storativity of 0.13 has an area of 123 mi2.
The water table drops 5.23 ft during a drought. How much water was
lost from storage.

■ If the same aquifer had been confined with a storativity of 0.0005,

what change in the amount of water in storage would have resulted.
 PERMEABILITY
(HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY)
TEST
PENENTUAN KONDUKTIFITAS HIDROLIKA

■ Persamaan (ukuran butir material)

■ Uji laboratorium (Permeameter )
– Constant Head
– Falling head
■ Tracer Test
■ Auger hole test
■ Pumping test
Examples
Typical Permeability- Porosity Relationship
Example Problem
Persamaan Ukuran Butiran
The Hazen equation is
𝐾 = 𝐴. 𝐶. 𝑡 𝑑20 2
■ The term A determines the dimensions
of hydraulic conductivity being 1 for K in
meters per day, and 0.00116 for K in
centimeters per second. C is a function
of porosity, approximated by C
=400+40(n-26), where n is percent
porosity. The t term is a correction for
water viscosity, 0.70+0.03(oC), and d10
is in millimeters. Measured permeability
values correlate well with Hazen values
for the complete samples, with a
correlation coefficient of r =0.697.
Hazen values for the cut samples tend
to underestimated permeability.
The USBR equation is
𝐾 = 0,36 𝑑20 2,3
■ The effective diameter d20 is
reported in millimeters and
hydraulic conductivity is in
centimeters per second.
Permeability values calculated by
this equation underestimate
permeability fairly significantly.
Correlation of the cut-sample values
with mea-sured permeability is r =
0.712, and correlation with
complete samples is r = 0.58
Darcy’s Apparatus for A
Determining Permeability
•Flow is Steady State h1-h2
•q = KA (h1-h2)/L
•K is a constant of proportionality
•h1>h2 for downward flow A
h1

h2
(Sand Pack Length) L

q
Permeameters

Constant Head Falling Head

𝑄𝐿 𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= 𝑘= 𝑙𝑛
𝐴ℎ𝑡 𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
Example Problem
Tracer Test

K = hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer,

ne = effective porosity of the aquifer,
h = head difference between the two holes/observation wells
L = distance between the two holes/observation wells.
Gradient of the potentiometric surface

92
90

81
80

70

63
Example Problem
A tracer test was conducted in an unconfined aquifer to determine its
hydraulic conductivity. For this, two observation wells were installed 30
m apart and the hydraulic heads at these two locations were measured
as 20.5 m and 18.4 m, respectively. During the test, it was found that
the tracer injected in the first observation well arrived at the second
observation well in 180 hours. If the effective porosity of the aquifer is
18%, calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the unconfined aquifer.

Solution:
Given: Hydraulic head difference between the two observation wells (h) = 20.5 m – 18.4 m = 2.1
m, distance between the two observation wells (L) = 30 m, effective porosity (ne) of the aquifer =
18% = 0.18, and the time taken by the tracer to travel a distance of L (t) = 180 h = 180¸24 = 7.5
days.

Using Eqn. (12.8) for computing the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer (K) and substituting the
above values, we have:
=10.29 m/day, Ans.
Auger Hole Method
The auger-hole method involves the
measurement of the change in
water level after the rapid removal
of a volume of water from an
unlined cylindrical hole. If the soil is
loose, a screen may be necessary
to maintain the test-hole geometry.
The method is relatively simple and
is most adapted to shallow water-
table conditions. The value of
hydraulic conductivity (K) obtained
is essentially horizontal hydraulic
conductivity (Kh) in the immediate
vicinity of the test hole
Example Problem
Homogeneity and Isotropy
■ A homogeneous unit is one that has the same properties at all
locations.

■ A heterogeneous unit is one that has properties change spatially.

■ Isotropic when the properties is the same in all direction.

 Heterogeneous formation
K1 b1

K2 b2

K3 b3

n
K hmbm
Kh  
Average horizontal conductivity
m 1 b

b
Overall vertical conductivity
Kv  n
bm
m 1 K vm
Permeability
■ Definition (ABW, Ref: API 27)
– … permeability is a property of the porous medium
and is a measure of the capacity of the medium to
transmit fluids
– … a measure of the fluid conductivity of the
particular material
■ Permeability is an INTENSIVE property of a
porous medium (e.g. reservoir rock)
Sources for Permeability Determination
■ Core analysis
■ Well test analysis (flow testing)
– RFT (repeat formation tester) provides small well
tests
■ Production data
– production logging measures fluid flow into well
■ Log data
– MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) logs calibrated
via core analysis
 PERMEABILITY
■ Darcy’s “K” was determined to be a combination of
– k, permeability of the sand pack (porous medium, e.g.
reservoir rock)
– , viscosity of the liquid

k
K
μ
Review - Derived Units

■ Consider Newton’s 2nd Law for constant mass, F=ma

– SI Units are Absolute and Coherent
■ Absolute: Force is a derived unit, 1 N = 1 (kg*m/s2)
■ Coherent (consistent): No conversion constants needed
– So: F[N] = m[kg]*a[m/s2]
Review - Derived Units

■ What if we want F to be in [lbf ]?

– Then, F[lbf]*4.448[ N/lbf] =

m[kg]*a[m/s2]

– Adding the conversion factor restores the original

formula (a true statement in SI units)
Review - Derived Units

■ For: F in [lbf ], m in [lbm ], a in [ft/s2]

– Then, F[lbf ]*4.448222[N / lbf] =

m[lbm ]*0.4535924[kg/lbm] *
a[ft/s2]*0.3048[m/ft]

– Or, F[lbf ] = m[lbm ] * a[ft/s2] /

32.17405[(lbmft)/(lbf s2)]

– Remember: 1[N] / 1[kg*m/s2] = 1; dimensionless

Permeability
Dimensions & Units
■ Permeability is a derived dimension
■ From Darcy’s equation, the dimension of permeability is length squared

qμ L  L3 P  T L 1 1 
k ;     2    L2
A Δp  T 1 1 L P 
 
– This is not the same as area, even though for example, it is m2 in SI units

■ See handout: Darcy, {SI}, and [Oilfield] units

■ In Darcy and SI Units, this equation is coherent
– Oilfield units are non-coherent, a unit conversion constant is required
Darcy Units
■ Permeability is a derived dimension based on Darcy’s Equation
k = (q  L) / (A Dp)

■ The unit of permeability is the Darcy [d]

– The oilfield unit is millidarcy [md]

■ The Darcy is defined from Darcy’s Equation, where:

q [cm3/s]
 [cp]
L [cm]
A [cm2]
Dp [atm]
Differential Form - Darcy’s Law
■ Darcy’s Equation rearranged as Darcy velocity (volumetric
flux)
vs = q/A = (k/) (Dp/L)

■ This equation applies for any L,  as L0

vs = q/A = -(k/) (dp/ds)

where,
vs Darcy velocity, (volumetric flux)
s distance along flow path (0s  L), in the direction of
decreasing pressure (note negative sign)
■ The differential form is Darcy’s Law
Flow Potential
■ The generalized form of Darcy’s Law includes pressure and
gravity terms to account for horizontal or non-horizontal flow

qs k  dp g dz 
vs    
– The gravity term has dimension   ds/ lengthc ds 
A of pressure
■ Flow potential includes both pressure and gravity terms,
simplifying Darcy’s Law

q k  dΦ 
v s  measured
  from
–  = p - gZ/c ;Z+; Z is elevation
A μ  ds 
a datum

–  has dimension of pressure
 PERSAMAAN
ALIRAN AIR TANAH
 Darcy allows an estimate of:

■ the velocity or flow rate moving within the aquifer

■ the average time of travel from the head of the
aquifer to a point located downstream
Flow in Aquifers
Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s law provides an accurate description of the flow of
ground water in almost all hydrogeologic environments.

Darcy’s Law holds for:

1. Saturated flow and unsaturated flow
2. Steady-state and transient flow
3. Flow in aquifers and aquitards
4. Flow in homogeneous and heterogeneous systems
5. Flow in isotropic or anisotropic media
6. Flow in rocks and granular media
Hydraulic Conductivity

K represents a measure of the ability for flow

through porous media:

■ Gravels - 0.1 to 1 cm/sec

■ Sands - 10-2 to 10-3 cm/sec

■ Silts - 10-4 to 10-5 cm/sec

■ Clays - 10-7 to 10-9 cm/sec

Darcy & Seepage Velocity

■ Darcy velocity is a fictitious velocity since it assumes that flow

occurs across the entire cross-section of the soil sample. Flow
actually takes place only through interconnected pore channels.

Av voids
A = total area
Darcy & Seepage Velocity

■ From the Continuity Eqn:

■ Q = A VD = AV Vs
– Q = flow rate
– A = total cross-sectional area of material
– AV = area of voids
– Vs = seepage velocity
– VD = Darcy velocity
Darcy & Seepage Velocity
■ Therefore: VS = VD ( A/AV)
■ Multiplying both sides by the length of the medium
(L)
VS = VD ( AL / AVL ) = VD ( VT / VV )
■ Where:
VT = total volume
VV = void volume
■ By Definition, Vv / VT = n, the soil porosity

■ Thus VS = VD / n
Equations of Groundwater Flow

■ Description of ground water flow is based on:

– Darcy’s Law
– Continuity Equation – describes
conservation of fluid mass during flow
through a porous medium; results in a
partial differential equation of flow.
■ Laplace’s Eqn - most important in math
Derivation of 3-D GW Flow Equation from Darcy’s Law
 Derivation of 3-D GW Flow Equation
from Darcy’s Law
Replace Vx, Vy, and Vz with Darcy using Kx, Ky, and Kz

Divide out constant , and assume Kx= Ky= Kz = K

Transient Saturated Flow

A change in h will produce change in  and n, replaced with specific storage

Ss = g( + n).
Note,  is the compressibility of aquifer and B is comp of water, therefore,
Solutions to GW Flow Eqns.
Solutions for only a few simple problems can be
obtained directly - generally need to apply
numerical methods to address complex boundary
conditions.

h0 h1
Transient Saturated Flow

Simplifying by assuming K = constant in all dimensions

And assuming that S = Ssb, and that T = Kb yields
Steady State Flow to Well
Simplifying by assuming K = constant in all dimensions
and assuming that Transmissivity T = Kb and
Q = flow rate to well at point (x,y) yields
Example of Darcy’s Law

■ A confined aquifer has a source of recharge.

■ K for the aquifer is 50 m/day, and n is 0.2.
■ The piezometric head in two wells 1000 m
apart is 55 m and 50 m respectively, from a
common datum.
■ The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m,
and the average width of aquifer is 5 km.
 Compute:
■ a) the rate of flow through the aquifer
■ (b) the average time of travel from the head of the
aquifer to a point 4 km downstream
■ *assume no dispersion or diffusion
The solution
■ Cross-Sectional area=
30(5)(1000) = 15 x 104 m2
■ Hydraulic gradient =
(55-50)/1000 = 5 x 10-3
■ Rate of Flow for K = 50 m/day
Q = (50 m/day) (75 x 101 m2)
= 37,500 m3/day
■ Darcy Velocity:
V = Q/A = (37,500m3/day) / (15 x
104 m2) = 0.25m/day
And ■ Seepage Velocity:
Vs = V/n = (0.25) / (0.2) =
1.25 m/day (about 4.1 ft/day)

■ Time to travel 4 km downstream:

T = 4(1000m) / (1.25m/day) =
3200 days or 8.77 years

■ This example shows that water moves

very slowly underground.
Limitations of the Darcian Approach
1. For Reynold’s Number, Re, > 10 or where the flow
is turbulent, as in the immediate vicinity of pumped
wells.

2. Where water flows through extremely fine-grained

materials (colloidal clay)
 Darcy’s Law:
Example 2
■ A channel runs almost parallel to a river, and they are 2000 ft
apart.
■ The water level in the river is at an elevation of 120 ft and
110ft in the channel.
■ A pervious formation averaging 30 ft thick and with K of 0.25
ft/hr joins them.
■ Determine the rate of seepage or flow from the river to the
channel.
Confined Aquifer

Confining Layer Aquifer

30 ft
Example 2
Consider a 1-ft length of river (and channel).
Q = KA [(h1 – h2) / L]

Where:
A = (30 x 1) = 30 ft2
K = (0.25 ft/hr) (24 hr/day) = 6 ft/day

Therefore,
Q = [6 (30) (120 – 110)] / 2000
= 0.9 ft3/day/ft length
= 0.9 ft2/day