Lesson Objectives

The students should be able to:

 Define the permeability
 Differentiate between absolute, effective and relative
permeabilities
 Define the basic fluid flow equation(s) “Darcy Low”.
 Know the permeability measurement methods.
 Averaging permeability
 Sketch relative permeability curves and identify significant
features

Internal 1
 The Difference Between
Permeability And Porosity

• Illustration of pore and pore channels in a rock.

–These two figures have the same porosity (same pore space).
–In the figure to the right the pore channels are closed and the permeability is
zero.
Impermeable Rocks Cap Rock

• Impermeable rock (cap rock)

traps hydrocarbons in the
reservoir. Cap rock may be
porous, but the pore channels
must be ”closed” to stop fluids
from escaping. Reservoir Rock

Internal
 What Is
Permeability?
The permeability of a rock is a measure of how easily a fluids may flow through
the pore channels in a rock. It depends on the size, shape, and number of the
pore channels in the porous medium.

water

- easy to flow - difficult to flow

- high permeability - low permeability

Internal 3
POROSITY vs PERMEABILITY
Class Activity

The better sorted the sand, the

lower are both the porosity and
permeability. (true or false ?)

Internal
 Types Of Permeability
 Absolute permeability
API Code 27: A measure of the capacity of the porous medium to transmit
fluids.
Absolute permeability is the ability of a fluid to flow or to transmit through a rock when a
single fluid is present.
independent of the fluid type.
In principle, the absolute permeability only depends on the geometry of the pore-channel
system.

 Effective permeability
Effective permeability is the permeability of a fluid if more than one fluid is present, but
one fluid is flowing.
Each fluid will mutually reduce the pore channels open to flow for the other fluid, and the
effective permeability may be much lower than absolute permeability.

 Relative permeability
Relative permeability is the ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid to its absolute
permeability (more than one fluid is flowing).
The relative permeability of a fluid is a function of its saturation.
Internal
DARCY LAW

Henry Darcy (1803-1858), Hydraulic

Engineer.

The ”discoverer” of Darcy's Low, 1856.

His law is a foundation stone for several

fields of study including ground-water
hydrology, soil physics, and petroleum
engineering.

Internal
 Mathematical Expression of
Permeability
First introduced by Darcy in 1856 while
investigating the flow of water through sand
filters for water purification.

Q  KA h h 1 2 Eq. 1
L
h1: downstream p
Constant of proportionality h2: upstream p

This equation can also be expressed

in term of pressure gradient dP over a
section dL as

dP
Q   KA Eq. 2
dL
These two equation are used to calculate only the
permeability of water through a sand pack
Internal
Mathematical Expression of
Permeability
The original Darcy equation as a function of pressure
gradient is as follow

dP Eq. 2
Q   KA
dL

In order to apply this equation for any fluid, K

should be expressed as a ratio of absolute
permeability over viscosity of that fluid.
k
K 

Now Eq. 2 can be written as Illustration of a horizontal flow

k dP
Q A Eq. 3
 dL
Internal 8
Mathematical Expression of
Permeability
So in order to determine the absolute permeability of a horizontal flow,
Eq. 3 should be integrated between the limits of length from 0 to L and
from pressure from P1 to P2
P1
A P2
k dP
Q A Eq. 3
 dL
Q
Integrating the above equation gives:
L
kA Fluid flow through core plug sample
Q ( P1  P2 )
L
qL
OR
k  Eq. 4

AP
Internal 9
Mathematical Expression of
Permeability
 For one-dimensional, linear, horizontal flow through a porous medium,
Darcy’s equation is as:

qL
k  Eq. 4
AP
k represents the property of the porous
medium
 represents the property of the fluid in the General assumptions for Darcy’s Equation:
medium.
AL represent the geometry of the medium  The core plug is 100% saturated with the
flowing fluid.
q, ΔP represent the fluid flow properties  The flowing fluid is incompressible
 The flow is horizontal, steady state Flow
under laminar Flow
 No reaction between fluid and rock
Internal 10
 Permeability Units
Absolute permeability is entirely a property of a porous medium and
is independent of the properties of the flowing fluid.

Permeability has the units of ft2, cm2, m2

However, because these units are too large as a measure for porous
medium, the petroleum industry adopted the unit Darcy for
permeability.
Converted to SI units, 1 Darcy is equivalent to
9.869233×10−13 m2

Internal 11
 DARCY’S EQUATION
For Linear Horizontal Flow

kA kA
Q  1.1271 ( P1  P2 ) Q ( P1  P2 )
L L

Darcy’s Equation in field units: • Flow rate, Q- m3/sec

• Permeability, k – m2
• • Area, A – m2
Flow rate, Q- bbl/day SI Units
• • Pressure, P – N/m2
Permeability, k – mD
• • Viscosity, μ – N sec/m2
cross sectional area, A,ft2
• • Length, L - m
length, L, ft
• Pressure, P – psia
• Viscosity, μ – centipoise Flow rate, Q (cm3/s)
Cross sectional area (cm2)
Viscosity of flowing fluid Lab. Units
(cp)
Permeability (Darcy)
Pressure gradient (atm/cm)
Internal 12
General Classification Of Permeability

Classification Permeability Range

Very Low  1 mD
Low 1 – 10 mD
Medium 10 – 50 mD
Average 50 – 200 mD
Good 200 – 500 mD
Excellent  500 mD

Internal 13
 EXERCISE 1
A cylindrical core sample with a length of 20 cm and a diameter of 4 cm is
subjected to a linear flow test with a fluid of 2cp viscosity under a flow rate
of 100 cm3/hour. If the pressure drop within the core is 3 atm, what is the
permeability of the core?
P= 3 atm
qL
k 
AP
Flow rate, Q (cm3/s) q= 100 cm3/hr
Cross sectional area (cm2)
Viscosity of flowing fluid (cp)
Permeability ( Darcy)
A=22
L= 20 cm
Pressure gradient (atm/cm)

 cc  1hr  k  29.5md
100 hr  3600 sec   2cp  20cm 
 
k  0.0295darcy
 2 cm  3
2 2
atm 
Internal 
 DARCY’S EQUATION For
Inclined Flow
In order to determine the absolute permeability for inclined flow, the vertical
coordinate should be considered.

Darcy’ equation for linear and horizontal flow system P2

kA A L
Q ( p1  p2 ) Q
P1
L

Darcy’ equation for inclined or dipping flow α

System:
Fluid flow in inclined or dipping system
kA  ( P1  P2 ) 
Q  g sin 
  L 

Internal 15
 DARCY’S EQUATION For
Radial Flow
In order to determine the absolute permeability of a
radial flow, Eq. 3 should be integrated between the
well bore and the external boundary of the system.

Original Darcy equation re

rw
k dP Pw Pe
Q A Eq. 3
 dL

k dP
Q A
 dr
rw
Integrating the above equation gives: re

2kh Pe  Pw 
Q h
ln  re rw 
Internal
 DARCY’S EQUATION For
Radial Flow
This equation assumes that the reservoir is
homogeneous and is completely saturated
with a single liquid phase
re
2kh Pe  Pw  rw
Pw Pe
Q
ln  re rw 

re: external radius or drainage radius

rw: well radius rw
Pe: external reservoir at the drainage radius re
Pw, well pressure or flowing pressure

Internal
 Averaging Permeability
• Permeability is seldom uniform throughout a reservoir
• Thus it is necessary to determine an average value of
permeability
• Averaging techniques available:
– Arithmetic Average
– Harmonic Average
– Geometric Average
• Selection of technique should be based on the geometry of
the flow system

Internal 18
 Arithmetic Average
Parallel Flow
This averaging method is used
to determine the average
permeability of layered-parallel
beds with different
permeabilities.

Can be applied for linear and

radial flow system

No cross flow between layers is

the main assumption

Internal 19
 Average permeability for Linear Flow in
Parallel Beds:
Total thickness is summation of height for Q1
all layers
K1, h1
h t  h1  h 2  h 3 Q2
Qt
K2, h2 Q3
The total flow rate is equal to the sum of
the flow rates through each
layer or: K3, h3 w
Qt  Q1  Q2  Q3
L
P2 P1

The flow from each layer can be calculated using Darcy’s equation in a
linear system
k wh p k 2 wh2 p k3 wh3 p
Q1  1 1 Q2  Q3 
L L
Internal L 20
 The total flow rate from the entire system is expressed as
k ave wht p
Qt 
L Q
Substituting for the flow rate in equation 1 gives

k ave wht p k1wh1p k 2 wh2 p k3 wh3 p K1, h1

   Q
L L L L
Qt
or K2, h2 Q
k ave ht  k1h1  k 2 h2  k3 h3
K3, h3 w
k1h1  k 2 h2  k3 h3 L
k ave  P2 P1
ht
n

The average absolute permeability for a parallel-

k
j 1
j hj
layered system can be expressed in the following form
k avg  n
(linear and radial flow system) h j 1
j
Internal 21
 EXERCISE 2
Given the following permeability data from a core analysis report, calculate
the average permeability of the reservoir.

k
j 1
j hj
k avg  n

h
j 1
j

Internal 22
 Average permeability for Linear Flow
in Parallel Beds with variable area.

Assuming no cross-flow between the layers, the P1 P2

average permeability can be approximated in a
h1
manner similar to the previous derivation.
flow W1
n h2

k
j 1
j Aj
h3
k avg  n W2
A
j 1
j
flow

W3

AJ  h j w j
flow
AJ Cross section area for layer j
w j Width of layer j
h j Height of layer j
Internal 23
 Harmonic Average
Series Flow
This averaging method is used
to determine the average
permeability of series beds with
different permeabilities.

Can be applied for linear and

radial flow system

Internal 24
 Average permeability for Linear Flow in
Series Beds.
For a steady-state flow, the flow rate is constant and the total pressure drop is equal to the
sum of the pressure drops across each bed, or
P1
P2
Δp  (P1 - P2 )  Δp1  Δp 2  Δp 3 (1)

On the other hand, total flow rate is equal

to the individual flow rates:
K1 K2 K3
Qt  Q1  Q2  Q3 L1 L2 L3
ΔP1 ΔP2 ΔP3
Using Darcy Equation for linear Flow: h

k avg Ap k Ap2 Qt

Qt  Q2  2
L L2 w

k1 Ap1 k3 Ap3 L
Q1  Q3 
L1 L3
Internal 25
 Solving the previous Equations for pressure difference;

qμL q μ L1 q μ L2 q μ L3
p1  p2  p  p1  p2  p3 
k avg A k1 A k2 A k3 A

Substituting for the pressure drop in equation 1 gives

qμ L q μ L1 q μ L2 q μ L3
  
k avg A k1 A k2 A k3 A
Cancelling the identical terms and simplifying gives:

L n
k avg 
( L / k )1  ( L / k ) 2  ( L / k ) 3
L i

The above equation can be expressed in a more k avg  i 1

n
Li
generalized form to give:

i 1 k i
Internal 26
 Average permeability for radial Flow in
Series Beds.

For a steady-state flow, the flow rate is constant k1

and the total pressure drop is equal to the sum of P1
the pressure drops across each bed, or
r1
Δp  Δp1  Δp 2 re
rw
Pw Pe
 Pe  Pw    Pe  P1    P1  Pw  (1) k2

On the other hand, total flow rate is equal to the

individual flow rates:
Qt  Q1  Q2
Using Darcy Equation for Radial Flow: rw

2k av h Pe  Pw  re r1
QT 
ln  re rw  k1 k2
h
2k1h Pe  P1  2k 2 h P1  Pw  qT
Q1  Q2 
ln  re r1  ln  r1 rw 
Internal 27
Solving the previous Equations for pressure difference;

qln  re rw 
( Pe  Pw ) 
2k av h

qln  re r1  qln  r1 rw 
 Pe  P1    P1  Pw  
2k1h 2k 2 h

Substituting for the pressure drop in equation 1 gives

qln  re rw  qln  re r1  qln  r1 rw 

 
2k av h 2k1h 2k 2 h

Internal 28
 Hence
ln  re rw  ln  re r1  ln  r1 rw 
 
k avg k1 k2
And rearranging,

ln  re r1  ln  r1 rw 
k avg  ln  re rw  
k1 k2
And average permeability for radial flow in serial beds can be
expressed as;

ln  re rw 
 n
ln  rj rj 1 
k avg
 j 1 kj
Internal
 EXERCISE 3
What is the equivalent permeability of four beds in series, having equal
formation thicknesses for a radial system if the radius of penetrating
well bore is 6 inches and the radius of effective drainage is 2000 ft?
(Assume bed 1 is adjacent to the well bore)

Bed # Radius of bed, Horizontal Permeability,

ft md
1 250 25
2 250 50
3 500 100
4 1000 200

Internal
 Solution:
Radial System: ln  re rw 
k av  n
ln  rj rj 1 
j 1 kj
For the system given in example:

ln  r1 rw  ln  r2 r1  ln  r3 r2  ln  re r3 
k av  ln  re rw    
k1 k2 k3 k4

ln  2000 0.5 
k av 
ln  250 0.5  ln  500 250  ln  1000 500  ln  2000 1000 
  
25 50 100 200

k av  30.4 md Internal
 Geometric Average
This averaging method is used to determine the average
permeability of random flow with different permeabilities.

 n 
  (hi ln ki )  ki = absolute permeability for core i
k avg  exp  i 1 n  hi = thickness of core i
 
 
h n= number of cores
i 1
i 

If the thicknesses (hi) of all core samples are the same, the
above equation can be simplified as follows:

Internal 32
 Permeability
Measurement
Using gas, (air, N2, He)
Using liquid, (water, oil)

Dry gas is usually used (air, N2, He) in permeability determination

because of its convenience, availability, and to minimize fluid-rock
reaction.

• Permeability lab measurement will be affected

by:
– Gas slippage effect – Klinkenberg
– Reaction of liquid with rock grain

Internal 33
 Permeability Measurement

P1 P2=1 atm
kAP
q
L
L

A
k/
P V t q=V/t q/A
P1 V1 t1 q1

P2 V2 t2 q2

P3 V3 t3 q3 P/L

P4 V4 t4 q4

Internal
 Klinkenberg Effect
• Klinkenberg (1941) discovered that permeability to gas is relatively
higher than that to water

• He interpreted this phenomena as “slip flow” between gas

molecules and solid walls

• Gas molecules collide each other and to pore-walls during traveling

through the porous medium

• Therefore this additional flux due to the gas flow at the wall
surface, which is called “slip flow”, becomes effective to enhance
the flow rate

Internal 35
 Klinkenberg Effect
• At low pressures, the measured permeability is higher than actual. This is
due to gas slippage and referred to as Klinkenberg effect.
• One of the conditions for the validity of Darcy’s law is the requirement of
laminar flow. At low gas pressure, in combination with small (diameter)
pore channels, this condition is violated.
• At low pressure, gas molecules are often so far apart, that they slip
through the pore channels almost without interactions (no friction loss)
and hence, yield a increased flow velocity or flow rate.
• At higher pressures, the gas molecules are closer together and interact
more strongly as molecules in a liquid.
• Compared to laminar flow, at a constant pressure difference, the
Klinkenberg dominated flow will yield a higher gas rate than laminar flow,
q klinkenberg > q Laminar

Internal 36
 Klinkenberg Effect

 b 
ka  k L  1  
Observed permeability

H2
 Pav 
N2
CO2 Where;
ka= apparent gas permeability,
kL
md
kL= true permeability, md
1/Pav (equivalent liquid
permeability)
b = Klinkenberg coefficient
Pav= Average pressure, atm

Internal 37
 Klinkenberg Effect
• Corrections to measured gas permeability due to the Klinkenberg effect
are normally moderate to small corrections, as seen for the table below.

 In most laboratory measurements of gas permeability, it is safe to neglect the

Klinkenberg effect if the gas pressure is higher than 10 bar.

 In reservoirs, the pressure will be much higher and consequently the

significance of the Klinkenberg effect of no importance.
Internal 38
 Types Of Permeability

• Absolute Permeability
• Effective Permeability
• Relative Permeability

Internal 39
 Types Of Permeability
Absolute Permeability (k) is the ability of a fluid to flow or
to transmit through a rock when its pore space is
completely (100%) saturated with that fluid

P

kA P
q q
 L
A
L Absolute permeability

Internal 40
 Types Of Permeability
 If more than one fluid is present, there is a tendency for
each fluid to interfere with the flow of the other fluids

 The permeability of the rock to any fluid phase is known as

the effective permeability to that fluid (kw, ko , and kg)

P qw 
k ew A P
w L
qg k eo A P
qo qo 
o L
qw
k eg A P
A L qg 
Internal g L 41
 Types Of Permeability
Relative permeability is to relate absolute permeability to
effective permeability when a particular fluid occupies just a
fraction of the total pore space

keff
kr 
k abs

k  k rw A P k  k ro A P k  k rg A P
qw  qo  qg 
w L o L g L

 Relative permeability is often normalized either by the

absolute permeability or by the maximum effective
permeability to oil.
Internal 42
 TYPICAL OIL-WATER RELATIVE
PERMEABILITY CURVE
100
kro @ Swc

Relative Permeability (%) 80 Two-Phase Flow

Region

60

Oil
40
krw @ Sor

20

Swc Water Sor or Soc

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation (%)

100 80 60 40 20 0
Oil Saturation (%) 43
Internal
• As Sw increases, kro decreases and krw increases until reaching residual oil saturation
 TYPICAL GAS-OIL RELATIVE
PERMEABILITY CURVE
100
Relative Permeability (%) Two-Phase Flow
Region

Connate water + residual oil saturations

80
Oil

60
krg
40
kro
Gas
20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Total Liquid Saturation - % of Pore Volume
SL =Internal
So + Swi 44
 FACTORS AFFECTING EFFECTIVE
AND RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES

• Rock wettability
• Fluid saturation history (i.e.,
imbibition or drainage)

Internal 45
Impact of Wettability on Fluid Flow

Internal
 Effect Of Wettability
1.0 1.0
Relative Permeability, Fraction

Relative Permeability, Fraction

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
Water
Oil Oil
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
Swc Water Swc Sor
Sor
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation (% PV) Water Saturation (% PV)

Strongly Water-Wet Rock Strongly Oil-Wet Rock

Internal 47
Effect Of Wettability

Internal 48
 Effect Of Saturation History
• The flow process in the reservoir rocks can be classified either an
imbibition or drainage.

• The imbibition is a fluid flow process in which the saturation of the

wetting phase increases and the nonwetting phase saturation decreases.
(e.g., waterflood of an oil reservoir that is water-wet).

 The drainage is a fluid flow process in which the saturation of the

nonwetting phase increases and the wetting phase saturation decreases.
(e.g., waterflood of an oil reservoir that is oil-wet).

Internal 49
Effect Of Saturation History

Internal 50
 Assignment 1
The laboratory data below is recorded at stationary conditions, measuring
the relative permeability for a oil-water injection experiment.

Vw is the volume of water in the core sample, determined by weighing. qo and

qw is the oil- and water rate through the sample, respectively.

Additional data is given:

Absolute permeability 16.7 mD

length of core sample 9 cm
Diameter of core sample 3.2 cm
Oil viscosity 2.0 cp
Water viscosity 1.1 cp
Porosity 0.20
1 atm. equals 14.65 psi

Draw the relative permeability curves for kro and krw using the data above.

Internal 51
• Calculate the oil and water saturations for
each qo and qw.

• Calculate the effective permeability to oil and

water at each saturation

Internal 52
Applications Of Relative Permeability Functions

• Reservoir simulation
• Flow calculations that involve multi-
phase flow in reservoirs
• Estimation of residual oil (and/or gas)
saturation

Internal
QUESTIONS?

Internal 54