Groundwater hydraulics

Water flow
in porous media,
hydraulic conductivity,
Darcy’s law
 Saturated flow
Henri Darcy (1856) filtration of water for fountains in
Dijon Henry Darcy

After many experiments he found that water flow

through the soil column depends on:
• directly proportional to pressure drop
• inversely proportional to the length
• directly proportional to the crossectional area
• dependent on coefficient which is specific for
each media

Darcy, H., 1856. Les Fountaines de la Ville de Dijon

Darcy’s law
Henri Darcy 1856
 Darcy law
h1
Κ S ΑΔΗ Hi = hi+zi
Q H1
L

z1 h2
L
H2
z2

datum
Q = flow [L3.T-1] valid in fully
A = crossectional area [L2] saturated porous
Ks = saturated hydraulic conductivity [L.T-1] media
rH = H1 – H2 (hydraulic head drop) [L] For example: under
L= sample lenght [L] the ground water
level
Darcian velocity Porous velocity

Q Q Q
v vp  
S Sn n S

v
vp 
n Where n is porosity
for: kde:
Q q ... Volume flux [L.T-1]
q Q ... Flow rate [L3.T-1]
A
A ... Crossectional area [L2]

Transforms to the: note: negative sign

due to the fact grad H
H aims against flow
q  Ks direction
L
More gereneral form:
H
dH vx   K
q  Ks x
dl H
v   K J   K grad H nebo v y   K
For 3D flow
Pro 1D vertical flow y
q  K s
dH
 K S H
H
vz   K
dl z
Coefficient or the saturated hydraulic
conductivity Ks
Also called (sometimes) filtration coefficient, darcy’s coefficient or
permeability (incorrect)
commonly used units Ks (m.s-1), (cm.d-1), (cm.s-1)

Ks is property of water-solid interaction. Parameter which is related only to

the porous media (independently on flowing liquid)
is:

Permeability k
kg
k = Ksn/g [ L2 ] K
m
where n kinematic viscosity when m is dynamic viscosity
 clay
silt
sandy loam
sand
gravel
Ks for different media

k (cm2)

Ks (cm.s-1)

Ks (m.s-1)
source: Císlerová a Vogel, 1998
 Permeability
Permeability reflects porous medium only - k [m2].
Is used for transport of solutes in porous space

Permeability can be estimated from number of formulas by combination of porosity,

grain distribution and shapes of particles

Empirical formulas:
k = cd 2 where d is diameter of effective grain (d10),
c=45 for clayey sand, c=140 clear sand.

2 1
1 ( 1 - n ) 2
 α Pm  
k  
β  n3
   
m dm  
  100 

Where β=5, α is grain shape parameter, α=6 for spherical grains,

α=7.7 for sharp grains, Pm is procents of grains found on the
sieve with dm diameter
Physically based equation Carmana - Kozeny:

3
k  C0 n Where C0 is empiric constant, MS is specific surface
2
( 1 - n ) M S2 of unit volume of porous space

Formula of Carman – Kozeny for hydraulic conductivity

3/ 2 2 2
gn e d
K e
72 n
Where n is porosity, e is number of porosity, de is effective grain
g is gravity acceleration, ν is kinematic viscosity of water
+z Example 1 :
Vertical column: q=?

const. head
1) datum definition
b= WATER
2 2) points 1 and 2 with known hydraulic
10cm
heads
SOIL
3) Darcy’s law
H2
L= Ks=100cm/d
100cm q  K s
H H  H1  
 K s 2
= z2 L L
(110  0)
 100  110 cm.d 1
100
1
H=0
seepage face q = H1 = z1
 Example 2
horizontal column: q = ?
1) Step 1, definition of datum and coordination system
Water
head inflow

H
1 dH=10 cm

Ks H
2
Free
outflow

100 cm

2) Definition of points 1 and 2). Then x1 = 0 and h1 = 10 cm,

x2=100cm, h2 = 0, z1 = z2 = 0, L = x2 - x1 = 100 cm

3) Hydraulics heads are then H1 = h1 + z1 = 10 cm, H2 = h2 + z2 =

0 cm
5) Darcy’s law

q  K s
H H  H1   100 (0  10)  10 cm.d 1
 K s 2
L L 100
 Ks measurements
1) Measurements of Ks using constant head permeameter

Const. head Soil column

b VODA
WATER
H1 = 0 + 0 (lower end)
H2 = b + L (upper end)
PŮDA
SOIL
H = (b+L) - 0
then:
L Ks= ?
qL qL
Ks   
A
H b  L 
In practice we measure Q, resp. V/t, then:

VL VL
Ks  
Q
AtH At b  L 
q
Seepage face
 Constant head permeameter
constant head inflow

b
overflow

Q
porous discs

measurement sample L

soil sample must be carefully saturated with water to

measure “real” Ks.
Fig. : http://www.utdallas.edu/~brikowi/Teaching/Geohydrology/LectureNotes/Darcy_Law/Permeameters.html
Constant head permeameter
 2) Measurement of Ks falling-head permeameter

Falling head
b0
Experiment is done on soil sample in the
b(t) WATERb1 laboratory. Initial water level is equal to b0
H1 = 0, H2(t) = L+b(t), H(t) = [b(t) + L] - 0
SOIL
q
db
 K s
b  L
becomes:
dt L
L Ks= ?
db Ks
 dt
bL L
Integration of the left side
b1  L
b1

b b  L  lnb  L b0  ln b0  L
db b1

0
Seepage face q
Right side integration
t1 t1
Ks Ks K s t1 db Ks
  dt   
0
L L 0 dt  
L bL L
dt

then:

b1  L Kt
ln  s1
b0  L L
L b0  L
K s  ln
t1 b1  L
 Falling-head permeameter
db

water level drop

Consider different
crossectional areas of
burette and column: b0

b1

Ab L b0  L Q
Ks  ln d
A t1 b1  L
Porous
L
sample
discs

where:
t1…. time
Ab … cross. area of burette
A ... cross. area of the sample

Zdroj: http://www.utdallas.edu/~brikowi/Teaching/Geohydrology/LectureNotes/Darcy_Law/Permeameters.html
 Example 3 :
Pressure head along the soil column h(z)=?

Ks is constant, h(z) = ?
b VODA
WATER
h2 = b, z2=L Darcy’s law:
PŮDA
SOIL q12 q1z
H bL h z
q  Ks  Ks  Ks
L L z
L
h
z h2  h1 b
h z z
L L

h1 = 0, z1 = 0 In this case, pressure head

0 profile is linear .
h
q
 Homogeneity and inhomogeneity of the environment
with regards to hydraulic conductivity

The environment is homogeneous: hydraulic conductivity is same at all points

of the environment
The environment is inhomogeneous = heterogeneous: environment where
hydraulic conductivity varies according to position in the area

Heterogeneity with gradual change Heterogeneity with sudden change

distance
 Practical situations lead us to considerations whether accept or neglect inhomogeneity

Example of inhomogeneous environment, accepted as homogeneous

clay lens

recursive pattern

H
Calculating flow velocity vx   K
x
H
v   K J   K grad H or v y   K
nebo
y
H
vz   K
Where K is the function of x,y and z. z
 Isotropy and anisotropy of the environment

The environment is isotropic when hydraulic conductivity is same at all directions

The environment is anisotropic when hydraulic conductivity is direction dependent, e.g.

Hydraulic conductivity in vertical direction is lower than in horizontal direction
This property is due to the formation of the structure (e.g. sediments)

Hydraulic conductivity of anisotropic environment is defined by tensor of hydraulic conductivity

3D
2D
 K xx K xy K xz 
   K xx K xy 
K   K yx K yy K yz  K 
   K yx K yy 
K K zy K zz 
 zx
Component Kxy defines part of the velocity in x direction caused
by unit hydraulic gradient in y direction

Vector of velocity is tilted from the direction of the hydraulic

gradient in anisotropic environment
Sedimentary rock – horizontal structure

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8912695
Eolic sediment – vertical structure

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7736690
Main axes of anisotropy are the direction where hydraulic conductivity
reaches maximal or minimal value

If coordinate system x,y,z is parallel to main axes of anisotropy,

tensor of hydraulic conductivity is
3D
2D
 K xx 0 0
   K xx 0
K   0 K yy 0 K 
   0 K yy 
 0 0 K zz 

Components of flow in anisotropic environemnt are following

H H H H
v x   K xx  K xy  K xz vx   K x
x y z x
H H H H
v y   K yx  K yy  K yz or vy  K y
x y z
nebo
y
H H H H
v z   K xz  K yz  K zz vz   K z
x y z z
Combination of homogeneity (1) and isotropy (2) in the in environment

homogeneous, isotropic homogeneous, anisotropic

inhomogeneous, isotropic inhomogeneous, anisotropic

 Limits of Darcy’s law validity

Darcy’s law is valid in certain interval of hydraulic gradient and flow velocities only

Laminar flow

Prelinear zone Linear zone Postlinear zone

FLOW VELOCIT

Turbulent flow

HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
Prelinear flow

Happens in very fine materials (clay and silt), flow velocity is

calculated by Swartzendruber:

 4  1 J0
v  K  J  J 0  exp( J) where
, kde   ln .
 3  J0 3

J0 is limit value of hydraulic gradient, where flow is actuvated.

J0 < 0.5 for silt, J0= 0.5 - 1.0 for clay.

Postlinear flow
Happens in coarse materials (gravel or sandy gravel), where higher velocities occur

Type of flow: laminar vs. turbulent is indicated by Reynolds number:

vd
Re 
ν
Critical value of Re is dependent on given material. Typically 10 - 100 (1 - 10).
D is grain size and n is kinematic viscosity
 For postlienar zone, flow can be calculated by combined method

grad   A v  B v grad   A v  B v , 1.6  m  2

2 m
or
nebo

A, B are constants, characterizing permeability of the environment, d or de is effective grain:

gn3 2 ed 
2
A 1 K B  1 K t2 , K a K t  4 gd n5 4 log 10 4.933 e 
72n

Pavlovskij equation

 14 
v  K (grad  ) K  n  20 d e  
0.5

d 
 e 

In most of the cases groundwater flow meets linear zone where Darcy’s law
is applicable. Upper limit of Darcy’s law might be overcome in carstic, dolomitic or
volcanic areas with cavities.
 Transmissivity

Transmissivity – is ability of aquifer to transfer water in one horizontal

meter of aquifer of thickness B and hydraulic conductivity K

T = KB
Transmissivity units [m2/s]

H
Qx  K B W
x

H
Q y  K B W
y

Transmissivity can be applied if vertical flow component is not considered