Permeability

Soils arc permeable due to the existenccof interconnecteclvoids through which wa-
tcr can flow from points of high encrgy to points ol krw energy.Thc study ol the flow
o f w a t e r t h r o u g h p e r m c a b l es o i l m e d i a i s i m p o r t a n t i n s o i l m c c h a n i c sI.t i s n e c e s s a r y
for estimating the quantity of undcrgmund secpageuncler various hydraulic con-
d i t i o n s ,f o r i n v c s t i g a t i n gp r o b l e m si n v o l v i n gt h c p u m p i n g o 1 ' w a t e rl o r u n c l e r g r o u n d
c o n s t r u c t i o n ,a n d f t t r m a k i n g s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s c so f c a r t h d a m s a n d e a r t h - r e t a i n i n g
structureslhat are subject to secpageforces.

6.1 Bernoulli's Equation

F r o m f l u i d m c c h a n i c sw
, e k n o w t h a t ,a c c o r d i n gt o B c r n o u l l i ' se q u a t i o n ,t h e t o t a l h e a d
at a point in water under mcltion cernbc given by thc sum of the pressure,velocity,ancl
e l e v a t i o nh c a d s .o r

)
,D'
. t l
n - + + Z (6.1
)
f ,,, ) o

t t 1
Pressurc Velocity Elevatiorr
head head head

where li : total head

u : pressure
u : velocity
g : accelerationdue to gravity
7,,,: unit weight of water

Note that the elevation head, Z, is the vertical distanceof a given point above or be-
low a datum plane. The pressure head is the water pressure, u, at that point divided
by the unit weight of water, 7..
If Bernoulli's equation is applied to the flow of water through a porous soil

139
140 Chapter 6 Permeability

Itt
Its

clcvation.and total hcadsfor llow of wnterthroughsoil

Figure 6. 1 Pressure.

meclium,the term containingthe velocity head can be neglectedbecausethe seepage

vclocity is small, and the total head at any point can be adequatelyrepresentedby

h:L+Z (6.2)
IlA

Figure 6.1 shows thc relationship among pressurc,elevation, ancl total heads
fcrrthe flow of water l.hroughsoil. Open standpipescalledpiez.ometers are installed
irt points A and 11.The lcvels tcl which water risesin the piezometertubes situatedat
points.zl ancl B are known trs lhe piezttmetrit' levels of points A and B, respectively.
The pressurehcad at a point is the hcight of the vertical column of water in the pie-
z o m e t e r i n s t a l l e da t t h a t p o i n t .
The lossof head between two points, A and B, can be givenby
(un
Lh:ht h,,:(?*t^\ t - * t,, (6.3)
\Lr' / \ 7,' )
Thc head loss.A/r, can be exprcssedin a nondimen s i o n a lform as

. L h (6.4)
' L

where i : hydraulic gradient

L : distancebetween points A and B-that is, the length of flow over
which the loss of head occurred
In general, the variation of the velocity 'u with the hydraulic gradient I is as
shown in Figure 6.2.This figure is divided into three zones:
1. Laminar flow zone (Zone I)
2. Transition zone (Zone II)
3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)
 6.2 Darcy's Law 141

H y d r a u l i cg r a c l i c n ti .

Figure 6.2 Naturcof varialion .r.,

of wilh hvdraulicgraclicnt.
r

w h e n t h e h y c l r a u r i cg r a d i e n t
i s g r a d u a t y i n c r e a s e d ,t h e
Zones I and II, and the verocity. flow remainslaminar in
, l t , " o r r , , l i n e a rr e r a t i o r r s h i p
ent' At a higher hydraulic gra<1ient, t o t h e h y d r a u l i cg r a d i _
tt.,"tt,r* .,..om-esturbulcrtI (zonerl).
hydraulic gradienr is decrJased. whcn the
r;i",;;i;w con<ritionsexisr 'nry tn zone
soils' thc fltw.f water tt.,.nrgn I.
the void ;il;;;c consideredram_
in,,.; rl;r|t"t

?) C X1
(6.-5)
ln fractured rock. stor
mayexisr.
andEq.(6.;ni;"Jl'il,11,;*r coi,rsc
sands,turbulentllow conditions

Darcy's Law
I n l l J - 5 6D
, arcy pubrished.a.simpre
e q u a t i o n f o r t h e d i s c h a r g ev e l o c i t y
through saturatedsoils,which of water
_"y t,. J"oresseclas

u - ki
(6.6)
where 'u : discharg, ,.i:r::,!,which
is rhe.quantityof water flowing
through a unit grosscross-sectionar in unir rime
area of soil at right angresto
direction clf flow the
k : hydrauric conductivity (otherwise
known as the coefficient of
permeabiliry)
This equation was based primariry
on Darcy,s observationsabout
waterthrough
clean
,il$ the flow of
rh1lE!r,G ol i, ,i.ir".1" ;;:i;;), both
for laminarflow conditionsfo1e
and appricabie'for arevalid
a wide rangeof soils.
In Eq' (6'6),a isthedischargeu"ro.ityoi*ater basedon thegross
areaof the soil. However,the aJtual cross-sectional
of water (that is, ti" ,".pug. velocity)
""mliii
142 Chapter 6 Permeability

;;:.;;; .i' ; - - i ' .. i. - ii ' .

Area of soil
* ".
' ':1. specimen= A
rate., . : t ,,','.,11 ':",'":;.:';'.'
Frow
**,.:,'.' .':,,,#j*:ir;$rr*i;,
:.'.,. p
::l;:il:,:ri;j:lirtit'ilriiljj:i1r Areaof void in the
I I
+l e r o s ss e c l i o n- A '
- , - . r.' i:i'' :' ,: ,
. i ' ' , /
* & 1 R r e uo f s o i l s o l i t i r i n
..'"
' 1 ' l h e c r o s ss c tl i r t f l= A ,
,:
t:-..""t'

Figure 6.3 Derivationol Eq. (6.10)

through the void spacesis grcatcr than u. A relationship between the dischargeve-
locity and thc seepagevclocity can be derivcd by referring to Figure 6.3,which shows
a soil of length L with a grosscross-scctionalarea,4. If the quantity of water flowing
t h r o u g h t h e s o i l i n u n i t t i m e i s 1 7t,h e n
q:aA:A,itl, (6.1)
: sccpagevelclcity
where ?.).!
-
,4,, arca of void in thc crosssection of thc specimen

Howevcr.
A: A"* A' (6.8)

whcrc ,4, - area of soil solids in the crosssection of the spccimen.

C o m b i n i n g E q s . ( 6 . 7 )a n d ( 6 . 8 )g i v e s
t 1: u ( A , , l A . , ) : A , , t s ,

't)(A+
,, A.) u ( A , ,+ A " ) L u(V,, -f V,)
,l)! (6.e)
4,, A,,L V,
where 4. : volume of voids in the specimen
I/, - volumc of soil solids in the specimen

Equation (6.9) can be rewritten as

/ , + e \u (;)l
, ' -, tl v , (6.10)
l-'\ , ):i
t i . l
wheree: voidratio
n : porosity

Darcyb law as defined by Eq. (6.6) implies that the dischargevelocity zrbears a
linear relationship to the hydraulic gradient I and passesthrough the origin as shown
in Figure 6.4. Hansbo (1960), however, reported the test results for four undisturbed
 \

6.3 Hydraulic Conductivity 143

6
o
Figure 6.4
i,, i' Variationof discharge
velocity
H y d r a u l i cg r a d i e n ti, with hydraulicgradicntin clay

natural clays.On the basisof his results,a hydraulic gradient i ' (sec Figure 6.4) ap-
pears to exist, at which
u:k(i-it)) (fori > i') ( 6 . 11 )
and
lt:ki"' (forl<i') (6.12)
The preceding equation implies that for very low hydraulic gradients,the relation-
ship between rr and i is nonlinear.Thc value of rr in Eq. (6. l2) for four Swcdishclays
was about l.-5.However.severalothcr studiesrcfute the precedingfindings.Mitch;ll
(1916) discussedthese studiesin detail. Taking all points into con.sideration, hc con-
cluded that Darcy'.slaw is valid.

H yd ra u Ii c Con d u ctiv ity

Hydraulic conductivity is generally exprcssedin cm/sec or m/sec in SI units ancl in
ftlmin or ftlday in E,nglishunits.
The hydraulic conductivity of soils dependson severalfactors: fluid viscosity,
pore-sizedistribution, grain-sizedistribution. void ratio, roughnessof mincral oar-
t i c l e s a. n d d e g r e eo f s o i l s a l u r a t i o nI.n c l a y e ys o i l s s. t r u c t u r "p l o y ,a n i m p t l r l a n tr o l e
in hydraulic conductivity.Other major lactors that affect the permeability of clays
are the ionic concentration and the thickness of layers of water held to the cliv
particles.
The value of hydraulic conductivity (k) varies wiclelyfor different soils.Some
typical valuesfor saturatedsoilsare given in Table 6.1.The hydraulic conductivityof
unsaturatedsoils is lower and increasesrapidly with the degree of saturation.

Iabb 6.7 Typi.ul Vulu". uf Hyd.ouli. Condr.tiuityof Sutu.ot"dS,ril,

k
Soil type cm /sec ft /min
Clean gravel 100-1.0 200-2.0
Coarse sand 1.0-0.01 2.0-0.02
Fine sand 0.01-0.001 0.02- 0.002
Silty clay 0.001-0.00001 0.002-0.00002
Clay <0.000001 <0.000002
144 Chapter 6 Permeability

The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is also related to the properties of the fluid
flowing through it by the equation

K::K (6.13)
n

wherc 7* - unit weight of water

4 : viscosityof wzrter
K : absolutc pcrmeability
'lhe
absolLttc pernteubilitvK ir c*pt.t.ed in units of L2 (that is, cm2,ft2,and so forth).
E q u a t i o n ( 6 .l 3 ) s h o w e d t h a t h y d r a u l i cc o n d u c t i v i t yi s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e u n i t
weight and the viscosityof water. which is in turn a function of the temperature at
which the testis conductedS . o,from Eq. (6.l3),

?-(;:)(#) ( 6.r 4)

w h er e k , , , k , , : h y d r a u l i cc o n d u c t i v i t ya t t c m p e r a t u r c sI , a n d 7 ) , r e s p c c t i v e l y
\ . r . , \ t . . : v i s c o s i t yt l l ' w a t c r a t t e n l p c r a t u r e s7 ' 1e r n d[ , r c s p e c t i v e l y
I t r ' ,t ) ,l t t \ .t ) : u n i t w e i g h t t l f w a t c r a t t c m p c r a t u r e s7 l a n d I ' r e s p e c t i v c l y

I t i s c o n v c n t i o n a tl o c x p r c s st h e v a l u co 1k a t a t c m p c r a t u r eo l 2 0 " C 1W . ithin therange

o l ' t c s t t c m p e r a t u r o sw =
. c c a n a s s u m ct h a t 7 , , . ,,,) T t r ,,()t.S o . l ' r c l m . ( 6 . 1 a )
E q

kz,"c:=
(#)".. ( 6 .t . s ;

, ,i,t,h, t h e t e s t t c m p e r a t u r eZ v a r y i n g f r o m l 5 t o 3 0 " C i s
T h e v a r i a t i c l no f q y 1 ' 1 1 1 2w
given in l'able 6.2.

Tahle 6.2 Variation ol rl 11.1q21y

1

Temperature, f Temperature, f
('c) 4rcllzo'c ("cl rlrcl4zo"c

l5 1.13.5 1. -) 0.931
t6 Ll06 1t 0.9I0
t1 1.07'7 z) 0.889
l8 1.0-51 26 0.869
l9 1.025 27 0.850
20 1.000 28 0.832
2l 0.9'76 29 0.814
22 0.953 30 0.'797
 \

6.4 Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity 145

iI
+ ; , I
Prlrousstone
*r W
T II
I
Porous stollc
h

1
I
i
s
E Craduated
Il
tr
llask

I
F
:
i
'

Figure 6.5 Clonstanl-hcacl

pcrnteabilitv tcst

Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic conductivity

Two standard laboratory tests zrreused to dctermine the hydraulic conductivity of
s o i l - t h e c o n s t a n t - h e a dt e s t a n d t h e f a l l i n g - h e a ct le s t . A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o no f e a c h
lollows.

Constant-Head Test
A lypical arrangcment of thc constant-headpermeability test is shown in Figure 6.5.
In this type of laboratory setup,the water supply at the inlet is adjustedin suih a way
that thc diffcrence of head between the inlet and the outlet remains constantdurins
the test period. After a constantflow rate is established,water is collected in a sradl
uertedflask for a known duration.
The totzrlvolume of water collectedmay be exDressedas

Q: Aur : A(ki)t (6.l6)

where Q : volume of water collected
A - area of crosssection of the soil specimen
r - duration of water collection

And because

. n
I
(6.r7)
146 Chapter 6 Permeability

where L : length of the specimen,Eq (6.17) can be substitutedinto Eq. (6.16) to

yield

o: A(k!), ( 6.r 8)

OL
k:;h, (6.re)

Falling-Head Test
A typical arrangcment of the falling-heerdpermeability test is shown in Figurc 6.6.
Water from a standpipeflows through thc soil. The initial hcad difference/r' at time
t - 0 is rccordecl,and water is zrllowedto flow through the soil specimcn such that
the final hcad differenceat time t : t2is h2.
'I'he
ratc of flow of thc water through the specimenat any time / can bc given by

h d h
q-kr.A:-n; (6.20)

I'--. t
II
dh'

lrI
T:-
S t a n dp i p c -
It t

Ponttrs

li
slonc

I
,l
Soil
speclmen
= \

Porclus
stone

.& ,,.

Figure 6.6 Falling-headpermcabilitytest

 6.4 Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity 147

where4:flowrate
c : cross-sectionalarea of the standpipe
,4 : cross-sectionalarea of the soil specimen

Rearrangementof Eq. (6.20) gives

. aL( dh\
a t : l - | (6.21)
,4k\ h/

Integration of the left side of Eq. (6.21) with limits of time from 0 to / and the risht
side with limits of head difference from ft, to /2, gives

aL, hl
t -
Akto9'' h

k :2.303*t"r,,L (6.22)

Example6.1
Find the flow rate in m3/sec/mlength (at right anglesto the crosssectionshown)
throughthe permeablesoil layershownin Figure6.7 given// = 8m,H1 - 3moh=
4m,L = 50m.a : 8o.and /<: 0.08cm/sec.

T
h

*_r______l
Figure 6.7 Flow-through permeablelayer
148 Chapter 6 Permeability

Solution
n
Hydraulic gradient(i) T
L

""t "
From Eqs.(6.17)and (6.18),

a : kiA : r(rf"){o, "o,

a x 1)

x 10zmlsec)
: (0.0s (-tr"),3cos8" x 1)
: 0.19x 10-3m3/sec/m

Example6.2
permeabilitytest for a {ine sandsamplehavinga
The resultsof a constant-head
diameterof 150mm and a lengthof 300mm are asfollows:
Constantheaddifference: 500mm
Time of collectionof water : 5 min
Volumeof watercollected: 350cmr
Temperatureof water - 24"C
Find the hydraulicconductivityfor the soil at 20"C.
Solution
permeabilitytest.
For constant-head

''u : Q L
Aht
Given that Q:350 cm3,l, = 300 mm, / : (z'la)(150)?= 17671.46
mm2,
: : x :
h 500mm, and t 5 60 300sec,we have
change to mm3
J
L _
(350x103)x300
17671.46x 500 x 300
: 3.96x 10-3cm/sec
'fht

krn: k r-o - g
Tzo
 6.4 Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivitv 149

From Table6.2,

la: o.gt
\zo
So,k2s: (3.96x 10-3)x 0.91:3.6 x 10-3cm/sec.

Example6.3
For a variable-headpermeabilitytest, the following are given:length of speci-
men : 15 in., areaof specimen= 3 in.2,and ft : 0.0688in./min.What shouldbe
the areaof the standpipefor the headto drop from 25 to 12 in. in 8 min.?
Solution
From Eq. (6.22),

k :2.303*"t-#,

: 2.303(*f),"*,,,
0.0688 (fr)
a : 0.15 in.z

Example6.4
The hydraulic conductivityof a clayeysoil is 3 x 10-7cm/sec.The viscosityof
waterat 25'C is 0.0911x 10-4g . sec/cmz.
calculatethe absolutepermeabilityK
of the soil.
Solution
From Eq. (6.13),
v-.._
k: ! K :3 x l0 7cm/sec
n

- / [sicm3 \-
3 < 1 0 ' : l " . l K
\0.0s11x l0-+/
X : A.ZllS Y 19*rt
"*z
150 Chapter 6 Permeability

6.5 Empirical Relations for Hydraulic Conductivity

Several empirical equations for estimating hydraulic conductivity have been pro-
posed in the past. Some of these are briefly discussedin this section.
For fairly uniform sand (that is, sand with a small uniformity coefficient), Hazen
(1930) proposed an empirical relationship for hydraulic conductivity in the form

k (cm/sec): cDlo (6.23)

where c : a constant that varies from 1.0to 1.-5

D 1 , ,- t h e e l ' f e c t i v es i z e .i n m m

Equation (6.23) is based primarily on Hazen's observationsof loose, clean, filter

sands.A small quantity of silts and clays,when present in a sandy soil, may change
thc hydraulic conductivity substantially.
Casagrandeproposed a simplc relationshipfrlr hydraulic conductivity for fine-
to-medium clcan sand in thc form
k : l.4e'ks.g5 (6.24)

where k : hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio e

kors : the correspondingvaluc at a void ratio of 0.8-5

Another form of equation that givesfairly good rcsults in estimating the hy-
draulic conductivity of sandy soils is bascd on the Kozeny-Carman equation. The
derivation of this cquation is not presentcd here. Intercsted readersare referred to
any advancedsoil mechanicsbook (for example, Das, 1997).An application of the
Kozeny-Carmanequation yields
e3
k o - (6.2s)
I t e

where k : hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio of e. This equation can be re-

written as

k: c,;i (6.26)

whereCr:aconstant
Mention was made at the end of Section6.1 that turbulent flow conditions may
exist in very coarse sandsand gravels,and that Darcy's law may not be valid for these
materials.However, under a low hydraulic gradient,Iaminar flow conditions usually
exist.Kenney,Lau, and Ofoegbu (1984)conductedlaboratory testson granular soils
in which the particle sizesin various specimensranged from 0.074to 25.4 mm. The
uniformity coefficients,C,,,of these specimensranged from 1.04 to 12. All perme-
ability tests were conducted at a relative density of 80% or more. These tests showed
that for laminar flow conditions,
: (0.05
r 1mm21 to 1)Dl (6.27)
 \

6.5 Empirical Relations for Hydraulic Conductivity 151

Sand Cmvel
Fine lMediumlCoarse Fine

o l 3
a l 3
n ( r
O ( r
a t {
d v 12
!
+ N o t c di n
E [ J . S .C l r r p so 1 '
l i n g i n c c r s .| 9 5 3
o a K r u r r b c i n&
Monk.l94J
l0 l
0.0|
1 ) 5( r n n r)
(x)

Lc!e rrd
(.,,
O l . l ( - t , / ,
a l - )
l ( r

I/' , (,
o a 6 //
a l J
\7 l,
+ Noted in
/ri
,'-,,.';ffi'
Ll.S. (iorps ol'
Engi necrs.

o a
195-l
Kruntbcin & l
!

T
Monk. 1943
fl,
6:
Sand (irirvel Figure 6.8
Fine lMc'rliurtt I Coarse F'inc Rcsultsof pcrmeability tcsts on which
l0rr
0.(x)I 0.01 0 .1 I l0 F.q.(6.27)is bascd:(a) resultsfor C,, : 1-3;
1 ) 5( t n n t ) (b) resultsfor C,, > 3 (after Kenney, Lau, and
(tr) Ofbegbu,1984)

where Ds : diameter (mm) through which 5% of soil passes.Figures 6.8a and 6.8b
show the resultson which E q. (6.21)is based.
On the basisof laboratory experiments,the U.S. Department of Navy (IgjI)
provided an empirical correlation betweenk (ft /min) and D,,,(mm) for granular soils
with the uniformity coefficientvarying between 2 and 72 and D rtlD5 < 1.4.This cor-
relation is shown in Figure 6.9.
152 Chapter 6 Permeability

l0
8
o
4

E l
= 0.8
;, 0.6
.E

; tr.+
!

3 o.z
.9
-
€ 0.1
i o.os
0.06
0.04

0.02

or 02 0 4 t ' ' u j ] , ? , , i " , ,2 1 6 u ro

of granularsoils(afterU.S.Departmentof Navy,1971)
Figure 6.9 Permeability

According to their experimental observations, Samarasinghe,Huang, and

Drnevich (1982) suggestedthat the hydraulic conductivity of normally consolidated
clays (see Chapter 10 for definition) can be given by

k : C , r{+)c / (6.28)
\l
where Cr and r?are constantsto be determined experimentally.This equation can be
rewritten as
l o g [ / < ( 1+: l o g C . ,* n l o g e (6.2e)
")]
Hence, for any given clayey soil, if the variation of k with the void ratio is known, a log-
log graph can be plotted with k(1 t e) against e to determine the values of C. and n.
Some other empirical relationships for estimating the hydraulic conductivity in
sand and clayey soils are given in Table 6.3. One should keep in mind, however, that
any empirical relationship of this type is for estimation only, becausethe magnitude
of k is a highly variable parameter and depends on several factors.
Tavenas et al. (1983) also gave a correlation between the void ratio and the hy-
draulic conductivity of clayey soil. This correlation is shown in Figure 6.10. An im-
portant point to note, however, is that in Figure 6.70,PI, the plasticity index, and C4
the clay-sizefraction in the soil, are in fraction (decimal) form.
 6.5 Empirical Relations for Hydraulic Conductivity 153

Table6.3 Empirical Relationshipsfor EstimatingHydraulicConductivity

Type
of Soil Source Relationship" Comments
03
Sand Amer and Awad (1974) k : CzD2ri2Cl';=
I t e
03
Shahabi,Das, k: I.2Cl135D?il',i Medium to
Tarquin (1984) l-re
fine sand
Clay Mesri and logk:A'loge+B'
Olson (1971)
e a - €
Taylor (1948) r o g K : 1 0 g ( 6- For e < 2.5,
^
C1 = 0.5e6

" D r,, - effective size

C,, : uniformity coefficient
C2 - a constant
ko: in slta hydraulic conductivity at void ratio c,,
k : hydraulic conductivity at void ratio e
C-*: permeability changeindex

t0 -e 5xl0')
I (m/sec.t

Figure 6.10 Yariationof void ratio with hydraulicconductivityof clayeysoils(basedon

Tavenaset al.. 1983)
154 Chapter 6 Permeability

Example 6.5
The hydraulicconductivityof a sandat a void ratio of 0.8is 0.047cm/sec.Estimate
the hydraulicconductivityof this sandat a void ratio of 0'5. Use F,q.(6.2q-
Solution
From Eq. (6.24).k : 1.4e2k,,n..
Thus.
fto8 (0.8)2
__
k,,s (0.5)'
So

(ffi)' : 0.047
k's: kos (ffi)'
: 0.018cm/sec

Redo ExampleProblem6.5 usingEq. (6.26).

Solution
From Eq. (6.26),

k: C,J,'
l 1 - g

So
I o.s'I
kr* Lr {-oitl 0.284
: '.' *'
^a
k,;: I o- 5- : o.o8.r
L l+ u s l
Hence,
, = ku.*
kn.s
0.047
: 0.014
cm/sec
ffi: ,*

The void ratio andhydraulicconductivityrelationfor a nofmallyconsolidatedclay

are givenbelow.
Void ratio k (cm /sec)

r.2 0.6 x 10-7

1.52 1 . 5 1 9x 1 0 7

Estimatethe valueof k for the sameclaywith a void ratio of 1.4.

 6.6 Directional Variation of Permeabilitv 155

Solution
FromEq. (6.28)

It ei- I l
K1 1 1+ e , J
k2 l e i
l -
lI+e2
Substitutionof e1 - 1.2,kt : 0.6 X 10*7cm/sec,e2 : 1-.52,
kz * I.519 X 10*?
cm/secin the precedingequationgives

06 /
1 .
t. 7- |\ 1n . / . ) J \ . ) I \
r . s l e \ r . s z l\ z . z)
OI

n=4.5
Again, from Eq. (6.28),

o ,: . ' , ( * )
''"'
0 . 6x l 0 - 7 : c ,'(\ l )
+ 1.2/

C. : 0.581x 10*7cm/sec

7.: (0.581x 10-7)($) cm/sec

\ r r c'l

Now,substitutinge = 1.4in the precedingequationyields

x 107)(ffi)
ft : (o.ssl : 1.1x 107cm/sec

Directional Variation of Permeability

Most soils are not isotropic with respectto permeability.In a given soil deposit,the
magnitude of k changeswith respectto the direction of flow. Figure 6.11showsa soil
layer through which water flows in a direction inclined at an angle ct with the verti-
cal. Let the hydraulic conductivityin the vertical (o : 0) and horizon taI (a :90.) di-
rections be ku and krr, respectively.The magnitudes of ku and k11in a given soil de-
pend on several factors, including the method of deposition in the field. Basak (1972)
156 Chapter 6 PermeabilitY

'S 'S ,P

,#
ri'i*ri;:.ll;;;tol;,*j,,t.{:jlri;li*,liilll;i::iiii{;ilj '.'-;-i'.';
#
:il ,fi
,s
|-l()w dtreell()t]

variationol'pcrmeability
Figure 6. 1? Dircctionzrl

and Al-Tabbaa anclWoocl ( 19t37)conductedlaboratory testson kaolin to determine

t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e a n i s o t r o p yr a t i o , r 1 , : k 1 1 l k yw, i t h t h e v o i d r a t i o . T h e s p e c i m e n s
for these tests were subiectcd t<t unidimensional (oedometric) consolidation.The
variations of r7.ancl voicl ratio (c) from thc tests of Basak' and from those of Al-
:
T a b b a aa n d W o o d . a r c s h o w n i n F i g u r e6 . 1 2 .S i m i l a rt e s t r e s u l t so n a s a n d( C , , 3 . 5 ,
e,,,,,*: 0.t124, and t',,,1,, : 0.348)were providcd by Chapuis'Gill, and Baass( 1989).The
specimensfor these tcstswert: prepared by unidimensionalstatic and dynamic com-
paction. The variations of 11with c for thcse testsare also shown in Figure 6.12.

K a o l i n ( A l - n r b b a aa n d W o o d , 1 9 8 7 )

a en,ln Static com ion-sand

( C h a p u i sC
, ill, andBaass,
. ! l
/ / \
'f\
Dispersed
c'n,i'l kaolin
b \
-' CL \
t *dL
tBasrk

'\and
^, ,i ,l r, . D y n l t m i cc ( ) l n p r c l i ( ) n
- ,n J p u: r su
L
a n d B a a s s (. 1 9 8 9 )

Void ratio. e

Figure 6.12 Yar\ation of anisotropy ratio with void ratio for various soils
 6.7 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soit 157

According to Figure 6.l2,the following three generalconclusionscan be drawn:

1. For static compaction conditions,the magnitude of rp decreaseswith the in-
c r e a s ei n v o i d r a t i o .
2. For sand, the anisotropy ratio is equal to one at e : €n,,,,.
3. For sand,with ? ( c,.",, the magnitude of rp is greater than one when the speci-
mens are formed by unidimensionalstatic compaction. However, for dynami-
cally compactedsand, rft may be lessthan one for e ( e,,,.,*.

Equivalent Hydraulic conductivity in stratified soil

In a stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given di-
rection changes from laycr to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be
computed to simplify calculattions. The following derivationsrelate to the equivalent
hydraulic conductivitiesfor flow in vertical zrndhorizontal directions throush multi-
l a y c r e ds o i l sw i t h h o r i z o n t a ls t r a t i f i c a t i o n
Figurc 6.13 showsn layersof soil with flow inthe horiz.ontalclirection.Let us
consider a crosssectionof unit length passingthrough the n layer and perpendicular
to the direction of flow. Thc total llow through the crosssection in unit time can be
written as

q - a ' l ' H
- l , . 1 . H t * u r . l . H t * , u . , ..1H . * . . . + , u , , . 1 . H , , (6.30)
where o - averagcdischargevelocity
'Dt'Ib,'u1.- - -
,7), - dischargcvelocitiesol flow in layersdenoted by the subscripts

-$> . t
kv, I
", _, > /(llr
I
Y
tI
#
, t
Kvt I
t7. -|
> '-fin
L,.
l-
Direction .,.*__._-*___v"_
-...
of flow

,,,s>
t
Hj
, ^ H
"u,I._---_________+,,
I k/rr

Figure 6. 13 Equivalent hydraulic conductivity determination - horizontal flow in

stratified soil
158 Chapter 6 Permeability

If kH,, kH,, ktr., . . .,ks,,are the hydraulic conductivitiesof the individual layers
in the horizontal direction and kp1"uyis the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the
horizontal direction. then, from Darcy's law,

o : k p 1 " u y i " o u; 1 - k s , i 1 ; a 2 : k n . i 2 u1 : ks.ir1, un: ks,,i,

Substituting the preceding relations for velocities into Eq. (6.30) and noting that
j " u- l t - i z : j : : ' ' ' : i , ,r e s u l t si n

ku@qt: *(rn,n, + kH,Hz + kH,H3 + "' + kx,H*) (6.31)

17

Figure 6.14showsn layersof soil with flow in the vertical direction. In this case,
the velocity of flow through all the layersis the same.However, the total head loss,
/2,is equal to the sum of the head lossesin all layers.Thus,
D : D t - D z : D 3 : " . - D i l (6.32)
and
h : hl -th2+h+.'.*h, (6.33)

Using Darcy'.slaw, we czrnrcwrite Eq. (6.32) as

,.
^r,..1,\
|/ h \| _ k v , i r - k v j z : kv.it- "': kv,,i,, (6.34)
I /
\ I I /

, v
__t___
t i . rh , ,
'I i I
+ ; T
-l"l u : T ,
+ ,
t
Tll i : itl ;
:l
t : i l :
I l r l l l
, l t r
l i i
l !
t :
H

[!!tl ]

tg
q ,
_]ii
'-' f--i

Directionof flow

Figure 6. 14 Equivalent hydraulic conductivity determination - vertical flow tn

stratified soil
 6.7 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soit 159

where kv,, kr., kv., . . . , ky,,arethe hydraulic conductivitiesof the individual layersin
the vertical direction and ky1"uyis the equivalent hydraulic conductivity.
Again, from Eq. (6.33),

h : Hj1 + H2i2 + H3h + ... + H,i,, (6.3s)

Solving Eqs. (6.3a) and (6.3,5)gives

.(#)
I " **
^v(eq) (6.36)
/ H,\
t l +
I H,\
\ r- I
f H,\,
\k, / \tn,/

An exccllent example of naturally depositedlayered soilis varved.roll which is

a rhythmically layeredsedimentof coarseand fine minerals.Varveclsoilsresult from
annual seasonalfluctuation of sedimentconditions in glaciallakes.Figure 6.1-5shows
the variation of moisture content and grain-sizedistribution in New Liskearcl.Can-
ada, varved soil. Each varvey is about 41 to 51 mm ( I .6 tct2.0 in.) thick and consists
of two homogeneouslaycrsof soil - one coarscanclone fine - with a transition Iaver
between.

M o i s t u r cc o n t c n t G r a i ns i z e

-.)
E

E
b!

B o r i n gn o . I
S a m p l en o . l z l
D e p t h ,5 3 . 0 f i
Elevation.570.-5ft
40 -50 60 Jv 80 0 50 100
Moisture content(7o) Percent
lessthan

Figure 6.75 Variationof moisturccontentand grain-sizedistributionin New Liskeard

varvedsoil.,5ource.'
After "Laboratory lnvestigationof pcrmeabilityRatio of New
Liskeardvarved clay," by H. T. chan and r. c. Kenney,1973,CanartianGeotechnical
Journal,10(3),p.453-472.copyrighto 1973NationalResearch council of canada.
Usedbv oermission.
160 Chapter 6 Permeability

Example6.8

A layeredsoil is shownin Figure6.1,3.Giventhat

. Hr: I m &r : 10-acm/sec
. l1z : 1.5m kz: 3.2 x 10-2cm/sec
' Ht-Zm kt: 4.tx lO-scm/sec
estimatethe ratio of equivalentpermeability,

^/I(eq)

W^
Solution
FromEq.(6.31),
I
L -
r u H ( e q )*
'/t' u +kil.H2+k,,,Ht)
p \^Hlt1

I 4 x r ) + ( 3 . 2x l 0 ? x 1 . s )+ ( 4 . 1x 1 0 - 5 X 2 ) ]
[(10

: 107.07x 10*4cm/sec

Again,from Eq. (6.36),

(#).(#,)\ei
t. -
rey(eq) -
/H,\

I 1 . 5+ 2

(#) .(-*u-) .(njr.=)

: 0.765X 10*acmisec

Hence,

x 10-a
10'7.07
- 140
0.765x 10-4

6.8 Hydraulic Conductivity of Compacted Clayey Soils

It was shown in Chapter 5 (Section5.5) that whcn a clay is compactedat a lower mois-
ture content it possessesa flocculentstructure.Approximately at optimum moisture
content of compaction, the clay particles have a lower degree of flocculation. A fur-
ther increasein the moisture content at compactionprovidesa greater degreeof par-
 6.8 Hydraulic Conductivity of Compacted Clayey Soils 161

| 2-5 19.6-5

120 t9

<i l 5 rx >
=
| ',u ;,
= '1 '1 !
j
'd
..- 'd
r llr)
.:
O StandardProctor-19-rnnr clods lb E
> l(x) o M o d i f i e dP r o c t r t r - 1 9 - n t mc l o d s
A StandardProctor-zl-8-nrrrrclorls
95 t5

90 - l l ; 1 .l - 5
t l t3 t5 t7 t9 2l 23
Moldingrrroisturc (%.)
contcnt
(ll)

^ lil-l

tr , S t a n c l a rP c lr o c t o r l 9 - n r r nl i x c t l
; ill 5

tr S t a n d a r dP r o c k ) r - 1 9 t n r n l ' l c x i b l c
h A StandardProctor :1.13-rnrn llxctl
'= l(t r'
.E O M o t l i f l c d P r o c t o r l 9 r r r r rlri x c t l
a
Ea t t l ;

7 9 ll 13 l-5 t] t9 2t t.l
M0ltlingDloisturc
contcnl(7 )

Figure 6. 16 Tcsts on a clay soil: (a) Standarclanclrnodilicd Proctor compaction curvcs;

( b ) v a r i a t i o n o ff t w i t h m o l d i n g n t o i s t u r c c o n t e nSt .o u r t ' cA: l ' t c r " l n l l u e n c eo f C l o d s o n H v -
d r a u l i c C o n d u c t i v i t y o l ' C l o n t p a c t e d C ' l a y , " b y C . H . B e n s o n a n d D . E . D a nl gi cg l},, J t t t t r n t t l
rt.t'C)arttechnit'ul Enginctring, 116(8).p.l23l-1248. Copyright O 1990Arnerican Society6f
C i v i l E n g i r r e c r sU. s c d h y p e r n r i s s i o n .

ticle orientation; howevcr, thc dry unit weight dccreascs because the aclded water di-
lutes the concentration of soil solids per unit volume.
Figure 6.16 shows the results of laboratory compaction tests on a clay soil as
well as the variation of hydraulic conductivity on the compactecl clay specimens. The
compaction tests and thus the specimens for hydraulic conductivity tests were pre-
pared from clay clods that were 19 mm and 4.8 mm. From the laboratory test results
shown, the following observations can be made;

l. For similar compaction effort and molding moisture content, the magnitude of
k decreases with the decrease in clcld size.
162 Chapter 6 Permeability

120

l ^ 1 0 7
ll6
llJ

E
Z
; r08 l'7 '
t s
ot

' = I l l l

l(r A
!

100

l-5
c o n d u c t i v i t y a t | ( X ) ' l s a t u f a t i o n o l s p c c i t r t c n( c r r t / s e c )

92 t4.46
|| 13 l.s l1 19 21 23 25
Molcling
rrroistulc (%)
contcnt

Figure 6. 17 Contours ol hydraulic conductivity for a silty cltry.Sourcc:Alter "Permcability

o f C o m p a c l e dC l a y , "b y J . K . M i t c h c l l , D . R . H o o p c r , a n d R . B . C a m p c n c l l a ,1 9 6 5J, o u r n o l
ol'rltc Soil Machunits und fltttntlutiott.tDivisitttr,9/ (SM4), p.4l 6-5.Copyright O 196-5
Ame rican Socicly ol Civil Enginccrs. [Jscd by pcrntissiou.

For a given compaction ef['ort,thc hydraulic concluctivitydecreaseswith the in-

c r e i l s ei n m o l d i n g m o i s t u r ec o n t c n t ,r e a c h i n ga m i n i m u m v a l u ea t a b o u t t h c o p -
t i m u m m o i s t u r ec o n t c n t ( t h a t i s , a p p r o x i m a t e l yw h e r e t h c s o i l h a s a h i g h e r u n i t
wcight with thc clay particles having a lowcr clegreeof flocculation).Beyond
thc optirnum moisture content. thc hydraulic conductivity increasesslightly.
For similar compaction efTortand dry unit weight, a soil will have a lower hy-
draulic concluctivitywhen it is compactedon the wet sidc of the optimum
moisture content. This fact is furthcr illustrated in Figurc 6. 17,which showsa
summary of hydraulic conductivity tcst rcsults on a silty clay (Mitchell, Hooper
a n d C a m p a n e l l a .1 9 6 5 ) .

6.9 Considerations for Hydraulic Conductivity

of Clayey Soils in Field Compaction
In some compaction work in clayeysoils,the compaction must be done in a manner
so that a certain specified upper level of hydraulic conductivity of the soil is achieved.
Examples of such works are compaction of the core of an earth dam and installation
of clay liners in solid-wastedisposalsites.
To prevent groundwater pollution from leachates generated from solid-waste
disposalsites,the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires that clay
6.9 Considerations for Hydraulic Conductivity of Ctayey Soils in Fietd Compaction 163

liners have a hydraulic conductivity of 10 7 cm/sec or less.To achieve this value. the
contractor must ensurethat the soil meetsthe following criteria (Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, 1989):

l. The soil should have at least20"/" fines (fine silt and clay-sizeparticres).
, The plasticity index (P1) should be greater than 10.Soils that have a pl
crear.er
than about 30 are difficult to work with in the field.
3. The soil should not include more than 107ogravel-sizeparticles.
4. The soil should not contain any particles or chunks of rock that are larqer than
25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 in.).

In many instances,the soil found at the constructionsite may be somewhatnon-

plastic.Such soil may be blended with importeclclay minerals like sodium bentonite
to achievethe desiredrange of hydraulic conductivity.In addition, during fiel6 com-
paction, a heavy sheepsfootroller can introclucelarger shear strainsduring compac-
tion that create a more dispersedstructure in the soil. This type of compacted soil
will have an even lower hydraulic conductivity.Small lifts should be uscd during com-
paction so that the feet of the compactor can penetrate thc full depth of the lilt.
The size of the clay clods has a strong influencc on the hydraulic conductivity
of a compactedclay.Hence, during compaction,thc cloclsmust be broken down me-
chanically to as small as possible.A very heavy roller uscd for compaction helps to
break them down.
Bonding between successivc lifts is also an important factor; othcrwisc, perme-
ant can move through a vertical crack in the compacted clay and thcn travcl along
the interface between two lifts until it linclsanother crack, as is schematicallyshown
in Figure 6. 18. Bonding can substantiallyreduce thc overall hydraulic conductivity
of a compacted clay. An example o[ poor bonding was seen in a trial paclcgnstruc-
t i o n i n H o u s t o ni n 1 9 u 6T . h e t r i a l p a d w a s0 . 9 1m ( 3 f t ) t h i c k a n d b u i l t i n s i x . l - 5 . 2m m
(6 in.) lifts. The resultsof the hydraulic conductivity testslbr the compzrctsoil from
the trial pad are given in Table 6.4. Note that although the laboratory-detcrmined
v a l u e s o f k f o r v a r i t t u s l i f t s a r e o n t h e o r d e r o fl 0 7 t o 1 0 ' ' r c m / s e c . t h e a c t u a l
overall
a.
value of k increasedto the order of 10 For this reason,scarificationanclcontrol of

*
Figure 6'18 Pattern of flow through a compacted clay with improper bonding between lifts
(after Environmental Protection Agency, 1989)
164 Chapter 6 Permeability

Table 6.4 HydraulicConductivityfrom HoustonLiner Tests*

Location Laboratory k (cm /sec)

Lower lift 76 mm (:3 in') tube 4 X 10'

')
Upper lift 76 mm (-3 in') tubc I X 10
Lift interface 76 mrn (:3 in') tube I X 1 0 7
Lower lift Block 8 X 1 0 5
Upper lift Block 1 X l0 rr
Actualovcrallk : I x 1 0 1 c m/scc

'kAfterEnvironmental
ProtectionAgency(1989)

the moisture content after compactionof eachlift are extremely important in achiev-
ing the desired hydraulic conductivity.

6.10 Moisture Content-Unit Weight Criteria

for CIay Liner Construction
As mentioned in Section 6.t),for construction of clay liners for solid-wastedisposal
7
sitcs,the compactedclay is required to have a hyclrzrulicconductivity of l0 cm/scc
or less.Danicl and Benson (1990) developeda procedure to establishthe moisture
content - unit weight criteria for clayeysoils to meet thc hyclraulicconductivity re-
quirement. Following is a step-by-stepproccdure to dcvelop the crite-ria:

l. Conduct modilied, stanrktrd,and redLtcedProctor tcsts to establishthe dry unit

w e i g h t v e r s u sm o l d i n g m o i s t u r ec o n t c n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s( F i g u r c 6 . 1 9 a ) .M o d i l l e d
and standard Proctor testswcre discusscdin Chapter 5. The raducedProctor
test is similar to the standard Proctor test, except the hammer is dropped only
l-5 times pcr lift instcad o1 the usual 25 times. Modified, standard,and reduced
Proctor efforts represent,respectively,thc upper, medium, erndminimum levels
of compaction encrgy for a typical clayeysoil liner.
2. Conduct permeability testson the compactedsoil specimens(from step 1), and
plot the results,as shown in Figure 6.19b.In this figure, also plot the maximum
allowable value of k (that is, k,,11).
3. Replot the dry unit weight-moisture content points (Figure 6.19c)with differ-
ent symbolsto representthe compactedspecimenswith ft > k.,,1 and k = kon'
4. Plot the acceptablezone for which k is lessthan or equal to k,,11 (Figure 6.19c).

6.11 Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from Wells

In the field, the averagehydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction of
flow can be determined by performing pumping tests from wells. Figure 6.20a shows
a case where the top permeable layer, whose hydraulic conductivity has to be de-
termined, is unconfined and underlain by an impermeable layer. During the test,
water is pumped out at a constant rate from a test well that has a perforated casing.
Several observation wells at various radial distances are made around the test well.
 6.11 Permeability Test in the Fietd by pumping from Wells 165

A Modified Proctor
O StandardProctor
! RcducedProctor
Zero-air-void
plot

M o l d i n g n l o i s t u r cc o n t c n l
(a)

A Moclitied Proctor
O StandardProctor
! RcduceclProctor

E
M a x i r n u n ra l l o w e dk ( { , , r r )
E
a

Figure 6.19
M o l d i n g t n o i s t u r ec o n t e n t
(h)
( a ) P r o c t o rc u r v c s ;( b ) v a r i a t i o n
o l ' h y d r a u l i cc o n d u c t i v i t yo f c o m -
pactcd spccimens;(c) determina-
t i o n o f ' a c c c p t a b l cz o n c . S o u r c e :
Acceptablc zone
(l < l 'rr) A l'tcr "Water Content-Density
j'a A Z c r o a i r - v o i d Critcria lirr Cornpacted
Soil Lin-
A -.t .,t
A
n)^ c r s . " b y D . E . D a n i e l a n c lC . H .
o o
tr ''!or Benson, 1990..1o rrrna I tt.f C)ett-
-,..,] tcchn icttl En gincc ri n 14,I I 6 (12).
D p p . l l t l l - 1 1 3 3 0C
. o p y r i g h rO 1 9 9 0
Molding nloistutc contcnl American Socicty of Civil E,ngi-
ncers. Uscd by permission.

i+r2 +l
F--r+l+;'r --.-l

Watcr table
betbre pumping

Draw-down curve
d u r i n gp u m p i n g

h
_ t
lesr j
well I
O b s er v a t i o n
w el l s

\*l
lmpernteable
layer

(a)

Figure 6.20 (a) Pumping test fiom a well in an unconfined permeable layer
unclerlain by an
impermeable stratum. Figure 6.20 continued on page 167.
166 Chapter 6 PermeabilitY

Continuous observations of the water level in the test well and in the observation
wells are made after the start of pumping, until a steady state is reached. The steady
state is establishedwhen the water level in the test and observation wells becomes
constant. The expression for the rate of flow of groundwater into the well, which is
equal to the rate of discharge from pumping, can be written as

q' : k ( * \ r , , n (6.37)
\dr /

f" d, - (?o!\ f" onn

J,.; \ q / J r , .
Thus,

2.303qttt,,,(;)
k : --7q-6- (6.38)

From field measurements,if r7,r1. 12,h1, and h. are known, the hydraulic conductiv-
ity can be calculatedfrom the simple relationshippresentedin Eq. (6.3tt).This equa-
tion can also be written as

2 . 3 0 3 tq" t , , , ( ; )
k (cmisec) : (6.3e)
t4.1rftl - h))
where q is in gpm and /r1 and h2 are in ft.
Figure 6.20bshowsthe drawdown versusdistanceplots for a field pumping test
in a deposit of coarse to fine sand, as reported by Ahmad, Lacroix, and Steinback
(1975).For this rest.the depth of thc test well : 100 ft and q : 1515gpm. From the
plot, if we assumethat steady state was reached at limc t - 6064min, we can calcu-
late the hydraulic conductivity as follows:
f lft2l r (ft) Drawdown (ft) h (ft)

1,000 31.6 5 1 0 0- 5 : 9 5
I 0.000 100 3.-5 100 3.5 : 96.5

From Eq. (6.39),

'" (#)
(2.303X1sls)
t . - : 0.732crnisec
-
QaJ )(tr)\e6.-s2 9s2)
The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined aquifer can also be deter-
mined by conducting a pumping test from a well with a perforated casing that pene-
trates the full depth of the aquifer and by observing the piezometric level in a number
of observation wells at various radial distances (Figure 6.21). Pumping is continued
at a uniform rate q until a steady state is reached.
 6.11 Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from Wells 167

Observatiow
n ellsin: q=1515gpm
O Line I
Lt_l LIne j

A Line3

Note:

Top data points lirr / = 606.1nrin (averlec)

(-5986</<6ll2min)

M i d d l c d a t ap o i n t sl i r r I = 1 3 5 7m i n ( a v c r a g e )
( 1 3 4 0 < r <1 3 7 ( r r l i n )

Lower data points lirr I = 2.56ntin (averagc)
( 2 5 2 < t < 2 ( r . 1m i n )
101
Distancc squarcd, rl (1t2)
(b)
Figure 6.20 (tt ttrritrrrt'tl l-
( h ) P l o t o l d r u w d o w nv o -
sus 12in a lielclpumping
l0l
l e s t ( b a s e do n A h m a d ,
Lacroix. and Steinback,
l e7s)

l<_r.,+l
F-f +l<-r1 +l
I

Piezometric
lcvel
beforepumping

Piezomctric level
'T
: ;
i. n; '
d u r i n gp u m p i n g ;hz ; t'
!v .v . i
i i , ,
, i -.- .,i ' i , "i, ".. ..- , '
ii' 1.
, l" , : t i , . , ; ; ' f C ) b s e r v a t i o n
".. wetls
, ! . '. : i ' - . :.
Impcrrneable
i.:'""ii".:-;y'
layer

Figure 6.21
Impermeable Pumping test from a well
layer p e n e t r a t i n gt h e f u l l d c p t h
in a confined aquifer
168 Chapter 6 Permeability

Because water can enter the test well only from the aquifer of thickness H, the
steady state of dischargeis

+ :r ( f f ) 2 " , n (6.40)

or
[' ,1, l"'2okH ,,
l - Q i l
Jr, ' Jn. q

This gives thc hydraulic conductivity in the direction of flow as

nt"*,,(;)
t- * (6.41)
2.727H(h * h2)

Example6.9
Considerthe caseof pumpingfrom a well in an unconfinedpermeablelayer un-
derlainby an impermeablestratum(seeFigure6.20a).Giventhat
t q :0.74 m3/min
, ht:6matrr=60m
. h z : 5 . 2 m a t1 2: 3 0m
calculatethe hydraulicconductivity(in m/min) of the permeablelayer.
Solution
From Eq. (6.38),
/ r' \
2.303qtoe',,|,; J /r ?o?\/n loB'o(99\
ro',,^,"^
Q.303)(0.74) , .n ,
I"- : . - .''" : .- ., '--' :0.018f1/min
r(hi hil n(6' 5.2')

6.12 In Situ Hydraulic Conductivity

of Compacted Clay Soils
Daniel (1989)provided an excellentreview of nine methodsto estimatethe in situhy-
draulic conductivity of compacted clay layers.Three of these methods are described.

Boutwell Permeameter
A schematic diagram of the Boutwell permeameter is shown in Figure 6.22. Ahole
is first drilled and a casing is placed in it (Figure 6.22a).The casing is filled with water
 6.12 ln Situ Hydraulic Conductivity of Compacted Clay Soils 169

------>ld 4-
, : +l ,l l+_
: : 1
i ; v i l : f ' .i

h
:
3- n- +I)+ iri{|
I
il:il,ri:.1:r n

Casing
\
!i' I
@ { f
',"s
+
rd

Compacted Compacted
clay $p r# .ioy

(b)

Figure 6.22 Permeabilitytest with Boutwellpcrmeameter

and a falling-headpermeability test is conducted. Based on thc test results,the hy-

draulic conductivitv k, is calculatedas

rd:
n, t - , lhr\
(6.42)
oD1,,I,;'n \1,./
where rl : dizrmeterof the standpipc
D : d i a m e t c ro f t h e c a s i n g
/2,: headat time t,
hz: headat time t,

After the hydraulic conductivity is determined, the hole is deepened by au-

gering, and the permeameter is reassembledas shown in Figure 6.22b. A falling-
head hydraulic conductivity test is conducted again. The hydraulic conductivity is
calculatedas

A',. (h,\
n, r : g t " (6.43)
\/r,i
where

A ' : , 1 ' { , , , l L+
I LD
(;)'l) (6.44)

B '- 8 D # G zt*r ) {-r o r u , " " n [ - r . s z ( # ) ] ] (6.4s)

The anisotropy with respect to permeability is determined by referring to
Figure 6.23, which is a plot of k2lk, versus m (m - \/E;E) for various values of
170 Chapter 6

I
4tkl

Figure 6.23 Yariationof kzlklwith rn Ieq. (6.a0)]

L'/ D. Figure 6.23 can be uscd to determine m using thc experimentalvaluesof krlk,
and L'/ D. The plots in this figure are determined from

k2 + ft + 1t:toyl
tnl( t,' tD)
(6.46)
kt rr,l(ml,'lD)+ ft + 1,"lloy\
Once m is dctcrmined. we can calculate
k 1 1- m k y (6.41)
and
k,
(6.4rJ)
m

Co nsta nt-H ead Boreh ole Perm ea m eter

Figure 6.24 shows a constant-hcadborehole permcamctcr. In this arrangement a
constanthead /zis merintaincdby supplyingwater, and the rate of flow r7is measured.
The hydraulic conductivity can be calculatedas

(6.4e)
,'xtP-tlFt+(F2tA'))
where
n
R : (6.s0)
r

4.rt1(t- R2)
rE l -- ( 6.s
1)
rn (R+ r ,ff' - r l - tr ( 1/R2) los
4.280
F2 (6.s2)
l n ( R +Y e J - t l
1
A' :-ar (6.s3)
2
I
Typical values of a range from 0.002 to 0.01 cm for fine-grained soil.
 6.12 ln Situ Hydraulic Conductivity of Compacted Clay Soils 171

Standpipe

Compacted
clay

ijliTI
f".l
't:;..,
|

lJr

I
h

II
*L
Figure 6.24
Boreholetestwith constantwaterlcvel

Porous Probes
Porous probcs (Figure 6.25) are pushed or driven into the soil. Constant- or lnllins-
head permeability tests arc performed. The hydraulic conductivitv is calculated
is
follows:

The constant head is given by

t.-
u
Fh
(6.s4)
The falling head is given by

. rd2l4 / h,\
k- 'n(rt,,) (6.-ss)
{;rr

=i

,.",'U
i,
<-d

I h
-- --'
r; FJ
:.;i $:{
Seal:T.
T

h
I
I

t*'
l t 4 ' '
r 4'
.'&
ii{
, _l
**
''*
i+"
f , ie"
i
*'
W
ffi
'' ii; + |I
''&
v
|

' D H
' D

(al (b)

Figure 6.25 Porousprobe:(a) test with permeablebase;(b) testwith impermeablebase

172 Chapter 6 Permeability

For probes with permeable bases(Figure 6.25a),

)-I
t
D -
- (6.s6)
\nl(L,tD)+ft+1r1oy\
bases(Figure6.25b).
For probcswith impermeable
)-I
F = - 2.8D (6.s7)
tnl(LltD)+ft+1r1ny\

6.13 Summary and General Comments

In this chapter.wc discussedDarcy's laq definition of hydraulic conductivity.labo-
ratury determination of hydraulic conductivity and the empirical relations for it,
and field determination of hydraulic conductivity of various types of soil. Hydraulic
conductivity of various soil layers is highly variable. The empirical relations for hy-
draulic concluctivityshould be used as a general guide for all practical consider-
ations.Thc accuracyof the valueso1'k detcrmined in the laboratory dependson sev-
ererlI'actclrs:

1. Temperature of thc fluid

2. Viscosity of the fluid
3. T r a p p e d t r i r b u b b l c sp r c s c n ti n t h e s o i l s p e c i m e n
4. D e g r e eo l ' s a t u r a t i o no f t h e s o i l s p e c i m e n
5. M i g r a t i o n o f f i n c sd u r i n g t e s t i n g
6. D u p l i c a t i o no f f i o l d c o n d i t i o n si n t h e l a b o r a t o r y

The hydraulicconductivityof saturatedcohesivesoilscan alsobe determinedby

laboratory consolidationtests.(Scc Example 10.10.)The actuzrlvalue of the hydraulic
conductivity in the lield may also be somcwhat different than that obtained in the
laboratory becauseof thc nonhomogcneityof the soil. Hence, proper care should be
taken in zrssessingthc order of the magnitude of k for all designconsiderations.

Problems
6.1 A permeable soil layer is underlain by an impervious layer, as shown in
Figure 6.26.With k : 4.8 x l0 3 cm/secfor the permeable layer,calculate
the rate of seepagethrough it in mr/hr/m width if H : 3 m and a : 5".
6.2 Refer to Figure 6.27. Find the flow rate in mr/sec/m Iength (at right angles to
the crosssection shown) through the permeable soil layer. Given H : 6 m,
H t : 2 . 5 m , h : 2 . 8 m , L : 4 0 m , a - 1 0 o k. : 0 . 0 5c m / s e c .
6.3 Refer to the constant-headarrangementshown in Figure 6.5.For a test, the
following are given:
. L:24in.
. A : a r e a o f t h e s p e c i m e n: 4 i n . 2
r Constant head difference : h: 30 in.
. W a t e rc o l l e c t e di n 3 m i n - 2 5 . 1i n . r
Calculatethe hydraulic conductivity (in./min).
 Problems 173

Ground surt'ace

Direction
of seepage

Figure 6.26

,rS>
Direction
o1'lhw

F__r
Figure 6.27

In a constant-hendpermeability test in the laboratory,the following are

given: L - 300 mm and ,4 : 1 l0 cm2.If the value of k : 0.02cm/secand a
flow rate of 140cm3/minmust be maintaineclthrough the soil, what is the
head difference,h, acrossthc specimen'lAlso, determine the dischargeve-
locity undcr the tcst conditions.
Refer to Figure 6.-5.For a constant-hcadpermeability test in a sand,the fol-
lowing are given;
c L :400 mm
c A :135 cm2
o h :450 mm
. Water collected in 3 min : 640 cm3
o Void ratio of sand : 0.54
Determine the
a. Hydraulic conductivity,ft (cm/sec)
b. Seepagevelocity
174 Chapter 6 Permeability

6.6 For a variable-head permeability test, the following are given:

. Length of the soil specimen : 20 in.
. A r e a o f t h e s o i l s p e c i m e n: 2 . 5 i n . 2
. A r e a o f t h e s t a n d p i p e: 0 . 1 5i n . 7
o Head difference at time t : 0 is 30 in.
r Head differenceat time / : 8 min is 16 in.
a. Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil (in. /min)
b. What is the head differenceat time / : 6 min?
6.7 For a variable-headtest, the following are given;length of specimen :
380 mm, area of specimen : 6.5 cm2;k : 0.115cm /min. What should be the
area of the standpipefor the head to drop from 6,50cm to 300 cm in 8 min?
6
6.8 The hydraulic conductivity k of a soil is 10 cm/secat a temperature of
28" C. Determine its absolutepermeability at20" C given that, at20" C,
y,, : 9.781)kNims and 4 : 1.005x 10 3 N.s/m2(Newton secondper meter
squared).
6.9 The hydraulic conductivity of a sand at a void ratio of 0.5u is 0.04cm/sec.Es-
tinrate its hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio of 0.4-5.Use Eq. (6.2a).
6.10 The following are given for a sand: porosity (n) : 0.31 and k - 0.062cm/sec.
Determine k when n : 0.4. Use Eq. (6.25).
6.ll The maximum dry dcnsity determined in the laboratory for a quartz sand
is l6-50kg/mr. In the field, if thc relative of compaction is 907o,determine
thc hydraulic conductivity of the sand in the field compaction condition
(givcn that k for the sand at the maximum dry density condition is 0.04cm/sec
and G. - 2.68). Use Eq. (6.25).
6.12 For a sandy soil, the following are given:
. Maximum void ratio : 0.68
. Minimum void ratio :0.42
. Hydraulic conductivity of sand at a relative density of JO"/": 0.006cm/sec
Determinc the hydraulic conductivity of the sand at a relative density of
3 2 % . U s c F . c t(.6 . 2 q .
6.13 R c p c a t P r o b l e m 6 . 1 2u s i n gE q . ( 6 . 2 . 5 ) .
6.14 For a normally consolidatedclay,the following valuesare given:
Void ratio,e k (cm/sec)
0.75 1 . 2x 1 0 6
t.2 2.gx 10''

Estimate the hydraulic conductivity of the clay at a void ratio e : 0.6. Use
Eq. (6.28).
6.15 For a normally consolidated clay, the following values are given:
Voidratio,e k (cm/sec)
0.9.5 0.2x106
1.6 0 . 9 1x 1 0 6

Determine the magnitude of k at a void ratio of 1.1.Use Eq. (6.28).

6.16 Figure 6.28 shows three layers of soil in a tube that is 100 mm x 100 mm in
cross section. Water is supplied to maintain a constant head difference of
 Problems 175

r,,::.:.i
.'i',,,water supply
Y

:',$
1
Constanthead
dilierence= 30() rlrn

" l
=tr.'
\

l++i++l<+l
' ' '
l - 5 0n r n t |50 rnrn l - 5 0n r n r

Figure 6.28

3 ( X )m m a c r o s st h e s a n t p l e. l ' h e h y d r a u l i cc o n d u c t i v i t yo f t h c s o i l si n t h e
d i r c c t i o n o f f l c l wt h r o u g h t h c m a r c a s f o l l o w s :
Soil k (cm/sec)
A l0 r
B 3 x l 0 l
( 4.9x l0 r

F i n d t h c r a t e o f w a t e r s u p p l yi n c r l r / h r .
6 . 1 7 F o r a c l a y s o i l . t h c I ' o l l o w i n ga r c g i v e n :
r S a t u r a t c cul n i t w e i s h t - l 2 l l b / f t r
. S p e c i l i cg r a v i t y o l ' s o i l s o l i d s( G , ) : 2 . 6 9
. Liquid limit : 46
. P l a s t i cl i m i t : 2 4
o Perccnt lincr thar.r0.002rnm - 62
E s t i m a t ct h e h y d r a u l i cc o n d u c t i v i t yk, . U s e F i g u r e6 . 1 0 .
6 . 1 8 A l a y e r e ds o i l i s s h o w n i n F i g u r c 6 . 2 9 .G i v e n t h a t
t Hr - lm kl - l() lcm/scc
' H:- lm k:-2.X l0 rcm/scc
. H.,-2m k i - - 1 . .^s l 0 ' 5 c m / s c c
E s t i m a t et h e r a t i o o f e q u i v a l e n tp e r m c a b i l i t y k, , , . " u y ' k 1 6 , , ,

t"
^l

Figure 6.29
176 Chapter 6 Permeability

l=10acm/sec
. . . . ,:.. . . . . . .

k = l0-5 cmisec

Figure 6.30

6 . 1 9 A l a y e r e ds o i l i s s l ' r o w ni n F i g u r e6 . 3 0 .E s t i m a t et h c r a t i o o l e q u i v a l e n tp e r -
nrcability,k rtt",tlk vt",tt.

References
Arrnanr>,SL . .n < r < < t r xY, . . a n d S l r , r N n n <r . J . ( 1 9 7 5 ) ." P u r n p i n g ' l t s t si n a n L J n c o n f i n eA
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DnNrnr, D. E. ( l9U9)." ln SituHydraulic Conductivity Testsfor Compacted Clay,"Journal of
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DaNrr,:r-,D. E.. and BnNsoN, C. H. (1990)."Water Content-Density Criteria for Compacted
Soil Liners," Journal of GeotechnicalEngineering,ASCE, Vol. 116,No. 12, 1811-1830.
Dancv, H. ( lU56). Les F'ontainesPubliques de la Ville de Diion, Dalmont, Paris.
ENvlRoNrvrnNrnl Pnorlc-r'loN AclENcy (1989). Requirements.forHazardotrs WasteLandfill
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