Section 6: Soil Water

Dynamics

• Occurrence of water in soils

• Soil properties
• Flow of water in saturated and unsaturated soils
• Infiltration
 Hydrological Cycle

Chow et al 1988, 1.1.1

6 -2
Divisions of Subsurface Water

6 -3
 Occurrence of Groundwater

Groundwater is underground water in formations

where void space is completely filled with water

Eagleson, 1970
6 -4
Soils and Soil Properties

6 -5
Soils
A horizon
Generally friable and rich in
humus; overlain by
vegetation litter and partly
decomposed debris
B horizon
Well weathered parent
material with structure
modified by roots and living
creatures such as earthworms
C horizon
Unconsolidated rock
material with wide range of
particle and stone sizes

Brady, 1996
6 -6
 Soil Classification

Brady, 1996
6 -7
 Characteristics of Porous Media
Vv
Porosity n =
VT
L
Vv is the volume of voids
VT is the total volume
Vw
Volumetric water content θ = Solid Grains Voids
VT
Vw is the volume of water
Vw
Saturation S =
Vv
θ = Sn
Freeze and Cherry, 1980
6 -8
Capillarity
If a tube material strongly attracts water
molecules through hydrogen bonding,
water molecules will be “pulled” up the
tube. These water molecules in turn, attract
other water molecules through hydrogen
bonding, resulting in the water surface
moving up the tube until an equilibrium of
forces is obtained.

6 -9
 Tension
Tube of radius r is in contact with water
θ c is the contact angle between meniscus and tube
B Fs is the surface tension force = 2π rσ
where σ is the surface tension
⎧ 7.56 × 10−2 Nm -1 at 0oC
σ =⎨ −2
⎩7.12 × 10 Nm at 30 C
-1 o

A 2π rσ cosθ c = π r 2 h ρ g
2σ cosθ c
⇒ h= Young Laplace equation
ρ gr
There is no flow between A and B
⇒ Head at A = head at B
⇒0 =h+ψ
where h is elevation head and ψ is pressure head

Just under meniscus at B the water is under tension (or

suction) and the pressure is negative
−2σ cosθ c
ψ = −h =
ρ gr 6 -10
 Pressure Saturation Relationship

Source unknown
6 -11
Flow in Soils

6 -12
 Head
Porous media flow occurs in response to a gradient in energy
or head (expressed as energy/unit weight fluid J/N).
Flow direction is parallel to the energy gradient.
Head at a point on a streamline in a porous medium is:
h = z + ψ(θ)
Piezometric head elevation head pressure head
above some datum

Freeze and Cherry, 1980 6 -13

 Piezometers
A piezometer is a small diameter tube to measure hydraulic head
h = z + ψ(θ)
where z = height of tube opening above some datum
and ψ(θ) = height of water in tube above tube opening

Note: Use tensionmeter (a modified piezometer) in unsaturated soils

z1

z2
z3

6 -14
Volume Flux Through a Porous Medium

Discharge Q
Volumetric flux q = =
Cross sectional area A A

Note A is the area perpendicular to the flow.

L3 / T L
Units = =
Q
2 A
L T

Despite the units, this is not a velocity!

6 -15
Flow Velocity Through a Porous Medium

Area of voids Volume of voids

≈ =n
Area of cross section Total volume
Discharge Q = Actual flow area x Velocity

= An x V

Q q
Hence velocity V = =
An n
where V is the average speed of water moving
through a porous medium
6 -16
 Darcy’s Law
dh
q z = − K (θ)
dz

Flux [L/T] Head

gradient [ ]
Hydraulic
conductivity
[L/T]

6 -17
Head Gradients in Saturated Flow

Confined horizontal flow

Upward
vertical flow

6 -18
 Non Vertical Saturated Flow

Q h1 − h2

h1 h2

l
dh h2 −h1
=
dl l arbitrary reference datum
6 -19
Darcy Law in Three Dimensions

Three dimensions in a uniform isotropic soil

∂h
qx = −K
∂x
∂h
qy = −K
∂y
∂h
qz = − K
∂z

6 -20
 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
depends on
• porous media properties:
grain size
shape
geometry
packing
• fluid properties:
viscosity
density

Freeze and Cherry, 1980

6 -21
 Unsaturated Conductivity

Dingman, 2002
6 -22
Van Genuchten Pressure-Saturation Curve
θs = saturated water content

α
[
1 n /(1−n ) n1
ψ(θ) = θe −1 ] θr = residual water content
Ks = saturated conductivity
α, n – fitting parameters

[ ( )]
2 m=1-1/n
1/ m m
K(θ)=Ks θe 1− 1−θ e θ − θr
θe =
θs − θr

An example
fine beach sand
θs = 0.402
θr = 0.039
α = 0.036
n =4.26

6 -23
Van Genuchten Parameters

6 -24
 Field Capacity and Wilting Point

Saturated
Field capacity soil θ = n
Moisture content θfc at which water will no
Soil water moves
longer drain under gravity freely under gravity
Saturated soil reaches field capacity within
a few days Field

Water content
The pressure head at field capacity ψ(θfc) capacity θfc
is about -340 cm for all soils
Water content
Wilting point available for plant
use
Moisture content θwp at which plants can
no longer draw water from the soil
The pressure at wilting point ψ(θwp) is Wilting
point θwp
about –15,000 cm

Dry soil
θ=0

Dingman, 2002
6 -25
Infiltration

6 -26
 Factors Affecting
Infiltration

Infiltration is the process by

which surface water enters
the soil column

6 -27
 Infiltration

Eagleson, 1970
6 -28
 Variation of infiltration

Texture

Land use
Cover

Dunne and Leopold, 1978

6 -29
 Infiltration and Rainfall

Ponding occurs when rainfall rate exceeds infiltration rate.

This ponded water may become overland flow or end up in
storage.
6 -30
Recharge rainfall

following soil moisture content

rainfall
vertical hydraulic gradient
in unsaturated zone

vertical hydraulic gradient

in saturated zone

Depth to water table

Freeze and Cherry, 1980 6 -31

Physics of Soil Water Flow and
Infiltration

6 -32
 Conservation of Mass

Assume control volume big

enough to contains many soil
grains to form a continuum

Pore space is filled with water

and air.

Increase of water mass inside control volume in time ∆t

=
Net flux of mass entering through walls in time ∆t
+
Net source of mass injected into control volume.

6 -33
 ∂ρq z
ρq z + ∆z
∂z

∂ρq y
ρq y + ∆y
∂y

∂ρq x
ρq x + ∆x
ρqx ∂x

ρ qy

ρqz

The mass inside the control volume =

mass water in ∆x∆y∆z volume of water in ∆x∆y∆z
ρθ∆x∆y∆z = total volume ∆x∆y∆z
volume of water in ∆x∆y∆z totalvolume ∆x∆y∆z

The mass flux through one of the sides perpendicular to the x direction is:
mass water volume water
ρ qx ∆y∆z = cross sectional area
volume water time.cross sectional area
Similar expressions can be written for the y,z directions.

6 -34
 Richards Equation
After dividing through by the volume of the control volume ∆x∆y∆z an
overall statement of conservation of mass is obtained.

∂ (ρθ) ∂ (ρq x ) ∂ (ρq y ) ∂ (ρq z )

+ + + =R
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

where R is the net source of water expressed in kg m-3 s-1

Assume:
• density ρ is constant,
• the soil is isotropic meaning K(θ) is the same in all directions,
• there is no source R
Substituting Darcy’s equation for q gives Richards equation:

∂θ ∂ ⎡ ∂h ⎤ ∂ ⎡ ∂h ⎤ ∂ ⎡ ∂h ⎤
= ⎢K (θ) ⎥ + ⎢K (θ) ⎥ + ⎢K (θ) ⎥
∂t ∂x ⎣ ∂x ⎦ ∂y ⎣ ∂y ⎦ ∂z ⎣ ∂z ⎦
6 -35
We can simplify Richards equation by considering only vertical flow

∂θ ∂ ⎡ ∂h ⎤
= ⎢K (θ) ⎥
∂t ∂z ⎣ ∂z ⎦

Noting the head can be expressed as h = z + ψ(θ) yields

∂θ ∂ ⎡ ∂ψ(θ) ⎤
= ⎢K (θ) + K (θ)
∂t ∂z ⎣ ∂z ⎥⎦
∂K (θ) ∂θ ∂ ⎡ ∂ψ(θ) ∂θ ⎤
= + ⎢K (θ)
∂θ ∂z ∂z ⎣ ∂θ ∂z ⎥⎦
∂K (θ) ∂θ ∂ ⎡ ∂θ ⎤
= + ⎢D(θ) ⎥
∂θ ∂z ∂z ⎣ ∂z ⎦

where D(θ) is the diffusivity of the soil.

Knowledge of the boundary and initial conditions will enable solution of

Richards equation yielding the moisture content for all t and z i.e., θ(z,t).

6 -36
 An Approximate Infiltration Solution (1)
When rainfall rate exceeds infiltration rate, soil surface will become
saturated with θo = n.

Can get insight about infiltration by solving 1-D Richard’s equation ignoring
gravity and assuming constant diffusivity

∂θ ∂ 2θ
Æ Diffusion equation =D 2
∂t ∂z

Boundary conditions: At t = 0, θ = θi throughout soil profile

For t > 0, θ = θo = n > θi at surface
1.2

θ − θo ⎛ z ⎞
Solution = erf ⎜ ⎟ 1

θi − θo ⎝ 2 Dt ⎠ 0.8

erf9x0 0.6

2 x 0.4

where erf ( x ) = ∫ − 2
exp( t )dt
π
0.2
0
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x
6 -37
An Approximate Infiltration Solution (2)
Diffusivity 0.0005 m^2/s

500 seconds
0.45
10000 seconds
0.4

0.35 In absence of gravity water

0.3 from surface diffuses into
Moisture content

0.25
soil. The dry soil exerts a
0.2

0.15
suction on the water at the
0.1 surface “pulling” it into the
0.05
soil column.
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Distance below surface z, m

Infiltration rate f(t) = downward water flux at surface

∂θ D
=D = (θo − θi )
∂z z=0 πt

Penetration depth of wetting front ≈ 4 Dt

6 -38
 An Approximate Infiltration Solution (3)
θi θo
θ
In presence of gravity a
Transmission or saturated transmission zone
Penetration

advective zone develops behind the wetting

depth at

front
time t

The front advects with

Wetting or sorption front apparent velocity K(θo)
…. diffusive zone

Infiltration rate f(t) = downward water flux at surface

∂θ D
=D + K (θo ) = (θo − θi ) + K ( θo )
∂z z=0 πt

Velocity due to Percolation velocity

suction head gradient due to gravity

Penetration depth of wetting front ≈ 4 Dt + K (θo ) t 6 -39

 Green Ampt Infiltration Model
Assume low diffusivity ⇒ a sharp wetting front
Application of Darcys law yields infiltration rate

⇒ f =K
( L +ψ ) ponded water ho
L soil surface
Define ∆θ = θ s − θ i
h = ho ≈ 0
Total infiltration volume per unit area Wet soil
L
F = ∆θ L θ=θs

⇒ f =
dF ⎛ ψ ∆θ ⎞
= K ⎜1 + h = −ψ − L
⎟
dt ⎝ F ⎠ wetting front
Integrating
Dry soil
⎛ F + ∆θψ ⎞ θ=θi
F −ψ ∆θ ln ⎜ ⎟ = Kt Green Ampt eqn
⎝ ∆θψ ⎠

6 -40
Green Ampt Parameters

Maidment, 1993
6 -41
 Ponding Time
Initially the soil surface is not saturated and all water infiltrates into soil.
Green Ampt model does not apply before ponding
How do we estimate t p , the time till ponding occurs?

At t p , infiltration depth F = it p and rainfall rate f = i

Substituting into the Green-Ampt form of the Darcy equation
⎛ ψ ∆θ ⎞
f = K⎜ + 1⎟
⎝ F ⎠
⎛ ψ ∆θ ⎞ Kψ ∆θ
⇒ i = K⎜ + 1⎟ or t p =
⎜ it p ⎟ i (i − K )
⎝ ⎠

6 -42
Empirical Approaches

6 -43
 Horton Equation
f ( t ) = f ∞ + [ fo − f ∞ ] e − kt

fo

f∞
Eagleson, 1970
6 -44
 Cumulative Infiltration

t
F ( t ) = ∫ f dt
0

Maidment, 1993
6 -45
Field Techniques

6 -46
 Double Ring Infiltrometer
Because of the complexity of the infiltration process, field
measurements are essential.

Double ring infiltrometer

Consists of 2 concentric rings driven into ground.
Water is maintained at a constant 5mm.
Feed rate to inner ring assumed to be infiltration
rate.
Outer ring to reduce lateral flow of water from inner
ring.
Most useful for irrigation flood calculations.
Limitations: Lateral spreading, limited sample area,
natural action of raindrops not reproduced
Can overestimate natural infiltration by a factor of 2.

6 -47
 Sprinkler infiltrometer

Sprinkle plot of ground at constant rate.

Infiltration rate can be inferred from measurements of surface runoff from plot.
Simulates action of raindrops and because plot has a large area minimizes
boundary effect.
Field measurements are most useful in experimental catchments or in man-made
urban catchments where heterogeneity is not great.
In large natural catchments the enormous spatial variability of infiltration
requires the use of indirect means of measurement.
6 -48
 Fitting Horton Model
f = f o + ( f o − f ∞ ) e − kt
⇒ ln ( f − f o ) = ln ( f o − f ∞ ) − kt

3
ln ( f o − f ∞ )

2
ln(f-finf)

1 1

r2=0.986
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

t 6 -49