Lecture 8: Racking Forces, Bracing and Tie down

Actions (forces) on Buildings

The design actions are all based on AS1170.1, AS1170.2 and AS4055

All loads, pressures and capacities are prepared based on limit state design.

Note:
• For wind pressure tables, refer to Section 5: Racking Forces from AS4055.
• For bracing systems, refer to Section 8: Racking and Shear Forces (Bracing)
AS1684.2
AS4055 - Section 5 Racking Forces

Racking forces
• Lateral (Horizontal) forces transferred to the
foundation through bracing provided for each storey
of the house & subfloor.
Bracing for racking lateral forces

Wind forces on the roof are

carried to the ceiling sheeting
(ceiling diaphragm) via the roof &
ceiling framing Ceiling diaphragm

Wind forces on the top half of this Wind forces

wall are carried to the ceiling transfered to the
sheeting (ceiling diaphragm) via 'ceiling diaphragm'
the wall & ceiling framing are carried down to

Br
the slab and the

ac
Wind forces on the bottom half of ground via bracing

e
this wall are carried direct to the walls.
ground via the wall framing, slab
& footings.
Wind forces on the roof are carried
to the ceiling sheeting (ceiling
diaphragm) via the roof & ceiling
framing Ceiling diaphragm

Wind forces on the top half of

this wall are carried to the ceiling
sheeting (ceiling diaphragm) via Wind forces transfered to
the wall & ceiling framing the 'ceiling diaphragm' are
carried down to the ';floor

Br
a
Wind forces on the bottom half of diaphragm' via bracing

ce
this wall are carried to the
flooring (floor diaphragm) via the
wall & floor framing Floor diaphragm

Wind forces on the top half of

this wall are carried to the Wind forces
flooring (floor diaphragm) via transfered to the
the wall & floor framing 'floor diaphragm'
Br

Br
are carried down
ac

ac to the
e

Wind forces on the bottom half e

slab/footings &
of this wall are carried direct to ground via
the ground via the wall framing, bracing walls.
slab & footings.
 General Steps for Design of Permanent wall and
subfloor construction to resist Racking Forces

1. Determine the wind classification ( N1-N6 or C1-C4)

in accordance with the procedure outlined in AS4055
2. Determine the wind pressure
3. Determine area of elevation
4. Calculate racking force
5. Design bracing systems for subfloors
6. Design bracing systems for walls
7. Check distribution and spacing are even
8. Check connection of bracing to roof/ceilings and floors

Note: Steps 2 to 8 should be done with respect to each building envelope

Calculation of Racking Forces shall be carried out as follow:
1. Determine the wind class (refer to Lecture 2 slides)

2. Determine area of elevation of the house (m2)

3. Determine the wind pressure for buildings either:

(a) Flat walls, Gable Ends and Skillion Ends Roof– Refer to Table 5.1
(b) Hips roof & Side of Gable Roof – Refer to Table 5.2 to 5.13.
- Note that Table 5.2 to 5.13 differ in:
(i) Wind Classification
(II) Single/ Upper storey house & Lower storey house

4. Calculate racking force, in kN:

Total racking force = Area of elevation (m2) X Lateral wind pressure (kPa)
AS4055 Wind Pressure Tables
1. Determine the wind pressure for buildings either:
(a) Flat walls, Gable Ends and Skillion Ends Roof– Refer to Table 5.1
Wind Pressure Tables

1. Determine the wind pressure for buildings either:

(b) Hips roof & Side of Gable Roof – Refer to Table 5.2 to 5.13.
- Note that Table 5.2 to 5.13 differ in:
(i) Wind Classification
(II) Single/ Upper storey house & Lower storey house
 Refer to the ridge of the roof to obtain the width W.
1) Wind on side is when the wind is acting 90 degree to Ridge
Ridge

2) Wind on end is when the wind is acting parallel to Ridge

Ridge
Example for N1 Wind Pressure Tables.
Example for N2 Wind Pressure Tables.
Racking forces

Total racking force (kN) = Area of elevations (m2) X Lateral wind pressure (kPa)
Example 1
Example 2
Working Example 1:

The single storey house shown in Figure 1 below is in N2 wind class site. The
wall height above the ground is 2400mm, the roof pitch is 20o and there is a
600mm wide eave all around the building.

Calculate the racking force on the walls for each lateral wind direction.
 Wind Direction 1

Step 1:
Find Wall Area

Step 2:
Find Roof Area

Step 3:
Total Elevation Area =
Wall area + Roof Area
Step 4:
Table 5.1
Find Wind Pressure from Table
5.1
Step 5:Calculate Racking FORCE
AS4055
 Wind Direction 1

Step 2:
Find Roof Area

Step 3:
Total Elevation Area =
Wall area + Roof Area
Step 4:
Find Wind Pressure from Table 5.4
Table 5.4
Step 5:Calculate Racking
FORCE
Wind
direction 2

of AS1684.2
 Wind Direction 2

Determine the total area of the elevation.

Wall Area = 2.4 m / 2 X 10 m = 12 m2

Roof area = Eaves on Both side + (Section 1 width X Ridge Height)

Step 2: = ((0. 6 m x 2) + 10 m) x 1.46m)
Find Roof Area = 16.35 m2
Step 3:
Total Elevation Area = Total area of elevation= Wall Area + Roof Area = 28.35 m2
Wall area + Roof Area
Step 4:
2
Find Wind Pressure from The Pressure is determined from Table5.4 ,Width = 12 m & 20 degree
Table 5.4
Wind force to be resisted (bracing required)
Step 5:Calculate Racking = 0.63 kPa X 28.35 m2
FORCE = 17.86 kN
 General Steps for Design of Permanent wall and
subfloor construction to resist Racking Forces

1. Determine the wind classification ( N1-N6 or C1-C4)

in accordance with the procedure outlined in AS4055
2. Determine the wind pressure
3. Determine area of elevation
4. Calculate racking force
5. Design bracing systems for subfloors
6. Design bracing systems for walls
7. Check distribution and spacing are even
8. Check connection of bracing to roof/ceilings and floors

Note: Steps 2 to 8 should be done with respect to each building envelope

The need of bracing systems in buildings –
AS1684.2 Section 8 Bracing
• To resist lateral forces applied to the building (racking
forces), permanent bracing shall be provided for roof, wall
and floor framework.

• When required, bracing within building (usually in vertical

planes), shall be constructed into walls/ subfloor supports
and shall be evenly distributed.

• If buildings are more than 1 storey high, wall bracing shall

be designed for each storey.

• Roof and wall bracing is designed to transfer the lateral

loads to the floor plane, which is then to be transfer to &
resisted by the foundations of the building.
For single or upper-storey construction the maximum distance between braced
walls at right angles to the building length or width shall not exceed 9000mm
for wind classifications up to N2.
Location and distribution of wall bracing
Bracing shall be approximately individually distributed and shall be provided in both
directions. It should be initially be placed in external walls and, where possible, at the
corners of the buildings.
Table 5 Maximum spacing of bracing walls-wind classification N3. Reproduced
from Table 8.20 AS1684.2
Table 6 Maximum spacing of bracing wall-wind classification N4.
Reproduced from Table 8.21 of AS1684.2
Example :
The building shown in the figure below is in a N3 wind classification site. Determine the
maximum allowable spacing between the bracing walls. The roof pitch is 20.
Design of Wall Bracing using AS1684.2
a) Nominal wall bracing

• The most common potential nominal bracing material used in houses is

plasterboard wall linings.
• Plasterboard fixed to the wall frame appropriately (to manufacturers
specification) is given ‘structural bracing’ status with a reasonable strength
rating.
• The maximum amount that can be resisted by nominal wall bracing is 50%
of the total racking forces
• The minimum length of nominal bracing walls shall be 450mm.

• The bracing capacity of nominal bracing is scheduled in Table below.

AS1684.2-2010 Table 8.17

b) Structural wall bracing
The other 50% of racking forces shall be carried by structural wall
bracing.
Structural wall bracing is purpose-fitted sheet or cross-timber or
steel bracing.

13 different types of structural wall bracing systems in AS1684.2

Table 8.18, which differ in:
1. Type of bracing
2. Minimum & Maximum width of bracing
3. Angle of bracing system (if any)
4. Type of Fastener & Fastener Spacing (if any)
Bracing capacity (Compliance to 1 to 4 will give Bracing Capacity)

Table 8.18 is applicable for STRUCTURAL WALL BRACING (MAXIMUM WALL HEIGHT 2.7M)
Table 8.18 is applicable for STRUCTURAL WALL BRACING (MAXIMUM WALL HEIGHT 2.7M)
If wall height is more than 2700 mm, the capacity in Table 8.18 shall be
multiplied by the values in Table 8.19.

AS1684.2-2010 Table 8.19

b) Structural wall bracing
13 different types of structural wall bracing systems in AS1684.2 Table 8.18, which
differ in:
1. Type of bracing
2. Minimum & Maximum width of bracing AS1684.2-2010
3. Angle of bracing system (if any) Table 8.18
4. Type of Fastener & Fastener
Spacing (if any)
• Bracing capacity (Compliance
of 1 to 4 will give
Bracing Capacity)
Notching in Studs
Metal Cross Brace

Metal Brace Tensioner

 b) Structural wall bracing (cont)

STRUCTURAL WALL BRACING (MAXIMUM WALL HEIGHT 2.7M)

AS1684.2-2010
Table 8.18
AS1684.2-2010
Table 8.18
AS1684.2-2010
Table 8.18
AS1684.2-2010
Table 8.18
AS1684.2-2010
Table 8.18
AS1684.2-2010
Table 8.18
AS1684.2-2010
Table 8.18
 Design of Subfloor bracing using AS1684.2 (Section 8.3.5)
• Roof and wall bracing is designed to transfer the lateral loads to the floor plane, which
is then to be transfer to & resisted by the foundations of the building.

Subfloor bracing is required on ‘elevated’ floors (i.e. cantilevered stumps or columns,

cross-bracing or masonry supports, or a combination of wall and subfloor bracing).
Slab-on-the-ground construction requires no consideration. (Obviously there is no
sub-floor to brace).
Design of Subfloor bracing using AS1684.2 (Section 8.3.5)

Two types of stump arrangements: Braced & Cantilevered Stumps.

1. Braced stumps will have lateral support provided by cross-bracing.

2. Cantilevered stumps allow the lateral forces to be resisted by the foundations

Stump may be either of timber/ concrete and placed into either a concrete/ soil backfill.

• Backfilled by Concrete:
Stumps shall be backfilled with a concrete mix of minimum N20 grade with a
maximum20 mm nominal aggregate size.

• Backfilled with soil

Stumps shall be placed centrally onto a concrete pad. The minimum thickness of the
pad shall be 200mm thick with not less than 150mm of concrete below the end of the
stump. Concrete for the pad shall be N20 grade using 20 mm nominal maximum size
aggregate.
Soil Capacities Reduction Factor
The bracing capacities given in Tables 8.7 to 8.13 are based on soil classifications A, S and
M.

AS2870-2011

When other soil classifications are found (H1, H2 and E), refer to Table 8.6
below for capacity reduction factor.
Bracing capacity of a diagonally braced stump in concrete backfill-soil classification A, S
and M - wind classification up to N3.
Table 8.7 AS1684.2
Bracing load capacity of a diagonally braced stump in soil backfill-soil classification A, S and
M- wind classification up to N3.

Table 8.8 AS 1684.2

 Timber braces on concrete, masonry or timber columns.
Table 8.9 AS1684.2
Example on braced stump capacity:-

A concrete filled stump pad (also called bored pier) is 250mm diameter and is 400 mm deep.
Timber cross braces of 140X45 F17 seasoned hardwood are used to brace two 100 X 100 mm
concrete stumps with 1 M16 bolt to each stump.
Calculate the capacity of the brace set of two stumps.

140 x 45 mm F11
timber braces
over 2 stumps
= 140 X 45 F17 seasoned
15kN
hardwood fixed with 1M16
bolt to each stump.

Maximum ‘set’
capacity =
Foundation
400
400

capacity 100 X 100

concrete
(2 x 6.0kN)
250 250 = 12kNstump
Solution:-

Because there are 2 stumps used in this ‘set’ the maximum

capacity of the foundations is 6.0 kN x 2 = 12kN.
Bracing capacity is smaller of (12 kN , 15 kN) = 12 kN
Cantilevered stumps in concrete or soil backfill

Bracing capacity-cantilevered
stumps in concrete backfill-soil
classification A, S and M-Wind
classification to N3.

Table 8.10 of AS1684.

Table 8.10
(Continued)
Bracing capacity-
cantilevers stumps in soil
backfill-soil classification
A, S and M-wind
classification to N3.

Reproduced from table

8.11 of AS 1684.2
Table 8.11
(Continued)
Table 8.12

There are similar tables for W=400 mm, and W=600 mm

Maximum bracing (lateral) capacity of timber stumps. Reproduced from Table 8.14 of
AS 1684.2
Example:
A 150mm diameter round cantilevered timber stump is embedded in a concrete pad (also
called pier of 400mm diameter). The whole concrete pad is backfilled with concrete to 600 mm
depth of concrete. The lateral load is applied at 600 mm above the footing.
Determine the bracing capacity of the cantilevered stump. Assume class M soil.

Height above Footing E (lateral load

applied at distance above footing)= 600
mm

Pier Depth D (concrete pad backfilled

with concrete) = 600 mm

Pier Diameter W = 400 mm

Height above Footing E
(lateral load applied at
distance above footing)= 600
mm

Pier Depth D (concrete pad

backfilled with concrete) =
600 mm

Pier Diameter W = 400 mm

 Height above Footing E
(lateral load applied at
distance above
footing)= 600 mm

Maximum Bracing (Lateral) Capacity = min (3.8 kN, 12 kN) = 3.8 kN

 Design of Unreinforced masonry bracing using AS1684.2
• Unreinforced masonry walls may be used to transfer racking forces in the
subfloor region

• The walls shall be a minimum of 90mm thick and engaged-piers shall be

spaced regularly.

• The total minimum length of unreinforced masonry bracing walls in any full
length of wall shall be 3000 mm with the minimum length of individual panels
in the wall not less than 900 mm
Unreinforced masonry bracing capacity. Reproduced from Table 8.16 of AS 1684.2