CHAPTER 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

1. Stress at a point
2. Principal stresses and stress invariants
3. Equilibrium equations
4. Strains
5. Strain invariants
6. Compatibility conditions
7. Elastic stress-strain relations
 1.1 STRESS AT A POINT (1 OF 2)

z While the location of a point in 3D space is

represented by the coordinates (x, y, z), the
σzz
stress state at a point in 3D space is
represented by the stress tensor
σzy
σzx
σyz ⎡σ xx σ xy σ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σxz σ ij = ⎢σ yx σ yy σ yz ⎥, i = x, y, z; j = x, y, z
σyy
σyx
⎢σ zx σ zy σ zz ⎥
y ⎣ ⎦
σxy
σxx

Taking the moment about the axis x, y, and z, respectively, leads to

σ yz = σ zy , σ xz = σ zx , σ xy = σ yx

Therefore, the stress tensor is symmetric and has only 6 components instead
of 9.
 1.1 STRESS AT A POINT (2 of 2)
z
Once the stress tensor σij at a point is known, it is
D
possible to find the stresses acting on any plane at
σ the same point.
σxz
σyz σxx Take an arbitrary plane BCD whose direction
σyy
σxy cosines are l, m and n. Assume the stress vector σ
σyx acting on BCD is
O
σzx σzy
C {
σ = σ ax , σ ay , σ az }T
B σzz y
x This stress vector can be determined from the force
equilibrium of the tetrahedron OBCD.

ΣX , σ ax A = σ xx lA + σ yx mA + σ zx nA ⎛ σ ax ⎞ ⎡σ xx σ yx σ zx ⎤⎛ l ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟
ΣY , σ ay A = σ xy lA + σ yy mA + σ zy nA ⇒ σ = ⎜ σ ay ⎟ = ⎢σ xy σ yy σ zy ⎥⎜ m ⎟
⎜ σ ⎟ ⎢σ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ az ⎠ ⎣ xz σ yz σ zz ⎥⎦⎝ n ⎠
ΣZ , σ az A = σ xz lA + σ yz mA + σ zz nA

where A is the area of triangle BCD. The above equation states that, given the stress
σij at a point, the stress acting on any plane at the same point is the dot product
of the stress tensor and the unit norm vector of the plane.
 1.2 PRINCIPAL STRESSES (1 of 3)
z
Once the stress tensor σij at a point is known,
D it is possible to find the stresses acting on
any plane at the same point. There are
σxz S certain planes on which only normal stresses,
σyz σxx
σyy but no shear stress, act. These stresses are
σxy called principal stresses.
σyx
O
σzx σzy Assume the plane BCD is such a plane.
C
B σzz y Force equilibrium of the tetrahedron OBCD:
x
ΣX , SlA = σ xx lA + σ yx mA + σ zx nA ⎡σ xx − S σ yx σ zx ⎤⎛ l ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
ΣY , SmA = σ xy lA + σ yy mA + σ zy nA ⇒ ⎢ σ xy σ yy − S σ zy ⎥⎜ m ⎟ = ⎜ 0 ⎟
ΣZ , SnA = σ xz lA + σ yz mA + σ zz nA ⎢ σ xz
⎣ σ yz σ zz − S ⎥⎦⎜⎝ n ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0 ⎟⎠

There is a solution for l, m and n only if the determinant of the matrix is zero. The 3
solutions of the cubic equation in S are the three principal stresses.
(
S 3 − S 2 σ xx + σ yy +σ zz )
σ xx − S σ yx σ zx
σ xy σ yy − S σ zy = 0 ⇒
(
+ S σ xxσ yy + σ yyσ zz + σ xxσ zz − σ yz
2
− σ xz
2
− σ xy
2
)
σ xz σ yz σ zz − S (
− σ xxσ yyσ zz + 2σ xyσ yzσ xz − σ xxσ yz
2
− σ yyσ xz
2
− σ zzσ xy
2
)
=0
 1.2 PRINCIPAL STRESSES (2 of 3)

( ) (
S 3 − S 2 σ xx + σ yy +σ zz + S σ xxσ yy + σ yyσ zz + σ xxσ zz − σ yz
2
− σ xz
2
− σ xy
2
)
(
− σ xxσ yyσ zz + 2σ xyσ yzσ xz − σ xxσ yz
2
− σ yyσ xz
2
− σ zzσ xy
2
)
=0

The principal stresses so determined should only depend on the stress state at
the point, but not on the choice of spatial coordinators. The coefficients of S
polynomials in the above equation should therefore be independent of our reference
axes. They are termed stress invariants.

The first stress invariant:

J1 = σ xx + σ yy + σ zz = S1 + S 2 + S3 = 3σ = 3 p

The second stress invariant:

(
J 2 = σ xxσ yy + σ yyσ zz + σ xxσ zz − σ yz
2
− σ xz
2
)
− σ xy
2
= S1S 2 + S 2 S3 + S3 S1

The third stress invariants:

(
J 3 = σ xxσ yyσ zz + 2σ xyσ yzσ xz − σ xxσ yz
2
− σ yyσ xz
2
− σ zzσ xy
2
)
= S1S 2 S3
 1.2 PRINCIPAL STRESSES (3 of 3)

Solution of principal stresses:

S 3 − J1S 2 + J 2 S − J 3 = 0

Let
I1 = J12 − 3J 2 I2 =
1
2
(
2 J13 − 9 J1J 2 + 27 J 3 )
I 3 = I13 − I 22 I 4 = I1

1 ⎛I ⎞ π
θ = tan −1⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟, 0 ≤ θ ≤ ; If θ < 0, use θ ′ = θ + 60o
3 ⎝ I2 ⎠ 3

The three principal stresses are then given as

S1 =
1
(J1 + 2 I 4 cosθ )
3
1⎛ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎞
S 2 = ⎜⎜ J1 + 2 I 4 cos⎜θ − ⎟ ⎟⎟
3⎝ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎠

1⎛ ⎛ 4π ⎞ ⎞
S3 = ⎜⎜ J1 + 2 I 4 cos⎜θ − ⎟⎟
3⎝ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎟⎠
 1.3 EQUATIONS OF EUILIBRIUM
z We now take into account the variation of
stress in space. Consider an element with size
δx, δy and δz. The stresses with components in
σzx + δσzx x direction have been isolated.
y
δz σxx
σyx + δσyx
The force equilibrium in x direction states
σyx
σxx + δσxx
σzx
δσ xx ⋅ δ y ⋅ δ z + δσ xy ⋅ δ x ⋅ δ z + δσ zx ⋅ δ x ⋅ δ y = 0
δx
δy

x This leads to
∂σ xx ∂σ xy ∂σ xz
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂σ yx ∂σ yy ∂σ yz ∂σ zx ∂σ zy ∂σ zz
+ + =0 + + =0
Similarly, for y and z directions, we have: ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

These are the remaining equilibrium conditions (previously σxy=σyx, etc). These equations
apply for all materials and everywhere inside a solid body. When body forces (such as
gravity, inertia forces) are present, the additional terms (X, Y, Z forces per unit volume)
must be added to the equations.
 1.4 EUILIBRIUM IN TWO DIMENSIONS
In problems in which there is no stress variation in the z direction, the Z
equation is automatically satisfied. Thus

∂σ xx ∂σ xy
+ +X =0
∂x ∂y

∂σ xy ∂σ yy
+ +Y = 0
∂x ∂y

These two equations can be combined by differentiating the first with respect
to x and the second with respect to y and adding them together, i.e.
∂ 2σ xx ∂ 2σ yy ∂ 2σ xy ∂X ∂Y
+ +2 + + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x∂y ∂x ∂y

and for zero body forces.

∂ 2σ xx ∂ 2σ yy ∂ 2σ xy
+ +2 =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x∂y
 1.5 STRAINS: Definition
An element, which in the undeformed state was a
rectangular parallelepiped of dimensions (δx, δy, δz),
y
becomes a parallelepiped with sides (Δx, Δy, Δz), and
angles between edges (αxy, αyz, αzx).
δy (1+εyy)
δy
δx (1+ εxx) The strains are then defined as:

δx
x
Δx − δ x Δy − δ y Δz − δ z
ε xx = , ε yy = , ε zz =
π/2 - γxy δx δy δz

(
γ xy = π 2 − α xy , ) (
γ yz = π 2 − α yz , ) (
γ zx = π 2 − α zx )
Note that these strains are referred to axes which translate and rotate with the element.
 ∂u
1.6 STRAINS IN TERMS OF DISPLACEMENTS (1 of 2)
δy
∂y If we assume that no gaps open up in the element,
y B'
then we can derive expressions for strains in terms of
displacements. The deformations of the element are
B A'
φ ∂v
then compatible – displacements vary continuously
δy δx and derivatives exist.
O' (u,v)
∂x
x
δx
O A
Consider an element with sides OA=δx and OB= δy.

O displaced to Oʹ: (0, 0) ⇒ (u, v )

∂u ∂v
A displaced to Aʹ: (δ x, 0 ) ⇒ ⎛⎜ δ x + u + ⎞
⋅ δ x, v + ⋅ δ x ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠
⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞
B displaced to Bʹ: ( 0, δ y ) ⇒ ⎜ u + ⋅ δ y, δ y + v + ⋅ δ y ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠
⎛ ∂u ⎞
(O′A′) x − OA ⎝ ⎜ δ x + u + ⋅ δ x − u ⎟ − (δx )
∂x ⎠ ∂u
The strain in x direction: ε xx = = =
OA δx ∂x
⎛ ∂v ⎞
(O′B′) y − OB ⎝ ⎜
⎜ δ y + v + ⋅ δ y − v ⎟⎟ − (δy )
∂y ⎠ ∂v
The strain in y direction: ε yy = = =
OB δy ∂y
∂v ∂u
δ x δy
π ∂ x ∂y ∂v ∂u
The shear strain: γ xy = − φ = + = +
2 δx δy ∂x ∂y
 1.6 STRAINS IN TERMS OF DISPLACEMENTS (2 of 2)
By considering other faces of the 3D element, we can derive
∂w
ε zz =
∂z
⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞
γ xz =⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠
⎛ ∂v ∂w ⎞
γ yz = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂z ∂y ⎠

In tensor notation:
⎡ε xx ε xy ε xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
ε ij = ⎢ε yx ε yy ε yz ⎥
⎢ε zx
⎣ ε zy ε zz ⎥⎦

where
1 ⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ γ
ε xy = ε yx = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ = xy
2 ⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠ 2

Note that the factor 1/2 has been introduced to simplify the stress strain relations in
tensor form.
 1.7 COMPATIBILITY CONDITIONS (1 of 2)
Eliminating u, v from the expressions for εxx, εyy, γxy leads to

∂ 2ε xx ∂ ε yy ∂ γ xy
2 2
+ =
∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂x∂y

Similarly

∂ 2ε yy ∂ 2ε zz ∂ γ yz
2
+ =
∂z 2 ∂y 2 ∂y∂z

∂ 2ε zz ∂ 2ε xx ∂ 2γ zx
+ =
∂x 2 ∂z 2 ∂x∂z Compatibility equations

We can also obtain the following relations

∂ 2ε xx ∂ ⎛ ∂γ xy ∂γ xz ∂γ yz ⎞
2 = ⎜ + − ⎟
∂y∂z ∂x ⎜⎝ ∂z ∂y ∂x ⎟⎠

∂ 2ε yy ∂ ⎛ ∂γ xy ∂γ yz ∂γ xz ⎞
2 = ⎜ + − ⎟
∂x∂z ∂y ⎜⎝ ∂z ∂x ∂y ⎟
⎠
∂ 2ε zz ∂ ⎛ ∂γ xz ∂γ yz ∂γ xy ⎞
2 = ⎜ + − ⎟
∂x∂y ∂z ⎜⎝ ∂y ∂x ∂z ⎟
⎠
 1.7 COMPATIBILITY CONDITIONS (2 of 2)

For plane strain problems all strains are independent of z. The compatibility
conditions reduce to

∂ 2ε xx ∂ ε yy ∂ γ xy
2 2
+ =
∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂x∂y

For plane stress problems, γxz=γyz=0, strain εzz can be solved from stress-strain
relations. Therefore, the above equation also sufficiently represents the
compatibility conditions for plane stress problems.
 1.8 STRAIN INVARIANTS

By investigating the deformation of a line in the direction of a principal strain, it

can be shown that

θ1 = ε1 + ε 2 + ε 3
θ 2 = ε1ε 2 + ε 2ε 3 + ε 3ε1
θ 3 = ε1ε 2ε 3

are invariant irrespective of choice of space axes.

θ1 is the volume strain or dilatation of an element, and is usually zero in plastic

deformation of metals.
 1.9 ELASTIC STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS

The notion of elasticity was first introduced by Robert Hooke (1676). He states
in a form of anagram :

Ut tensio sic vis

The power of any springy body is in the same proportion with the extension

This statement is more often expressed in a clear way: for an elastic body under
1D tension or compression, the strain is proportional to the stress

σ
ε=
Ε
 1.9 ELASTIC STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS
For an isotropic material under 3D stresses, Hooke's law may be expressed as:

ε xx =
1
Ε
(
σ xx − μσ yy − μσ zz )
1
(
ε yy = σ yy − μσ xx − μσ zz
Ε
)
1
(
ε zz = σ zz − μσ yy − μσ xx
Ε
)
1 1 1
γ xy = σ xy , γ yz = σ xz , γ yz = σ yz
G G G
In matrix form:
⎡ε xx ⎤ ⎡ 1 −μ −μ 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡σ xx ⎤
⎢ε ⎥ ⎢ −μ 1 −μ 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢σ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ yy ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ yy ⎥
⎢ ε zz ⎥ 1 ⎢ − μ −μ 1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢σ zz ⎥
⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢γ xy ⎥ E ⎢ 0 0 0 2(1 + μ ) 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ σ xy ⎥
⎢γ yz ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 2(1 + μ ) 0 ⎥ ⎢σ yz ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣γ zx ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 2(1 + μ ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣σ zx ⎥⎦

[ε ] = [C ] [σ ]

[σ ] = [C ]−1 [ε ] = [ D ] [ε ]
 CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY (1 OF 2)

1. Stress at a point:
⎡σ xx σ xy σ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σ ij = ⎢σ yx σ yy σ yz ⎥, i = x, y, z; j = x, y, z
⎢σ zx σ zy σ zz ⎥
⎣ ⎦

2. Principal stresses:
S 3 − J1S 2 + J 2 S − J 3 = 0

3. Equilibrium equations:
∂σ xx ∂σ xy ∂σ xz
+ + = −X
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂σ yx ∂σ yy ∂σ yz
+ + = −Y
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂σ zx ∂σ zy ∂σ zz
+ + = −Z
∂x ∂y ∂z
 CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY (2 OF 2)
4. Strains:
δu δv ∂w
ε xx = ε yy = ε zz =
δx δy ∂z
δv δu δv δw δ w δu
γ xy = + γ yz = + γ zx = +
δx δy δz δy δx δz
5. Compatibility conditions:
∂ ε xx
2 ∂ 2ε yy ∂ 2γ xy ∂ 2ε xx ∂ ⎛ ∂γ xy ∂γ xz ∂γ yz ⎞
2 = ⎜ + − ⎟
+ =
∂x∂y ∂y∂z ∂x ⎜⎝ ∂z ∂y ∂x ⎟⎠
∂y 2 ∂x 2
∂ 2ε yy ∂ 2ε zz ∂ γ yz
2 ∂ 2ε yy ∂ ⎛ ∂γ xy ∂γ yz ∂γ xz ⎞
+ = 2 = ⎜ + − ⎟
∂z 2 ∂y 2 ∂y∂z ∂x∂z ∂y ⎜⎝ ∂z ∂x ∂y ⎟
⎠
∂ 2ε zz ∂ 2ε xx ∂ 2γ zx
+ =
∂ 2ε zz ∂ ⎛ ∂γ xz ∂γ yz ∂γ xy ⎞
2 = ⎜⎜ + − ⎟
⎟
∂x 2 ∂z 2 ∂x∂z ∂x∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂y ∂x ∂z ⎠
6. Elastic stress-strain relations:
⎡ε xx ⎤ ⎡ 1 −μ −μ 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡σ xx ⎤
⎢ε ⎥ ⎢ −μ 1 −μ 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢σ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ yy ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ yy ⎥
⎢ ε zz ⎥ 1 ⎢ − μ −μ 1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢σ zz ⎥
⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢γ xy ⎥ E ⎢ 0 0 0 2(1 + μ ) 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ σ xy ⎥
⎢γ yz ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 2(1 + μ ) 0 ⎥ ⎢σ yz ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣γ zx ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 2(1 + μ ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣σ zx ⎥⎦