Chapter 2

Theories of Stress and Strain

Some Definitions
Static Equilibrium
1. Surface Tractions
Force distributions applied to the surface of a
body
2. Body Forces and Moments
Act on internal body matter of the solid
 Action of Gravity
 Magnetic Attraction
Stress at a point
• Portion of the body on the positive side of Q exerts a force
on the portion of body on negative side. Force is
transmitted through plane Q by direct contact.

ΔF

ΔA
ΔF- force transmitted through ΔA
by the part on the positive side of Q
Stress at a point
• Forces ΔFN and ΔFS are called normal and shear forces
on area ΔA.
• Depend on location ΔA and orientation of Q.

Stress Vector :
• Concept of stress at a point is obtained by
letting ΔA become an infinitesimal.  F 
• The forces ΔF, ΔFN and ΔFS approach zero, but σ  lim  
A  0  A 
usually the ratios , , approach limits different
than zero. Normal Stress Vector :
• The limiting ratio as ΔA 0 defines stress
vector σ  F 
σ N  lim  N 
• Stress vector, σ lies along limiting direction of A  0  A 
ΔF
Shear Stress Vector :
 FS 
σS  lim  
A  0  A 
Stress Notation

• Free body diagram of a box

shaped volume element at a
point O in a member, with sides
parallel to (x,y,z) axes.
• Assume stress component
uniform throughout this volume
element.
Stress Notation
• Assume that stress components are uniform throughout
the volume element.
• Surface forces = stress component X area
• Body Forces act throughout the volume of the body.
(neglected as it is higher order term)

Body Forces
Stress Notation
 Stress Components
9 components of stress
σ xx ,σ xy ,σ xz 
σ yy ,σ yx ,σ yz 
σzz ,σzx ,σzy 
First subscript refers to the direction of the normal.
Second subscript refers to the direction of the stress.
 Stress Tensor

[ ]
𝜎 𝑥𝑥 𝜎 𝑥𝑦 𝜎 𝑥𝑧
𝑇= 𝜎 𝑦𝑥 𝜎 𝑦𝑦 𝜎 𝑦𝑧
𝜎 𝑧𝑥 𝜎 𝑧𝑦 𝜎 𝑧𝑧
Stress Tensor:
Symmetry of Stresses
σ xx σ xy σ xz  Plane
  perpendicular
T   σ xy σ yy σ yz  to x axis

 σ xz σ yz σ zz 
 (1)
 Stress Notation
I sxx syy szz sxy = syx sxz = szx syz = szy

II sx sy sz txy = txy txz = tzx tyz = tzy

III s11 s22 s33 s12 = s21 s13 = s31 s23 = s23
Stresses acting on arbitrary planes

Stress vectors on planes that

are perpendicular ,
respectively to the x,y,z axes
are

σ x  σ xx iˆ  σ xy ˆj  σ xz kˆ
(2) σ y  σ yx iˆ  σ yy ˆj  σ yz kˆ

σ z  σ zx iˆ  σ zy ˆj  σ zz kˆ
 Stress Vectors
Stresses acting on Arbitrary Planes

- Stress vector on arbitrary plane P

Unit normal vector to plane P is
N = l i +m j + n k, l,m,n --direction cosines of N (2a)
 Stress Vector on the
Inclined Pane
Vector sum of forces acting on the tetrahedral element OABC

Stress Vector on arbitrary plane P :

σP  l σx  m σ y  n σz (3)

σ P  σ Px iˆ  σ Py ˆj  σ Pz kˆ

In terms of projections of on x,y,z axes

Ratios of areas 0BC, 0AC, 0BA to

area ABC are equal to l,m,n
respectively.
Comparing all these equations (3) with (2), gives
components of stress on any oblique plane
Stress Vector Components
defined by unit normal N

σ Px  l σ xx  m σ yx  n σ zx
σ Py  l σ xy  m σ yy  n σ zy (4)

σ Pz  l σ xz  m σ yz  n σ zz
 Normal Stress and Shear Stress on an Oblique Plane

Shear Stress

• Normal stress on the plane P is the projection of vector in

the direction of N, = .N
• by eqn 2a,3 and 4

σ PN  l 2 σ xx  m 2 σ yx  n 2 σ zx
2m n σ yz   2n l  σ xz   2l m  σ xy 
Maximum values of
normal and shear stresses
are of importance in
design of elements. (5,6)
σ PS  σ 2P  σ 2PN  σ 2Px  σ 2Py  σ 2Pz  σ 2PN
Transformation of Stress, Principal Stresses

• (x,y,z) and (X,Y,Z) coincident

• Angles are measured from (x,y,z) to (X,Y,Z), like l1 = cos θxX

x y z
X l1 m1 n1
Y l2 m2 n2
Z l3 m3 n3

Direction cosines
Transformation of Stress, Principal Stresses
 Relations between direction cosines
The axes (x,y,z) and axes (X,Y,Z) are orthogonal
2 2 2
l1  l2  l3 1 l1l2  m1m2  n1n2  1
2
m1  2
m2  2
m3 1 l1l3  m1m3  n1n3  1
n12  n22  n32 1 l2l3  m2m3  n2n3  1

2 2 2 l1m1  l2 m2  l3m3  1
l1  m1  n1 1
l1n1  l2 n2  l3n3  1
l22  m22  n22  1
m1n1  m2 n2  m3n3  1
2 2 2
l3  m3  n3 1
(7)
 Stress Transformation
-normal stress component on plane perpendicular to X axis
, - shear stress component on the same plane.

(8)
 Stress Transformation
Stress Transformation
Shear stress component, is the component of the stress vector
in the Y direction on a plane perpendicular to the X axis.
σ XY  l1l2 σ xx  m1m2 σ yy  n1n2 σ zz
=
 m1n2  m2n1  σ yz  l1n2  l2n1  σ xz  l1m2  l2 m1  σ xy
σ XZ  l1l3 σ xx  m1m3 σ yy  n1n3 σ zz
 m1n3  m3n1  σ yz  l1n3  l3n1  σ xz  l1m3  l3 m1  σ xy
σYZ  l2l3 σ xx  m2m3 σ yy  n2n3 σ zz (9)
 m2n3  m3n2  σ yz  l2n3  l3n2  σ xz  l2m3  l3m 2  σ xy

• Equation 8 and 9 determine how the stress components

transform under rotation of rectangular axes.
• A set of quantities that transform according to this rule is
called second order symmetrical tensor.
Principal stresses
 Principal Values & Directions

• As shear stress vector vanishes on principal planes,

Stress vector on Principal plane is σP = σ N,
N= l i +m j+n k
• Projection of σP along (x,y,z) axes are
σPx = σ l , σPy = σm, σPz = σ n
• By equation (4)

(10)
 Principal Values & Directions

Since direction cosines are not zero, but

l2 + m2 +n2 =1

(11)
Hence the the determinant is zero.

(12)

(13)
 + Stress Invariants

(14)

Three roots of equation 13 are 3 principal stresses.

Link to find roots of cubic equation
https://www.calculatorsoup.com/calculators/algebra/cubicequation.php
 Stress Invariants
• Magnitude & direction of principal stresses are dependent
on loads applied to the member and can’t be influenced by
choice of coordinate axes (x,y,z) used to specify the state
of stress at point O.
• I1 ,I2 , I3 are invariants of stress, so must have same
magnitudes for all choices of coordinate axes.
• When principle stresses are found, dcs can be found by
substituting these values in (11) and knowing that
l2 + m2 +n2 =1

(16)

Special cases:
• If two principal stresses are equal, (11) gives non-unique principal
directions.
• If all principal stresses are zero, it is hydrostatic state of stress
 Octahedral Stress

1. Construct a plane through point P that is equally

inclined to all three principal axes.
2. Eight such planes exist.
3. Each plane is called an octahedral plane.
 Octahedral Stress

Octahedral Stresses
• Octahedral normal stress
from eqn 4,5,6
 oct  1
3  1  2  3   1
3
I1

τ oct  1   σ1  σ 2 2  σ 2  σ3 2  σ 3  σ1 
2

9  
2
 2I1  6I 2

(17)
Octahedral shear stress

2 2 2 1
 oct  I1  I 2  ( 1   2 ) 2  ( 1   3 ) 2  ( 2   3 ) 2
9 3 3
(18)
 Octahedral Stress
• For principal axes, σXX = σ1 , σYY = σ2, σZZ = σ3
σXY = σYZ = σZX = 0

• We know that I1,I2,I3 are invariants under rotation of axes

(15,17 ,18), we may refer (18) to arbitrary (x,y,z) axes by
replacing I1,I2,I3 by their general forms given by (15).
• Forarbitrary
oct
1
  (x,y,z),
3 xx   
yy  zz

 σ xx  σ yy   σ yy  σ zz 
2 2
τ oct    σ xx  σ zz 2 
6 σ 2 2 2
xy  6 σ xz  6 σ yz

1
 oct  ( xx   yy )  ( yy   zz )  ( zz   xx )  6( xy   yz   xz )
2 2 2 2 2 2

3
(19)

Used in yield criteria for ductile metals

 PLANE STRESS

• Thin plate with small thickness, h

• Middle of surface of plate is taken as (x,y) plane.

y z

• Plate is not loaded on its faces, σZZ = σYZ = σZX = 0, on

its lateral surfaces(z=
 PLANE STRESS
• First approximation, as plate is thin , gives
σZZ = σYZ = σZX = 0 (20)
Throughout the plate thickness.
• Remaining components are independent of z, so stress
array remains as function of (x,y)----plane stress
• Consider a transformation from (x,y,z) to (X,Y,Z) for the
condition that the z axis and Z axis are coincident under
the transformation.

Direction cosines
PLANE STRESS
Transformation
Direction cosines between two set of axes

x y z
X
l1  cos m1  sin  n1  0

Y
l2   sin  m2  cos  n2  0

Z m3  0 n3  1
l3  0
 Stress
PLANE Transformation
STRESS
• From equation (8,9) ,direction cosine table gives

2 2
σ XX  l1 σ xx  m1 σ yy  2l1m1 σ xy
(21)
σYY  l22 σ xx  m22 σ yy  2l2 m2 σ xy
σ XY  l1l2 σ xx  m1m2 σ yy   l1m2  l2 m1  σ xy
σ XX  σ xx cos2 θ  σ yy sin 2 θ  2σ xy cosθ sin θ
2 2
σYY  σ xx sin θ  σ yy cos θ  2σ xy cosθ sin θ (22)


σ XY   σ xx  σ yy  sin θcosθ  σ xy cos2 θ  sin 2 θ 
 Stress
PLANE Transformation
STRESS

Using double angle formulas:

σ XX  σ xx  σ yy   21 σ xx  σ yy  cos 2θ  σ xy sin 2θ
1
2

σYY  12 σ xx  σ yy   12 σ xx  σ yy  cos 2θ  σ xy sin 2θ

σ XY   12 σ xx  σ yy  sin 2θ  σ xy cos 2θ (23)

σ XX  12 σ xx  σ yy   1
2 σ xx  σ yy cos 2θ  σ xy sin 2θ
σ XY   12 σ xx  σ yy  sin 2θ  σ xy cos 2θ (24)
 Stress
PLANE Components
STRESS
• Stress components σXX and σYY act on plane BE, located at
angle θ (ccw +ve) from face BC on which σxx and σxy act.
• Variation of σXX and σYY wrt θ can be graphically constructed,
called Mohr’s circle.
 PLANE STRESS
Stress Transformation
Rearranging (23,24) we get

σ XX  1
2 σ xx  σ yy   σ XY  
2 2

1
4 σ xx  σ yy  σ
2 2
xy (24)
 Mohr’s
Mohr’s Circle Circle
This equation is that of circle in σXX and σXY plane whose
center C has coordinate

σ XX  1
2 σ xx  σ yy   σ XY  
2 2

1
4 σ xx  σ yy   σ
2 2
xy
(25)

Circle wit h center at 12 σ xx  σ yy ,0

and radius R  1
4 σ xx  σ yy   σ
2 2
xy
 Mohr’s Circle
Mohr’s Circle
• When θ = 0, we get σXX = σxx and σXY = σxy –coordinates of
P
• Principal stresses σ1 and σ2 are located at θ1 and θ1+
measured ccw from line CP.
WE must rotate through
angle 2θ from line CP ,
which corresponds to a
rotation of θ from plane
BC
 Mohr’s Circle
2D Principal Stresses
σ xx  σ yy
σ1   1
4 σ xx  σ yy 
2
 σ 2
xy
2
σ xx  σ yy
σ2   1
4 σ xx  σ yy
2
  σ 2
xy
2
2 σ xy
tan 2 θ 
σ xx  σ yy (26)

σ max  σ min
𝝈𝑿𝒀(𝐦𝐚𝐱❑)=¿¿ τ max  (27)

2
 MOHR’S CIRCLE IN 3D
• Consider plane P whose normal to principal axes has dcs
l,m,n.
• Normal and shear stresses on plane P are
 NN  l 2 1  m 2 2  n 2 3
2NS  l 2 12  m 2 22  n 2 32  2NN
(28)
2 2 2
l  m  n 1
 MOHR’S CIRCLE IN 3D
• Assume and l,m,n are dcs of P, which are known.
• Find and ACTING ON PLANE P
• Equation (28) is simultaneous equation in l2,m2,n2
• Note that l2,m2,n2 0

(29)
Mohr’s
MOHR’SCircle
CIRCLEinIN3-Dimension
3D

Rewriting (29)

(30)
 MOHR’S CIRCLE IN 3D
Mohr’s
Rewriting (30)Circle in 3-Dimension

(31)

(32) • , , - maximum shear stresses

• are signed magnitudes of
principal stresses
 3 D MOHR’S CIRCLE

C1: , R1 = C2: , R2 =

C3: , R3 =
Construct Mohr’s Circle using any two of the principal stresses

1  2  3

Admissible state of
stress must lie
within a region
bounded by 3
circles obtained by
(31)