ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 1

Chapter 2 Transformation of Stress and Strain

Learning Objectives:
 Study the states of stress and strain at points located
on oblique or inclined planes using transformation of
stress and strain.
 Determine principal stresses & strains, and maximum
in-plane shear stress & strain.
 Determine the absolute maximum shear stress and
strain in 2D cases
 Applications to thin-walled pressure vessels

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 2

Applications

The cracks in this concrete beam were

These turbine blades are subjected
to a complex pattern of stress. For
design it is necessary to determine
where and in what direction the
maximum stress occurs.
caused by tension stress, even though the
beam was subjected to both an internal
moment and shear. The stress-transformation
equation can be used to predict the
direction of the cracks and principal normal
stresses that cased them.
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 3

At a particular point A on the

surface of an aircraft making a
landing, the stresses have the
magnitudes and directions
depicted on the stress element in
Figure. Find
(a) The normal and shear
stresses acting on an inclined
plane parallel to line a-a.
(b) The normal and shear
stresses acting on an inclined
plane parallel to line b-b.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 4

A closed-end cylindrical tank is constructed with a helical weld that makes

an angle   500 about the longitudinal axis and supported by two cradles as
shown in the Fig. (a). The vessel has inner radius r  2 m, wall thickness
t  10 mm, and is subjected to an internal pressure of p  500 kPa. Find (a)
The tangential and axial stresses. (b) The normal and shear stresses
acting perpendicular and parallel to the weld, respectively.

 y  xy
 x
t

a
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 5

z x

(a) Internal forces acting on a section of a body acted upon by external forces.
(b) Components of an internal force ΔF acting on a small area centered on point O.

Normal Stress:
Fx dFx
 xx   x  lim  As dA 0, stress state is at the point O.
A0 A dA
Shear Stresses:
Note: Stress values depend on
Fy dFy magnitude of dF and also the
 xy  lim 
A0 A dA direction of dF.
F dF
 xz  lim z  z
A0 A dA

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 6

Convention for Denoting Stress (3D Element)

• Normal stress,  ij
i – indicates the direction of a normal to the
y plane on which the stress component acts;
 yy j – indicates the direction of the stress.
Usually denoted by  ij , e.g.  xx
 yx
 yz For simplicity
 xy
 xx  zy  xx  xx is written as  x
O  zx  yy is written as  y
 xz
 zz x
• Shear stress
 yy i – indicates the direction of a normal to the
z plane on which the stress component
acts;
j – indicates the direction of the stress.
e.g.  xy
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 7

Stresses in 3D Element
y
Stresses shown are all positive
 yy on a cube of 1 unit length
 yx
 yz For a small isolated element
 xy
 xx  zy  xx with planes perpendicular to
O  zx coordinate axes and surrounding
1  xz
 zz x a point O, there are 9 stress
1 components:
1
 yy 3 normal stresses
z 6 shear stresses

As the size of parallelepiped reduces, in the limit, these 9 stress

components will define completely, the state of stress at point O.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 8

The cube is stationary (in equilibrium)

y
Take moment about z-axis
 yy
 yx  xy (11) 1   yx (11) 1
 yz
 xy   xy   yx
 xx  zy  xx
O  zx
1  xz From equilibrium (i.e. taking
 zz x moment about any axis), we
1
1 can show that
 yy  xy   yx
z  xz   zx
Hence, number of “unknown”  yz   zy
stresses reduced to 6. i.e.
 xx   x ,  yy   y ,  zz   z , xy , xz , yz
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 9

Stress Component in 2D Case  z   xz   yz  0

Remaining stresses  x ,  y , xy

(a) Thin plate with in-plane loads

(b) Element in plane stress
(c) Two-dimensional (2D) presentation of plane stress

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 10

Stress Component in 2D Case (continued)

y

 yx 
x y
xy
 xy 
x x x
z

y

Consider an arbitrary plane whose normal makes an angle θ with horizontal

Q. What are the values of  x , xy in terms of  x ,  y and  xy ?

 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 11

Consider a cut section of 1 unit of thickness on the element

y
y

 yx 
x
C Ty  xy
x 
y x  xy x

x Tx 1

 xy y
1
 yx
A B x
y
Let Tx and Ty be the stress components of  x and  xy in x- and y-
directions on the cut plane BC.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 12

Resolving forces in the x-direction

C  x  AC 1   yx  AB 1  Tx  BC 1
Ty
1 x
y
 Divide the above equation by BC
x Tx
AC AB
 xy Tx   x    yx 
 yx BC BC
A B x
y
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 13

y
AC
 cos 
BC
C Ty
x AB
 sin 
y BC
 
x Tx AC AB
Tx   x    yx 
 xy BC BC
 yx 1
   x cos    yx sin 
A B x
y
AB AC
Likewise, we can show that Ty   y    xy 
BC BC
  y sin    xy cos 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 14

y
y C x
Ty
 xy  x
  Tx   x cos    yx sin 
x Tx
 xy 1 Ty   y sin    xy cos 
 yx
A B x
y
Consider the equilibrium of forces on plane BC.
In the x direction:  x  BC  1  Tx  BC  1  cos   Ty  BC  1  sin 
  x  Tx cos   Ty sin 

In the y direction:  xy  BC  1  Ty  BC  1  cos   Tx  BC  1  sin 

  xy  Ty cos   Tx sin 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 15

y
Substitute for Tx and Ty into Eqs. for  x and  xy  y x
 yx 
 x   x cos2    y sin 2   2 xy sin  cos  x

xy
 xy   xy (cos   sin  )  ( y   x ) sin  cos 
2 2 
x  xy x

Note that when the value of  is increase to    / 2

 x is equivalent to  y , hence,  y can be found by
substituting    / 2 for  in the expression for  x y
y
 y   x cos2 (   / 2)   y sin 2 (   / 2)
 2 xy sin(   / 2) cos(   / 2)
z x
  y   x sin 2    y cos2   2 xy sin  cos 

Q: Is  y the same stress as  xy ?

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 16

 y y x
 y
 yx 
x
 xy Shear stress xy

x xy x

Normal stress
 y

y
Q: Is  y the same stress as  xy ? No! y

We have
z x
 x   x cos    y sin   2 xy sin  cos 
2 2

 y   x sin 2    y cos2   2 xy sin  cos 

 xy   xy (cos2   sin 2  )  ( y   x ) sin  cos 
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 17

Use relations: cos 2  cos2   sin 2   2 cos2   1  1  2 sin 2 

sin 2  2 sin  cos 
x y x  y
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2 (2.1)
2 2
x y x  y
 y   cos 2   xy sin 2 (2.2)
2 2
x  y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2 (2.3)
2
Eqs. (2.1) – (2.3) is known as stress transformation equations.

Stresses on element A
inclined at θ counter-
Element A clockwise to the x-axis

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 18

Note that addition of Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) leads to:

x  y  x  y
 x   y    cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
x  y  x  y
  cos 2   xy sin 2   x   y
2 2
 x   y   x   y  constant (2.4)

Hence, the sum of the normal stresses on two perpendicular planes is

invariant, i.e. independent of θ.

Stresses on element A
inclined at θ counter-
Element A clockwise to the x-axis
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 19

Sign Convention
• Normal Stresses
Stress is positive: Tension (e.g.  xx )
Stress is negative: Compression (e.g.   xx )
Positive normal stress acts outward from all
faces

• Shear Stresses
Positive shear stress acts upwards on the right-hand face of the element

y y

  xy   xy

Pure positive shear x Pure negative shear x

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 20

Example 2.1 At a particular point A

on the surface of an aircraft making
a landing, the stresses have the
magnitudes and directions depicted
on the stress element in Figure. Find
(a) The normal and shear stresses
acting on an inclined plane
parallel to line a-a.
(b) The normal and shear stresses
acting on an inclined plane
parallel to line b-b. In each case,
sketch the results on a properly
oriented element.
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 21

Solution: (a) Apply Eqs. (2.1) – (2.3) for   450 ,  x  10 MPa,  y  5 MPa
and  xy  6 MPa, we obtain

x y x  y
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
10  5 10  5
  cos 900  6 sin 900  3.5 MPa
2 2
x y x  y
 y   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
10  5 10  5
  cos 900  6 sin 900
2 2
 8.5 MPa
x  y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2
2
10  5
 sin 900  6 cos 900  7.5 MPa
2

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 22

(b) As   30  90  1200 , from Eqs. (2.1) to (2.3), we have

x y x  y
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
10  5 10  5
  cos 2400  6 sin 2400  3.95 MPa
2 2

x y x  y
 y   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
10  5 10  5
  cos 2400  6 sin 2400
2 2
 1.05 MPa

x  y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2
2
10  5
 sin 2400  6 cos 2400  9.5 MPa
2
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 23

Example 2.2 At a point on the surface of a machine the material is in

biaxial stress with  x  120 MPa and  y  40 MPa as shown in the
Figure (a). Figure (b) shows an inclined plane aa cut through the same
point in the material but oriented at angle θ. Determine all values of the
θ between 900 and 900 such that no normal stresses act on plane aa.
For each angle θ, sketch a stress element having plane aa as one of its
sides and show all stresses acting on the element.

40 MPa
a

θ
x
120 MPa
a

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 24

Solution:  x  120 MPa,  y  40 MPa,  xy  0

Find angle θ a

x  y  x  y θ
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
120  40 120  40
  cos 2  40  80 cos 2 a
2 2
For  x  0 , we obtain 0  40  80 cos 2 y

40 MPa
Hence, cos 2  (1/ 2)    600

Case 1:  x =0,   60
0
x
120 MPa
 x   y    x   y
 y   x   y   x  120  40  0  80
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 25

 x  y y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2 x’
2 80 MPa
120  40 y’ 600
 sin1200  0  69.3 MPa
2
x

Case 2:  x =0,   600

69.3 MPa
 x   y    x   y
 y   x   y   x  120  40  0  80
y
69.3 MPa
 x  y y’
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2 80 MPa
2
x
120  40
 sin( 1200 )  0  69.3 MPa 600
2
x’

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 26

In-Plane Principal Stress

x  y
When  xy  0  sin 2   xy cos 2  0
2
 xy 1 2 xy
 tan 2 p  or  p  arctan (2.5)
( x   y ) / 2 2 x y

At this angle,  x is known as the maximum principal stress (denoted

as  1 ),  y is known as the minimum principal stress (denoted as  2 )
and  often denoted as  p is known as the principal angle.
Substitute principal angle  p into Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), we have
2
x y   y 
1    x    2 xy (2.6a)
2  2 
2
x y   y  (2.6b)
2    x    2 xy
2  2 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 27

 xy
tan 2 p 
( x   y ) / 2
( x   y ) / 2  xy
 cos 2 p  , sin 2 p 
2 2
x y  x  y 
    xy2     xy2
 2   2 
Substitute cos 2 p and sin 2 p into Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
x  y  x  y
 x   cos 2 p   xy sin  p
2 2
x  y  x  y ( x   y ) / 2  xy
    xy
2 2   x  y 
2
  x  y 
2

   xy    xy
2 2
 
 2   2 
x  y   x   y  2    x  y 
2

      xy     xy
2 2

2  2    2 
2
x  y    y 
   x    xy
2

2  2 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 28

x  y  x  y
 y   cos 2 p   xy sin  p
2 2
x  y  x  y ( x   y ) / 2  xy
    xy
2 2   x  y 
2
  x  y 
2

   xy    xy
2 2
 
 2   2 
x  y   x   y  2    x  y 
2

      xy 
2
    xy
2

2  2    2 
2
x  y   x  y 
      xy
2

2  2 
2 2
x  y    y  x  y    y 
1    x    xy ,  2 
2
  x    xy
2

2  2  2  2 
2 2
x  y   x  y  x  y   x  y 
1   2       2
xy       xy   x   y
2

2  2  2  2 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 29

Maximum Shear Stress

Maximum shear stress is obtained by taking d xy / d  0 in Eq. (2.3)
d x ' y ' x  y
 2 cos 2    xy 2 sin 2   0
d 2
 ( x   y ) / 2
 tan 2 s  (2.7)
 xy
 s denotes the angles locating the plane of maximum
shear stresses. Two directions mutually are found to
satisfy Eq. (2.7). Substitute 2 s of Eq. (2.7) into Eq. (2.3):

2
  x  y  (2.8a)
 max      xy
2

 2 

The value of  max as calculated in this equation

is referred to as the maximum in plane shear
stress because it acts on the element in x-y plane.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 30

2
  x  y 
 max      xy
2
(2.8a)
 2 

From physical point of view, the algebraic signs are meaningless. For
this reason, the largest shearing stress, regardless of algebraic sign, is
Called maximum shearing stress. If  x and  y are the principal stresses,
 xy is zero and the foregoing formula reduces to

1   2
 max  (2.8b)
2

 xy  0
  x = 1 ,  y   2
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 31

( x   y ) / 2
tan 2 s1 
 xy
( x   y ) / 2
sin 2 s1 
2
  x  y 
   xy
2

 2 
 xy
cos 2 s1 
2
  x  y 
   xy
2

 2 
 x  y
 max   xy   sin 2 s1   xy cos 2 s1
2
 x  y [( x   y ) / 2]  xy
   xy
2   x  y 
2
  x  y 
2

   xy    xy
2 2
 
 2   2 
  x   y  2    x  y 
2
  x  y 
2

     xy        xy
2 2 2
  xy 
 2    2   2 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 32

( x   y ) / 2
tan 2 s2 
 xy
( x   y ) / 2
sin 2 s2 
2
  x  y 
   xy
2

 2 
 xy
cos 2 s2 
2
  x  y 
   xy
2

 2 
 x  y
 max   xy   sin 2 s1   xy cos 2 s1
2
 x  y ( x   y ) / 2  xy
   xy
2   x  y 
2
  x  y 
2

   xy    xy
2 2
 
 2   2 
      2    x  y 
2    x  y 
2
 2 
       xy     xy        xy
x y 2 2

 2  2   2 
     
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 33

By comparison with Eq. (2.5) and (2.7), tan 2 s is negative reciprocal of tan 2 p
and we can obtain a relationship between  s and  p

 xy
tan 2 p  (2.5)
( x   y ) / 2

 ( x   y ) / 2
tan 2 s  (2.7)
 xy

1 sin 2 s cos 2 p
tan 2 s     cot 2 p   0
tan 2 p cos 2 p sin 2 p
sin 2 s sin 2 p  cos 2 s cos 2 p  0  cos(2 s  2 p )  0
2 s  2 p  900   s   p  450

Hence, the element subjected to maximum shear stress will be 45 0 from the
position of an element that is subjected to the principal stress.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 34

Unlike the case of the principal planes on which no sharing stress occur, the max.
shear stress planes are usually not free of normal stress. The normal stresses are
determined by introducing the values of 2s into Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2):
x  y  x  y
 x   cos 2 s   xy sin 2 s
2 2
x  y  x  y  xy  xy ( x   y ) / 2 x  y
   
2 2   x  y 
2
  x  y 
2 2 ( x   y ) / 2
sin 2 s 
   
 2   2 
2
  x  y 
   xy
2

 2 
x  y  x  y
 y   cos 2 s   xy sin 2 s cos 2 s 
 xy
2 2 2
  x  y 
x  y  x  y  xy  xy ( x   y ) / 2    xy
2

2
    
2 2   x  y 
2
  x  y 
2

   
 2   2 
x  y

2 x y
 avg     (2.8c)
2
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 35

Example 2.3 At a particular point in a machine frame, the material is in

a plane stress condition with  x  7 MPa,  y  2 MPa,  xy  5 MPa acting
on an element as shown in Fig. (a). Find (a) The principal stresses. (b) The
maximum shear stresses and the associated normal stresses. Sketch the
results found in (a) and (b) on properly oriented elements.

y  y  2 MPa

 xy  5 MPa

 x  7 MPa

(a)

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 36

Solution: (a) The largest normal stresses. Using Eqs. (2.5) and (2.6)
121.70
2
x y   y 
 1, 2    x    2 xy
2  2 
2
72 72
     5  4.5  5.59
2

2  2 
 1  10.09 MPa,  2  1.09 MPa 76.7 0

1 2(5)
 p  tan 1  31.70 and 121.70
2 72
(b) Maximum shear stress. Using Eq. (2.8a)

x  y 
2 1 1  72
   2 xy  s  2 tan   2  5   13.3 and 76.7
0 0
 max  
 2 
The plane of max. positive shear
72
2
stress  max is defined by angle  s
    5  5.59 MPa
2 1

 2   s   p  450  31.70  450  13.30

72 1

   4.5 MPa
2  s   p  450  31.70  450  76.70
2
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 37

Example 2.4 A shear wall in a reinforced concrete building is subjected to

a vertical uniform load of q and a horizontal force H, as shown in the
Fig. (a). (The force H represents the effects of wind and earthquake loads.)
As consequence of these loads, the stresses at point A on the surface of the
wall have the values shown in Fig. (b) (compressive stress equals to 10
MPa and shear stress equals to 2 MPa. (a) Determine the principal stresses
and show them on a sketch of a properly oriented element. (b) Determine
the maximum shear stresses and associated normal stresses and show them
on a sketch of a properly oriented element.

q y 10 MPa

H 2 MPa
A A 2 MPa

(b)

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 38

Solution:  x  0 MPa,  y  10 MPa,  xy  2 MPa

(a) Principal stresses

2 xy 2(2)
tan 2 p    0.4
 x  y 0  (10)

2 p  21.800 and  p =  10.900

2 p  1800  21.800 =158.200 and  p =79.100

x  y  x  y
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
0  10 0  10
For 2 p  21.800 :  x   cos(21.800 )  (2) sin(21.809 )  0.4 MPa
2 2
0  10 0  10
For 2 p =158.200 :  x   cos(158.200 )  (2) sin(158.209 )  10.4 MPa
2 2
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 39

Hence,  1  0.4 MPa and  p  10.900

y 10.4 MPa
 2  10.4 MPa and  p =79.100
79.100
(b) Maximum shear stresses.
A x
10.900
2 0.4 MPa
   y 
 max   x    xy
2

 2 
2
 0  (10) 
    (2)  5.4 MPa
2

 2 
 ( x   y ) / 2
tan 2 s 
x  y  xy
    avg   5 MPa
2

1  0  (10) 
 s  tan 1     34.1 and 124.1
0 0

2  2  (2) 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 40

Locating the max. positive shear stress plane:  1  0.4 MPa and  p  10.900
Method 1:  2  10.4 MPa and  p =79.100
1  0  (10)  y
 s  tan 1     34.1 and 124.1
0 0
124.100
2  2  (2)  5 MPa
5 MPa
34.100
 s1   p  45  79.1  45  34.1
0 0 0 0
A
 s 2   p  450  79.10  450  124.10 x

 ( x   y ) / 2 5.4 MPa
Method 2: tan 2 s 
 xy
y
1  0  (10)  5 MPa y
 s  tan 1     34.1 and 124.1
0 0
5 MPa
2  2  (2)  34.100
A
 s1   p  45  10.9  45  55.9
0 0 0 0 x

 s 2   p  450  10.90  450  34.10 5.4 MPa 55.90

x
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 41

Mohr’s Circle for 2D Stresses

To develop an expression for Mohr’s circle, we rewrite Eqs. (2.1) and (2.3)
after setting  x   , and  xy   in the forms
x y x y
  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
( x   y )
  sin 2   xy cos 2
2
Squaring each equation, adding them, and simplifying, we obtain

2 2 2
  y    y     y 
   x    2   x cos 2   xy sin 2     x sin 2   xy cos 2 
 2   2   2 

2 2
  y   y 
   x    2   x    xy2 (2.9)
 2   2 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 42

The preceding expression can be written in a simpler form in terms of

the following notation.
2
1 x  y 
 avg  ( x   y ), R      xy2
2  2 
Eq. (2.9) is then
(   avg ) 2   2  R 2 (2.10)

Eq. (2.10) represents a circle in   

plane with center at ( avg ,0) and
radius R.
The circle is known as the Mohr’s
Circle introduced by Otto Mohr
(1835 –1918) who was a German
Civil Engineer. Mohr’s circle is a
graphical method for analysing stress.
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 43

What does a point on the circumference of the circle represent?

y
A point on the circumference is given by
y
Plane B its x and y coordinates i.e. it represents the
 xy stresses on a plane in the element.
 xy  x

x x x  xy x y 
 ,0 
 2 
Plane A  max
y
2
When   0   x   x ,  xy   xy 2 C
A

B 1 
R
Hence the state of stress on
Plane A or Plane B as shown
above can be represented by   max 2
 y 
a point on the circumference R   x    xy2
 2 
of a Mohr’s circle.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 44

Construction of Mohr’s Circle

Sign convention for stresses when constructing and analysing Mohr’s circle:
Shear stresses–if the shear stresses on opposite faces of the element produce
forces that result in a clockwise couple, these stresses are taken as positive.
Hence, shearing stresses on y faces of element is +ve, but those on x faces are -ve.
on Plane B the shear stress direction
is clockwise, hence it is a +ve shear
stress on Mohr’s circle

on Plane A the shear stress direction

is anticlockwise, hence it is -ve
shear stress on Mohr’s circle
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 45

Steps to Construct Mohr’s circle:

1. Set up a rectangular coordinate system, indicating   and   . Both stress scale must
be identical.
2. Locate the center C of the circle on horizontal axis a distance ( x   y ) / 2 from the
origin O.
3. Locate point A (  0) by coordinates ( x , xy ) . These stresses may relate to any face
of the stress element; however, it is usual to specify the stresses on positive x face.
4. Draw a circle with the center at C and with radius CA.
5. Draw line AB through C.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 46

Interpretation of Mohr’s circle:

State of stress associated with the original x and y planes corresponds to points A and B on
the circle. Points A and B defines states of stress with respect to any other set of x and y 
planes rotated relative to the original set through an angle  .

Radius of R of the circle: CA  CF 2  AF 2

x y
where CF  , AF   xy and CA is magnitude of max. shearing stress  max
2
 1 = max. principal stress
 2 = min. principal stress

A
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 47

Stress components at any arbitrary plane can be determined from Mohr’s circle:
x y
 x   CA cos(2 p  2 )
2
 xy  CA sin(2 p  2 ) where CA  CA

x y x y
 x   CA(cos 2 p cos 2  sin 2 p sin 2 ) CF  , AF   xy
2 2
 xy  CA(sin 2 p cos 2  cos 2 p sin 2 )

CA cos 2 p  CF , CA sin 2 p  AF

x y
 x   CF cos 2  AF sin 2
2
x y x  y
  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
x y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2
2
x y x  y
Similarly,  y   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 48

Note that rotation on Mohr’s circle is twice that of element and sense of
direction of rotation of axes is the same for Mohr’s circle and element.

B ( y , xy )
R cos(2 p  2 ) 2
  y 
E ( y , xy ) R   x    xy2
 2 

O 2 Q E C P 1 
2 p
2  y
D ( x , xy )  xy
Plane E  x
y
A( x , xy ) 
y x
Plane B
 xy
Plane D

x x x

Plane A
y
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 49

IMPORTANT:
Do not confuse shear stress sign convention on Mohr’s circle with that of
an entire element.
REMEMBER:
Shear stress sign convention for an entire element.
y y

  xy   xy

Shear stress sign convention

Positive shear x Negative shear x for a Mohr’s circle
y B 
xy
on Plane B the shear stress direction
is anticlockwise, hence it is -ve shear
stress on Mohr’s circle A

On a Mohr’s circle we consider sign of x

on Plane A the shear stress direction
shear stress on a plane and not entire is clockwise, hence it is a +ve shear
element stress on Mohr’s circle

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 50

Applications of Mohr’s Circle

(a) Pure Tension: The max. shear stress is one-half the tensile stress
and occurs on any plane that makes an angle of 450 with tension axis.
Pure compression is identical to pure tension, except the signs are
reversed.

1 1
 max  , 
2 2
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 51

(b) Pure Torsion: This can be converted to a condition of equal tension

and compression by rotating 450 as shown in the figure (b). The max. shear
stress is twice as great as for pure tension.

 1   2,  max   1 ,     max   1

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 52

Example 2.5 The state of plane stress at a point (in a pressure vessel) is
represented by the figure shown. Determine the stresses on an element
oriented at 300 counter-clockwise from the position shown. Illustrate
your answer on a diagram.

y
 y  12 MPa

300
 x  8 MPa
x
x
 xy  6 MPa
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 53

Solution: From Eqs. (2.1) to (2.3), we have

  y x  y
 x  x  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
x y x y
 y   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
x  y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2
2
Substituting   300 , we obtain
 x  ( 8  12) / 2  [( 8  12) / 2] cos 600  ( 6) sin 600  8.2 MPa
 y  ( 8  12) / 2  [( 8  12) / 2] cos 600  ( 6) sin 600  12.2 MPa
 xy  [( 8  12) / 2] sin 600  ( 6) cos 600  5.66 MPa
To construct the Mohr’s circle
 avg  ( x   y ) / 2  ( 8  12) / 2  2 MPa (Center of circle)

x  y   8  12 
2

R  2
xy     ( 6)  11.66 MPa (Radius of circle)
2

2  2 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 54

 avg  2 MPa, R  11.66 MPa Question: Where should point A be ?


12  y  12 MPa
8
Clockwise, B
10
+v shear y
A  x  8 MPa
x 8  y
A B’ x
R  11.66 6 2  xy  6 MPa
4
6
Point A? 2
600
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2C 4 6 8 10 12 14 
Point A? -2  y  xy  x
6 B’ 300
A’ -4
B A’ x
 x -6 y
12
-8
-10

-12
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 55

From the Mohr’s circle,

 x  8.2 MPa 
12
 y  12.2 MPa Clockwise,
8
+v shear 10
 xy  5.66 MPa 12.2
x 8
 y
A B’
 y  12 MPa R  11.66 6 2
4
B 6
5.66
y 2
A  x  8 MPa 60 0

-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2C 4 6 8 10 12 14
x 
-2
 xy  6 MPa 6
-4
 x A’
B
-6 y
12
-ve shear stress at 8.22 -8
this point -10
12.2 5.66 8.2
A’ 0 -12
B’ 30
y
x x
-ve shear stress on Mohr’s circle, hence
anticlockwise direction

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 56

Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

• A thin-walled vessel is one in which the distribution of stress is
essentially constant through the thickness, whereas in thick-walled
vessels, the normal stress varies over the wall thickness.
• If the ratio of wall thickness t to inner radius r is less than about 1/10
(or r/t ≥ 10), the vessel is classified as thin-walled. In fact, in thin-
walled vessels, there is often no distinction made between the inside
and outside radii because they are nearly equal.
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 57

Cylindrical Pressure Vessels

• Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel
with radius r and wall thickness t
subjected to an internal gage pressure p.

F

v 0 

sin d  cos  0  2
0

  2 t tL   pr ( d ) L(sin  )  0
0

pr
 2 t tL  2rLp  0   t  (2.11)
t

 t : tangential stress
t

t t

(c)

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 58

• By passing a section through the vessel perpendicular to its axis, a

FBD is obtained.

F h 0  p r 2  2rt a  0
pr a
a  (2.12)
2t
 a: axial stress

F h  0 ( ro2  ri 2 ) a  pri 2  0
( ro  ri )( ro  ri ) a  pri 2  0
( ro  ri )t a  pri 2  0 ro
ri
pri 2
a 
( ro  ri )t
t
 t  0.1ri ro  ri  ro  ri  2ri
pr pr ( r  ri )
a  i 
2t 2t
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 59

Thin-Walled Spherical Vessel

• Pressure p acts over entire inside surface of
t
hemisphere but only a projection of
hemisphere on a vertical plane is shown.
Why? t
r
• For equilibrium, we have

F h  0  t 2 rt  p r 2  0 t

pr
t    (2.13)
2t

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 60

Principal Stresses in Pressure Vessels

• Principal Stress in Spherical Pressure Vessels
Consider a spherical thin-walled ( r  t ) pressure vessel subjected to internal
pressure p. The tangential stress of spherical pressure vessel is give by
pr State of stress on element C
t   
2t pr
pr 2t

t 2t
C p

p r 0
pr
pr 2t
2t

pr
C 1   2 
 2t For all points,
 not just C
pr
p  3  0,  p 
2t
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 61

• Principal Stress in Cylindrical Pressure Vessels

Consider a long cylindrical thin-walled (r  t ) pressure vessel subjected to
internal pressure p. The tangential and axial stresses of cylindrical pressure
vessel are give by
pr pr
t  , a 
t 2t State of stress on element C
pr
t t p
C r pr pr
p
L 2t 2t
0 pr
t

C a pr pr
C 1  , 2 
p 2t t For all points,
 not just C
pr
 3  0,  p 
p t 2t

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 62

Maximum Shear Stress in Vessels

Radial stress  r varies from  r   p at inner surface of shell to  r  0 at
outer surface. For thin-walled shells,  r is much smaller than  t and  a
is generally omitted.
For cylindrical vessels, the principal stress are  t ,  a   t / 2 and 0.
Mohr’s circle of the biaxial state of stress is shown in the Fig. (b).
1 pr
( max ) a  ( t  0)  (2.14a)
2 2t
For spherical vessels, the principal stress  t   a   and 0.
1 pr
( max )a  (  0)  (2.14b)
2 4t
r-t plane
t

a r

a-r plane a-t plane

 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 63

Vessels for pressurized storage such as oil refinery tanks and gas tanks etc.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 64

Example 2.6
A hollow pressurized sphere having
radius R = 150 mm and wall
thickness t = 13 mm is lowered in
a lake. The compressed air in the
tank is at a pressure of 140 kPa
(gauge pressure when the tank is
out of the water).
At what depth D0, will the wall of
the tank be subjected to a
compressive stress of 700 kPa?
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 65

Solution. Characteristic parameter t/R = 13mm/150mm = 0.087

(a) In air, pi = 140 kPa, pe = 0
Under water, pi is maintained, pe increases
R
 1   2    ( pi  pe ) , pe  D0
2t
  9.81 kN/m3 (weight density of water)

For compressive stress of 700 kPa

R
( pi  D0 )  700 kPa
2t
Substitute numerical values:
150  103
(140  10  9.81  10 D0 )
3 3

2  13  103
 700  103  D0 = 26.64 m

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 66

Discussion 1: what can we learn from this example?

Fuselage of aircraft

r
Tangential stress:  t  ( pi  pe )
t
On ground: pi  pe
r
High in sky: pi is maintained,

pe decreases
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 67

t
Discussion 2:

The maximum tangential stress in the

wall of the tank (with an open top) due
to water pressure occurs
(A) at top of the standpipe
(B) at the middle of the standpipe
(C) at the base of the standpipe
The axial stress in the wall of the tank
due to the water pressure is
(A) > 0
(B) = 0
(C) < 0

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 68

Example 2.7 A closed-end cylindrical tank is constructed with a helical

weld that makes an angle   500 about the longitudinal axis and supported
by two cradles as shown in the Fig. (a). The vessel has inner radius r  2 m,
wall thickness t  10 mm, and is subjected to an internal pressure of
p  500 kPa. Find (a) The tangential and axial stresses. (b) The normal and
shear stresses acting perpendicular and parallel to the weld, respectively.

 y  xy
 x
t

a
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 69

Solution: (a) The tangential and longitudinal stresses are given by

Eqs. (2.11) and (2.12).
pr 500(103 )( 2) 
t    100 MPa,  a  t  50 MPa
t 0.01 2
The stresses are indicated in Fig. (b).
(b) An element oriented at   900  500  400 has its sides parallel and
perpendicular to the weld as shown in Fig. (c). Observing that there are
both tangential and axial stresses, we draw Mohr’s circle as shown in
the Fig. (d).

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 70

So, a counterclockwise angle of 2  800 on the circle locates point B corresponding

to the stresses on the x face. The average normal stress and radius of circle are
1 1
 avg  (100  50)  75 MPa, R  (100  50)  25 MPa
2 2
The coordinates of point B are then
 x   avg  R cos 2  75  25 cos 800  70.7 MPa
Hence, tensile stress:
 xy  R sin 2  25 sin 800  24.6 MPa
 x  70.7 MPa
Similarly,  y   avg  R cos 2  75  25 cos 80  79.3 MPa Shear stress:
0

Normal stress in y’ axis  xy  24.6 MPa

A
B
y

t
a
A1

B1

x
(d)
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 71

Transformation of Plane Strain

• Normal Strain

 (2.15)
L
 : elongation, L: original length
Displacement A  A : u, B  B : u  u
u du
  lim 
x 0 x dx
• Shear Strain
 
 nt  tan    
2 
Tangent of the total change in angle
occurring between two originally
perpendicular lines (n and t).  nt is small,
hence

 nt     (2.16)
2

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 72

• Components of Strain (2D)

Partial derivative notation is used since u or v
is a function of x and y u
(u  dx )  u
x u B C
x  
u v dx x
x  , y  (2.17a)
v
x y ( v  dy )  v A D
y v
v u y  
 xy   dy y
(2.17b)
x y v
dx
u
dy
 x y
 xy  
In 2D strain or plane strain, the dx dy
following condition is satisfied 
v u

x y
 z   xz   yz  0
whereas in plane strains
 x ,  y ,  xy are
usually non-zero.

Deformations of an
element in plane strain
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 73

The three strain components referred to x - y  axes which are at an angle 

to x-y axes:
x  y x  y  xy
 x   cos 2  sin 2 (2.18)
2 2 2
x  y x  y  xy
 y   cos 2  sin 2 (2.19)
2 2 2
 xy x  y  xy
 sin 2  cos 2 (2.20)
2 2 2
Eqs. (2.18) to (2.20) are known as the strain transformation equations
(Refer to Appendix A).
y
 y
y y
 x x
Note that angle  is measured  xy
counter-clockwise to the x axis  xy
 x

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 74

Principal Strains and Max. Shear Strain (Refer to Appendix A):

There will be a plane in the element which does not experience any shear
strains, i.e.  xy  0
 xy  ( x   y ) sin 2   xy cos 2  0
 xy 1  xy
 tan 2 p  or  p  tan 1
x  y 2 x  y

Substituting  p into Eqs. (2.18) and (2.19), we obtain

2 2
x  y     y    xy  (2.21a)
1    x    
2  2   2 
2 2
x  y     y    xy 
2    x     (2.21b)
2  2   2 
The max. shear strains are found on plane 450 relative to the principal planes:
2 2
    y    xy 
 max  2  x     (2.21c)
 2   2 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 75

• Mohr’s Circle for Plane Strain

x y x  y (2.1)
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
x y x  y
Plane Stresses  y   cos 2   xy sin 2 (2.2)
2 2
x  y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2 (2.3)
2

x  y x  y  xy (2.18)
 x   cos 2  sin 2
2 2 2
x  y x  y  (2.19)
Plane Strains  y   cos 2  xy sin 2
2 2 2
 xy  y  (2.20)
 x sin 2  xy cos 2
2 2 2

Re-examining Eqs. (2.18), (2.19) & (2.20) and compare with Eqs. (2.1), (2.2) & (2.3) for
 x ,  y &  xy . The equations are similar in form. Hence a Mohr’s circle of strain can also
be constructed.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 76

Mohr’s circle of stress: x –axis represents normal stress 

y–axis represents shear stress 
Mohr’s circle of strain: x –axis represents normal strain 
y –axis represents half shear stain  / 2
Mohr’s circle of stress: 2
 y   y 
Center at  x ,0  R   x    xy2
 2   2 
Mohr’s circle of strain: 2 2
Center at   x   y      y    xy 
 ,0  R   x    
 2   2   2 
Mohr’s Circle of Strain
Sign convention for Mohr’s strain
circle similar to Mohr’s stress circle
Normal strain plotted along x-axis
elongation  +ve strain (on +ve side
of x-axis)
contraction  -ve strain (on –ve side
of x-axis)
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 77


Compressive strain on -ve side 2 Tensile strain on +ve side

A
The convention for constructing and reading
shear strain values from Mohr’s strain circle 2  x 1
is similar to that used for shear stress in y C 2 p 
Mohr’s stress circle.
B
Shear strain: Positive shear stress results in positive shear strain
i.e. A positive shear strain on Mohr’s circle corresponds to a clockwise shear
stress couple.
A negative shear strain on Mohr’s circle corresponds to anti-clockwise shear
stress couple.
y

 xy

x
+ve Shear stresses +ve Shear strains

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 78

Given the strain state  x ,  y ,  xy

the corresponding Mohr’s strain circle can be plotted.

2 2
    y    xy 
R   x    
y  2   2 
 y y
B
 xy
x
 xy  x
A

x

Hence the strain components  x ,  y and  xy at any orientation 

can be determined.
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 79

Example 2.8 The strain components at a point in a machine member are

given by  x  900 ,  y  100 ,  xy  600 . Using Mohr’s circle,
determine the principal strains and the maximum shearing strains.
Solution:
y  y  100
Center of circle:
B

x  y 900  ( 100)  xy   x  900

 avg    400  600 A
2 2
x

Radius of circle:

2 2
    y    xy 
2 2
 900  100   600 
R   x           583 
 2   2   2   2 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 80


2 Max. shearing strain
y  y  100
B(-100,300)
R  583 B

C x  xy   x  900
2  y 0 2 p 1  600  A
A(900,-300) x

400

On plane A,  x  900 ,on plane A the

From the Mohr’s circle
1  983 ,  2  183
Maximum shearing strain
 max  1166
shear direction is anticlockwise, hence it is
indicated as a –ve shear strain on the
Mohr’s circle   xy / 2  600/ 2  300
On plane B,  y  100  , on plane B the shear
direction is clockwise, hence it is indicated as a
+ve shear strain on the Mohr’s circle
Clockwise shear on plane B,  xy / 2  600 / 2  300 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 81

Measurement of Strain and Strain Rosette

(a)

Strain gage. A typical strain gage

consists of a grid of fine wire or foil
filament cemented between two (b)
sheets of treated paper foil or plastic Rosette strain gages: (a) rectangular rosette;
backing. (b) Delta rosette.

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 82

Appendix A: Transformation of Plane Strain

State of strain and principal strains can be obtained similar to the state of stress
and principal stress equations. Consider the displacement of corners A and D of a
linearly deformed and distorted element with dimension dx & dy, of unit thickness.
The x and y displacements of A are u & v. Displacement of C are u  du, v  dv
u u v v
du  dx  dy , dv  dx  dy (a)
x y x y C’

 dv
 is small  cos   1, sin   tan    
E du
Normal Strains:
The components of strains in the xy  coordinate making angle  with xy axis
are  x ,  y ,  xy
EC  cos   EC   du cos   dv sin  (b)

Normal strain  x  EC  / ds

where ds is the initial length of diagonal AC.

 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 83

Applying Eqs. (a), (b) and (2.17), replacing dx/ds by cos  and dy/ds by sin  ,
we have
du cos   dv sin  du dv u
x  , y 
v
 x   cos   sin  x y
ds ds ds
v u
u dx u dy v dx v dy  xy  
 cos   cos   sin   sin  x y
x ds y ds x ds y ds
u u
u v v du  dx  dy
  x cos2   sin  cos   sin  cos   sin 2  x y
y x y v v
dv  dx  dy
x y
  x cos2    y sin 2    xy sin cos 

Use relations: cos 2  cos   sin   2 cos   1  1  2 sin  , sin 2  2 sin  cos 
2 2 2 2

x  y x  y  xy
 x   cos 2  sin 2 (2.18)
2 2 2
The normal strain in the y  direction is obtained
by substituting    / 2 for 

x  y x  y  xy
 y   cos 2  sin 2 (2.19)
2 2 2

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 84

Shear Strains: y y Rotation is measured

counterclockwise from
Consider the shear strain  xy , as the total decrease in 
the x-axis and defined as
positive (i.e. clockwise is
the angle between two lines x and y  that were at right –ve) x
angle. Hence  xy      x  EC  / ds 
 x
tan   EC / ds where EC  dv cos   du sin   EC  sin  A u u
du  dx  dy
x y
However, EC  sin    xds  0 , dealing small strain and small angle. v v
dv  dx  dy
x y
EC dv cos   du sin  v dx v dy u dx u dy
   cos   cos   sin   sin 
ds ds x ds y ds x ds y ds
v u C’ C’
 cos2    y sin  cos    x sin  cos   sin 2  EC  sin 
x y dv
v u 2 E  
 ( x   y ) sin  cos   cos   sin 
2  E
x y C du

Introducing    / 2 for  into previous equation

v 2 u
  ( x   y ) sin  cos   sin   cos2 
x y

The expression that results is counterclockwise, so

it equals to the negative of angle 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 85

The shearing strain is

v u u v
 xy      ( x   y ) sin  cos   cos2   sin 2  x  , y 
x y x y
v u
v u  xy  
 ( x   y ) sin  cos   sin 2   cos2  x y
x y
 v u   v u 
 2( x   y ) sin  cos   cos2      sin 2    
 x y   x y 
 ( x   y ) sin 2   xy (cos2   sin 2  ) sin 2  2 sin  cos 
 xy x  y  xy cos 2  cos2   sin 2 
Hence,  sin 2  cos 2 (2.20)
2 2 2

v u
  ( x   y ) sin  cos   cos2   sin 2 
x y
v u
  ( x   y ) sin  cos   sin 2   cos2 
x y

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 86

Maximum Principal Strains:

R  ( x   y ) 2   xy2
 xy
tan 2 p  R  xy
x  y
2 p
x  y  xy x  y
 cos 2 p  , sin 2 p 
( x   y ) 2   xy2 ( x   y ) 2   xy2

Substitute cos 2 p and sin 2 p into Eq. (2.18), we get

x  y x  y  xy
 x   cos 2 p  sin 2 p
2 2 2
x  y x   y ( x   y )  xy  xy
  
2 2 ( x   y ) 2   xy2 2 ( x   y ) 2   xy2

x  y ( x   y ) 2   xy2 x  y ( x   y ) 2   xy2
   
2 2 ( x   y ) 2   xy2 2 22
2 2
x  y     y    xy 
   x    
 Maximum principal strain
2  2   2 
 ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 87

Minimum Principal Strains:

R  ( x   y ) 2   xy2
 xy
tan 2 p  R  xy
x  y
2 p
x  y  xy x  y
 cos 2 p  , sin 2 p 
( x   y ) 2   xy2 ( x   y ) 2   xy2

Substitute cos 2 p and sin 2 p into Eq. (2.19), we get

x  y x  y  xy
 y   cos 2 p  sin 2 p
2 2 2
x  y x  y ( x   y )  xy  xy
  
2 2 ( x   y ) 2   xy2 2 ( x   y ) 2   xy2

x  y ( x   y ) 2   xy2 x  y ( x   y ) 2   xy2
   
2 2 ( x   y ) 2   xy2 2 22
2 2
x  y     y    xy 
   x    
 Minimum principal strain
2  2   2 

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 88

Maximum Shear Strain:

Maximum shear stress is obtained by taking d xy / d  0 in Eq. (2.20)
d x ' y '
 ( x   y )2 cos 2    xy 2 sin 2   0  ( x   y )
d
 ( x   y )  cos 2   xy
 tan 2 s  s
2 s  xy
 xy ( x   y )   xy
2 2
R

 ( x   y )
sin 2 s  R  ( x   y ) 2   xy2
( x   y ) 2   xy2
Substitute cos 2 s and sin 2 s into Eq. (2.20), we get
 xy x  y  xy
 sin 2  cos 2
2 2 2
x  y  ( x   y )   xy
  xy
2 ( x   y )   xy
2 2 2 ( x   y ) 2   xy2
2
( x   y ) 2   xy2
2
( x   y ) 2   xy2     y    xy 
    x    

2 ( x   y ) 2   xy2 22  2   2 
2 2
    y    xy 
  xy  2  x    
 Maximum shear strain
 2   2 
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 89

Appendix B: Generalized Hooke’s Law

• Materials are isotropic and homogeneous

y

x

z

Uniaxial loading Multi-axial loading

1-D state of stress 3-D state of stress

  E   f ( )

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 90

 The strain produced by  x

x   x x
x  ,  y  z 
E E

 The strain produced by  y

y   y
y  , x  z 
E E
y

 The strain produced by  z

z   z
z  , x  y 
E E
z
ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 91

x
z
y

x
y z
x  y  z
x :  
E E E
y :  x y  z
 
E E E
z :  x  y z
 
E E E

ME2112 (Part 1) Chap 2 - 92

Using principle of superposition (valid for cases which

are within linear elastic limit and where deformation is
small), normal strains  x ,  y and  z can be found as
x  y  z
x :  
E E E
y :  x y  z
 
E E E
z :  x  y z
 
E E E
x  y  z 1
x     [ x   ( y   z )]
E E E E
 x y  z 1
y      [ y   ( x   z )]
E E E E
 x  y z 1
z      [ z   ( x   y )]
E E E E